Gass ^E* T 
Book 



SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY 



DE. WILLIAM SMITH'S 



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A DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTI- 

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SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY 



ABRIDGED FROM THE LARGER DICTIONARY, 



By WILLIAM SMITH, LL.D. 

Editor of the Dictionaries of "Greek and Roman Antiquities," "Biography and Mythology," 
and u Geography." 




ILLUSTRATED BY TWO HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON TVOOD. 



LOXDOX : 

JOHN MUEBAY, ALBEMABLE STEEET ; 
TAYLOR WALTON, & MABEBLY, UEEEE GO\YEB STEEET. 

AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW, 

1852. 



LONDON : 

BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 




PREFACE. 



The present Work is designed to supply a want which still 
exists in our School Classical Literature. It has been repre- 
sented to the Editor, from several quarters, that his Larger 
Classical Dictionary, though well adapted for the use of the 
higher Forms in the Public Schools, is excluded, both by its 
size and price, from a great number of schools, which are there- 
fore obliged to put up with the abridgments of Lempriere's 
obsolete work. 

In consequence of these representations, the Editor has been 
induced to draw up this Smaller Dictionary. All names have 
been inserted which a young person would be likely to meet 
with at the commencement of his classical studies ; and only 
those have been omitted which occur in later writers, or in 
works not usually read in schools. The quantities have been 
carefully marked, and the genitive cases inserted. The mytho- 
logical articles have been illustrated by drawings from ancient 
works of art, for which the Editor is indebted to the skilful 
pencil of his friend. Mr. George Scharf, 



Vlll 



PREFACE. 



Iii this, as in the Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Eoman 
Antiquities, care has been taken not to presume too much on the 
knowledge of the reader. It is, therefore, hoped that these 
two Works may be used conjointly with advantage, even in 
schools where Latin and Greek are not taught. 

WILLIAM SMITH. 

London, March 31s*, 1852. 



THE 

ILLUSTRATED CLASSICAL MANUAL. 



ABACAEXOI. 



ABORRHAS. 



ABACAEXOI (-i), an ancient town of the 
- Siculi in Sicily, W. of Messana, and S. 1 
of Tyndaris. 

ABAE (-arum), an ancient town of Phocis, ' 
on the "boundaries of Boeotia ; celebrated 
for an ancient temple and oracle of Apollo, 
who hence derived the surname of Abaeus. 

AB ANTES, the ancient inhabitants of 
Euboea. They are said to have been of 
Thracian origin, to have first settled in Phocis, j 
where they built Abae, and afterwards to 
have crossed over to Euboea. The Abantes 
of Euboea assisted in colonising several of 
the^ Ionic cities of Asia Minor. 

ABAXTIADES (-ae), any descendant of 
Abas, but especially Perseus, great-grandson of 
Abas, and Acrisius, son of Abas. A female 
descendant of Abas, as Danae and Atalante, 
was called Abantias. 

ABARIS (-is), a Hyperborean priest of 
Apollo, came from the country about the Cau- 
casus to Greece, while his native land was 
visited by a plague. His history is entirely 
mythical : he is said to have taken no earthly j 
food, and to have ridden on an arrow, the 
gift of Apollo, through the air. He may 
perhaps be placed about b.c. 5 70. 

ABAS (-antis). (1) Son of Metanlra, was 
changed by Demeter (Ceres), into a lizard, 
because he mocked the goddess when she had 
come on her wanderings into the house of his 
mother, and drank eagerly to quench her 
thirst.— (2) Twelfth king of Argos, son of 
Lynceus and Hypermnestra, grandson of 
Danaus, and father of Acrisius and Proetus. I 
"When he informed his father of the death of j 
Danaus, he was rewarded with the shield 
of his grandfather, which was sacred to 
Hera (Juno). This shield performed various j 
marvels, and the mere sight of it could reduce 
a revolted people to submission. 

ABDEBA (-ae, and -orum), a town of 
Thrace, near the mouth of the Xestus, which I 



flowed through the town. It was colonised 
by Timesius of Clazomenae about b.c. 656, 
and a second time by the inhabitants of Teos 
in Ionia, who settled there after their own 
town had been taken by the Persians b.c. 544. 
It was the birthplace of Democritus, Prota- 
goras, Anaxarchus, and other distinguished 
men; but its inhabitants, notwithstanding, 
were accounted stupid, and an "Abderite" 
was a term of reproach. 

ABELLA or AVELLA (-ae), a town of 
Campania, not far from Xola, founded by the 
Chalcidians in Euboea. It was celebrated for 
its apples, whence Virgil calls it malifera. 

ABGARUS, ACBARUS, or AUGARUS (-i), 
a name common to many rulers of Eclessa, the 
capital of the district of Osrhoene in Mesopo- 
tamia. Of these rulers one is supposed by 
Eusebius to have been the author of a letter 
written to Christ, which he found in a church 
at Eclessa and translated from the Syriac. 
The letter is believed to be spurious. 

ABIA (-ae), a town of Messenia, on the 
Messenian gulf. 

ABII, a' tribe mentioned by Homer, and 
apparently a Thracian people. 

ABILA (-orum), a town of Coele-Syria. 
afterwards called Claudiopolis, and the capital 
of the tetrarchy of Abilene {Luke, iii. 1). 

ABXOBA MOXS (-ae), the range of hills 
covered by the Black Eorest in Germany, not 
a single mountain. 

ABORIGINES (-urn), the original inha- 
bitants of a country, equivalent to the Greek 
Autochthones. But the Aborigines in Italy are 
not in the Eatin writers the original inhabi- 
tants of all Italy, but the name of an ancient 
people who drove the Siculi out of Eatium, 
and there became the progenitors of the 
Latini. 

ABORBHAS, a branch of the Euphrates, 
joining that river on. the E. side near Arce- 
sium ; called the Araxes by Xenophon. 



ABSYRTUS. 



2 



ACCA LAURENTIA. 



ABSYRTUS or APSYRTUS (-i), son of 
AeStes, king of Colchis, whom Medea took \ 
with her when she fled with Jason. Being 
pursued by her father, she murdered her 
brother, cut his body in pieces, and strewed 
them on the road, that her father might be 
detained by gathering the limbs of his child. 
Tomi, the place where this horror was com- i 
mitted.was believed to have derived its name 
from ( rifjutoi) ' ' cut . ' ' 

ABUS '-i : Humber), a river in Britain. 

ABYDOS (4). (1) A town of the Troad ! 
on the Hellespont, and a Milesian colony, 
nearly opposite to Sestos, but a little 
lower down the stream. The bridge of 
boats which Xerxes constructed over the 
Hellespont, b.c. 480, commenced a little 
higher up than Abydos, and touched the 
European shore between Sestos and Madytus. 
(2) A city of Upper Egypt, near the W. bank 
of the Nile ; once second only to Thebes, but 
in Strabo's time (a.d, 14) a small village. It 
had a temple of Osiris and a Jlemnonium, 
both still standing, and an oracle. Here was 
found the inscription known as the Table of 
Abydos, which contains a list of the Egyptian 
kings. 

ABYLA (-ae) or ABILA (-ae) MONS or CO- 
LUMN" A, a mountain in Mauretania Tingi- 
tana, forming the E. extremity of the S. or 
African coast of the Fretum Gaditanum. This 
and M. Calpe (Gibraltar), opposite to it on 
the Spanish coast, were called the Columns 
of Hercules, from the fable that they were 
originally one mountain, torn asunder by 
Hercules. 

ACIDEMIA and -IA (-ae), a piece of land 
on the Cephissus, 6 stadia from Athens, ori- 
ginally belonging to a hero Academus, and 
subsequently a gymnasium, adorned by Cimon 
with plane and olive plantations, statues, and 
other works of art. Here taught Plato, who 
possessed a piece of land in the neighbour- 
hood, and after him bis followers, who were 
hence called the Acaclemici, or Academic phi- 
losophers. Cicero gave the name of Academia 
to his villa near Puteoli, where he wrote his 
" Quaestiones Academicae." 

ACAMAS (-antis). (1) Son of Theseus and 
Phaedra, accompanied Diomedes to Troy to 
demand the surrender of Helen. — (2) Son of 
Antenor and Theano, one of the bravest 
Trojans, slain by Meriones. — (3) Son of 
Eussorus, one of the leaders of the Thra- 
cianv in the Trojan war, slain by the 
Telamonian Ajax. 

ACANTHUS (-i), a town on the Isthmus, 
which connects the peninsula of Athos with 
Chalcidice, founded by the inhabitants of 
Andros. 

ACARXAX (-anis), one of the Epigoni, son 



of Alcmaeon and Callirrhoe, and brother of 
Amphoterus. Their father was murdered by 
Phegeus, when they were very young; but 
as soon as they had grown up, they slew 
Phegeus, his wife, and his two sons. They 
afterwards went to Epirus, where Acarnan 
founded the state called after him Acarnania. 

ACAE.NANIA (-ae), the most westerly pro- 
vince of Greece, bounded on the X. by the 
Ambracian gulf ; on the W. and S.W. by the 
Ionian Sea ; on the X.E. by Amphilochia, 
which is sometimes included in Acarnania ; 
and on the E. by Aetolia, from which, at a 
later time, it was separated by the Achelous. 
The name of Acarnania does not occur in 
Homer. In the most ancient times the land 
vras inhabited by the Taphii, Teleboae, and 
; Leleges, and subsequently by the Curetes. 
; At a later time a colony from Argos, said to 
; have been led by Acakxax, settled in 
the country. In the seventh century b.c. 
the Corinthians founded several towns on 
the coast. The Acarnanians first emerge 
| from obscurity at the beginning of the 
j Peloponnesian war, b.c. 431. They were 
J then a rude people, living by piracy and 
I robbery, and they always remained behind 
; the rest of the Greeks in civilisation and 
! refinement. They were good slingers, and 
i are praised for their fidelity and courage. 
: The different towns formed a League, which 
: met at Stratus, and subsequently at Thyrium 
; or Leucas. 

ACASTUS (-i), son of Pelias, king of 
| Iolcus, one of the Argonauts and of the Caly- 
j donian hunters. His sisters were induced by 
S Medea to cut up their father and boil him, in 
i order to make him young again. Acastus, in 
: consequence, drove Jason and Medea from 
1 Iolcus, and instituted funeral games in honour 
of his father. During these games, Hippo- 
\ lyte, the wife of Acastus, fell in love with 
; Peleus. "When Peleus refused to listen to her 
j she accused him to her husband of having 
; attempted her dishonour. Shortly afterwards, 
i while Acastus and Peleus were hunting on 
i mount Pelion, and the latter had fallen 
asleep, Acastus took his sword from him, and 
: left him alone. He was, in consequence, 
i nearly destroyed by the Centaurs ; but he 
was saved by Chiron or Hermes, returned to 
Acastus, and killed him, together with his 
! wife. 

ACBAEUS. "Abgaexs.] 
. ACCA LATJRENTIA or~LAREXTIA (-ae), 
the wife of the shepherd Faustulus and the 
nurse of Romulus and Remus, after they had 
; been taken from the she-wolf. She seems to 
[ be connected with the worship of the Lares, 
from which her name Larentia is probably 
I derived. 



ACCIUS. 



3 



ACHELOUS. 



ACCIUS or ATTIUS (-i), L., a Roman tragic 
poet, was born b.c. 170, and lived to a great 
age. His tragedies were chiefly imitated 
from the Greek, but he also wrote some on 
Roman subjects (Praetextatae) . 

ACCO, a chief of the Senones in Gaul, 
induced his countrymen to revolt against 
Caesar, b.c. 53, by whom he was put to death. 

ACE. [Ptolemais.] 

ACERBAS. [Dido.] 

ACERRAE (-arum.) (1) A town in Cam- 
pania, on the Clanius ; destroyed by Hannibal, 
but rebuilt. — (2) A town of the Insubres in 
Gallia^Transpadana. 

ACESIXES (-ae : Chenaub), a river in 
India, into which the Hydaspes flows, and 
which itself flows into the Indus. 

ACESTA. [Segesta.] 

ACESTES (-ae), son of a Trojan woman, of 
the name of Egesta or Segesta, who was sent 
by her father to Sicily, that she might not be 
devoured by the monsters which infested the 
territory of Troy. When Egesta arrived in 
Sicily, the river-god Crimisus begot by her a 
son Acestes, who was afterwards regarded as 
the hero who had founded the town of Segesta. 
Aeneas, on his arrival in Sicily, was hospita- 
bly received by Acestes. 

ACHAEI (-drum), one of the chief Hellenic 
races, were, according to tradition, descended 
from Achaeus, who was the son of Xuthus and 
Creusa, and grandson of Hellen. The Achaei 
originally dwelt in Thessaly, and from thence 
migrated to Peloponnesus, the whole of which 
became subject to them with the exception of 
Arcadia, and the country afterwards called 
Achaia. As they were the ruling nation in 
Peloponnesus in the heroic times, Homer 
frequently gives the name of Achaei to the 
collective Greeks. On the conquest of Pelo- 
ponnesus by the Heraclldae and the Dorians, 
80 years after the Trojan war, many of the 
Achaei under Tisamenus, the son of Orestes, 
left their country and took possession of the 
northern coast of Peloponnesus, then inha- 
bited by Ionians, whom they expelled from 
the country, which was henceforth called 
Achaia. The expelled Ionians migrated to 
Attica and Asia Minor. The Achaei settled 
in 12 cities: Pellene, Aegira, Aegae, Bura, 
Helice, Aegium, Rhypae, Patrae, Pharae, 
Olenus, Dyme, and Tritaea. These 12 cities 
formed a league for mutual defence and pro- 
tection. The Achaei had little influence in 
the affairs of Greece till the time of the suc- 
cessors of Alexander. In b.c. 281 the Achaei, 
who were then subject to the Macedonians, 
resolved to renew their ancient league for the 
purpose of shaking off the Macedonian yoke. 
This was the origin of the celebrated Achaean 
League. It at first consisted of only four 



towns, Dyme, Patrae, Tritaea, and Pharae, 
but was subsequently joined by the other 
towns of Achaia, with the exception of 
Olenus and Helice. It did not, however, 
obtain much importance till b.c 251, when 
Aratus united to it his native town, Sicyon. 
The example of Sicyon was followed by Corinth 
and many other towns in Greece, and the 
League soon became the chief political power 
in Greece. At length the Achaei declared 
war against the Romans, who destroyed the 
League, and thus put an end to the indepen- 
dence of Greece. Corinth, then the chief 
town of the League, was taken by the Roman 
general Mummius, in b. c. 146, and the whole 
of southern Greece made a Roman province 
under the name of Achaia. 

ACHAEMEXES (-is). (1) The ancestor of 
the Persian kings, who founded the family of 
the Adhaemenidae, which was the noblest family 
of the Pasargadae, the noblest of the Persian 
tribes. The Roman poets use the adjective 
Achaemenius in the sense of Persian. — (2) Son 
of Darius L, was governor of Egypt, and com- 
manded the Egyptian fleet in the expedition 
of Xerxes against Greece, b. c. 480. He was 
defeated and killed in battle by Inarus the 
Libyan, 460. 

ACHAEMEXIDES, or ACHEMEXIDES, a 
companion of Ulysses, who left him behind 
in Sicily, when he fled from the Cyclops. 

ACHAEUS [Achaei.] 

ACHAIA (-ae). (].) The northern coast of 
the Peloponnesus, originally called Aegialea or 
Aegialus, i. c. the coxist-land, was bounded 
on the N. by the Corinthian gulf and the 
Ionian sea, on the S. by Elis and Arcadia, on 
the W. by the Ionian sea, and on the E. by 
Sicyonia. Respecting its inhabitants see 
Achaei. — (2) A district in Thessaly, which 
appears to have been the original seat of the 
Achaei. — (3) The Roman province, which 
included Peloponnesus and northern Greece 
S. of Thessaly. It was formed on the dis- 
solution of the Achaean League in b. c. 146, 
and hence derived its name. 

ACHARXAE (-arum), the principal demus 
of Attica, 60 stadia X. of Athens, possessing 
a numerous and warlike population. One of 
the plays of Aristophanes bears their name. 

ACHELOIADES. [Achelous.] 

ACHELOUS (-i), the largest river in 
Greece, rises in Mount Pindus, and flows 
southward, forming the boundary between 
Acarnania and Aetolia, and falls into the 
Ionian sea opposite the islands called 
Echinades. It is about 130 miles in length. 
The god of this river is described as the son 
of Oceanus and Tcthys, and as the eldest of 
his 3000 brothers. He fought with Hercules 
for Dei'anlra, but was conquered in the contest. 

n 2 



ACHERON. 



4 



ACHILLES. 



He then took the form of a bull, but was again 
overcome by Hercules, who deprived him of 
one of his horns, which however he recovered 
by giving up the horn of Amalthea. Accord- 
ing to Ovid [Met. ix. 87), the Naiads changed 
the horn which Hercules took from Achelous 
into the horn of plenty. Achelous was from 
the earliest times considered to be a great 
divinity throughout Greece, and was invoked 
in prayers, sacrifices, &c, Achelous was re- 
garded as the representative of all freshwater : 
hence we find in Yirgil Achelota pocula, 
that is, water in general. The Sirens are 
called Acheloicides, as the daughters of 
Achelous. 

ACHERON (-ontis), the name of several 
rivers, all of which were, at least at one 
time, believed to be connected with the lower 
world. — (1) A river in Thesprotia in Epirus, 
which flows through the lake Acherusia into 
the Ionian sea. — (2) A river in southern Italy 
in Bruttii, on which Alexander of Epirus 
perished. — (3) The river of the lower world, 
round which "the shades hover, and into 
which the Pyriphlegethon and Cocytus flow. 
In late writers the name of Acheron is used 
to designate the whole of the lower world. 

ACHERONTIA (-ae). (1) A town in 
Apulia on a summit of Mount Yultur, whence 
Horace speaks of celsae nidum Acherontiae. 
— (2) A town on the river Acheron, in Bruttii. 
[Acheron, No. 2.] 

ACHERUSIA (-ae). [Acheron, No.l ] 

ACHILLES [gen. -is, el, el, or I ; dat. -i ; 
acc. em, ea ; abl. e or e), the great hero of 
the Iliad. — Homeric story. Achilles was the 
son of Peleus, king of the Myrmidones in 
Phthiotis, in Thessaly, and of the Nereid 
Thetis. From his father's name he is often 
called Pelldes, Pele'iades, or Pel ion, and from 
his grandfather's, Aeacides. He was educated 
by Phoenix, who taught him eloquence and 
the arts of war. In the healing art he was 
instructed by Chiron, the centaur. His 
mother Thetis foretold him that his fate 
was either to gain glory and die early, or 
to live a long but inglorious life. The 
hero chose the former, and took part in 
the Trojan war, from which he knew that he 
was not to return. In 50 ships he led his 
hosts of Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achaeans 
against Troy. Here the swift-footed Achilles 
was the great bulwark of the Greeks, and the 
worthy favourite of Athena (Minerva) and 
Hera (Juno). When Agamemnon was 
obliged to give up Chryseis to her father, he 
threatened to take away Brise'is from Achilles, 
who surrendered her on the persuasion of 
Athena, but at the same time refused to take 
any further part in the war, and shut himself 
up in his tent. Zeus (Jupiter), on the entreaty 



of Thetis, promised that victory should be on 
the side of the Trojans, until the Achaeans 
should have honoured her son. The affairs of 
the Greeks declined in consequence, and they 
were at last pressed so hard, that an embassy 
was sent to Achilles, offering him rich pre- 
sents and the restoration of Brise'is ; but in 
vain. Finally, however, he was persuaded by 
Patroclus, his dearest friend, to allow the 
latter to make use of his men, his horses, and 
his armour. Patroclus was slain, and when 
this news reached Achilles, he was seized 
with unspeakable grief. Thetis consoled him, 
and promised new arms, to be made by He- 
phaestus (Yulcan) ; and Iris exhorted him to 
rescue the body of Patroclus. Achilles now rose, 
and his thundering voice alone put the Trojans 
to flight. When his new armour was brought 
to him, he hurried to the field of battle, killed 
numbers of Trojans, and at length met Hector, 
whom he chased thrice around the walls of 
the city. He then slew him, tied his body 
to his chariot, and dragged him to the ships 
of the Greeks ; but he afterwards gave up the 
corpse to Priam, who came in person to beg 
for it. Achilles himself fell in the battle at 
the Scaean gate, before Troy was taken, 
Achilles is the principal hero of the Iliad : 
he is the handsomest and bravest of all 
the Greeks ; he is affectionate towards his 
mother and his friends ; formidable in 
battles, which are his delight ; open-hearted 
and without fear, and at the same time 
susceptible of the gentle and quiet joys 
of home. His greatest passion is ambi- 
tion, and when his sense of honour is hurt, 
he is unrelenting in his revenge and anger, 
but withal submits obediently to the will of 
the gods.— Later traditions. These consist 
chiefly in accounts which fill up the history 
of his youth and death. His mother wishing 
to make her son immortal, concealed him by 
night in the fire, in order to destroy the 
mortal parts he had inherited from his father. 
But Peleus one night discovered his child in 
the fire, and cried out in terror. Thetis left 
her son and fled, and Peleus entrusted him 
to Chiron, who instructed him in the arts of 
riding, hunting, and playing the phorminx, 
and also changed his original name, Ligyr'on, 
i. e. the " whining," into Achilles. Chiron fed 
his pupil with the hearts of lions and the 
marrow of bears. According to other accounts, 
Thetis endeavoured to make Achilles im- 
mortal by dipping him in the river Styx, and 
succeeded with the exception of the ankles, 
by which she held him. AYhen he was 9 years 
old, Calchas declared that Troy could not be 
taken without his aid, and Thetis knowing 
that this war would be fatal to him, disguised 
him as a maiden, and introduced him among 



ACHILLES. 



5 



ACHILLES. 



the daughters of Lycomedes of Scyros, where 




Achilles seizing Arms at Scyros. (A Painting 
found at Pompeii.) 

he was called by the name of Pyrrha on ac- 



count of his golden locks. Here he remained 
concealed, till Ulysses visited the place in the 
disguise of a merchant, and offered for sale 
some female dresses, amidst which he had 
mixed some arms. Achilles discovered his 
sex by eagerly seizing the arms, and then 
accompanied Ulysses to the Greek army. 
During his residence at Scyros, one of his 
companions, De'idamla, became by him the 
mother of a son, Pyrrhus or Xeoptolemus. 
During the war against Troy, Achilles 
slew Penthesilea, an Amazon. He also 
fought with Memnon and Troilus. The 
accounts of his death differ very much, though 
all agree in stating that he did not fall by 
human hands, or at least not without the 
interference of the god Apollo. According to 
some traditions, he was killed .by Apollo him- 
self ; according to others, Apollo assumed the 
appearance of Paris in killing him, while 
others say that Apollo merely directed the 
weapon of Paris. Others again relate that 
Achilles loved Polyxena, a daughter of Priam, 
and tempted by the promise that he should 
receive her as his wife, if he would join the 
Trojans, he went without arms into the 
temple of Apollo at Thymbra, and was assas- 
sinated there by Paris. His body was rescued 
by Ulysses and Ajax the Telamonian ; his 
armour was promised by Thetis to the bravest 
among the Greeks, which gave rise to a con- 
test between the two heroes who had rescued 
his body. [Ajax.] After his death, Achilles 
became one of the judges in the lower world, 




Death of Achilles. (Raotil Rochette, Mon. Ined., pi. 53.) 



and dwelled in the islands of the blessed, | where he was united to Medea or Iphigenla. 



ACHILLEUM. 



6 



ACTAEON. 



ACHILLEUM (-i), a town near the pro- 
montory Sigeum in the Troad, where Achilles 
was supposed to have been buried. 

ACHILLIDES (-ae), a patronymic of 
Pyrrhus, son of Achilles. 

ACHIYI (-5rum), the name of the Achaei 
in the Latin writers, and frequently used, 
like Achaei, to signify the whole Greek 
nation. r Achaei.] 

ACHRaDIXA or ACBADINA. [Syra- 

CTJSAE.] 

aCIDALIA (-ae), a surnam.8 of Tenus, from 
the well Acidalius near Orehonienos, where 
she used to bathe with the Graces. 
ACILIUS GLABRIO. [Glabrio.] 
ACIS (-is or -idis), son of Faunus and 
Symaethis, beloved by the nymph Galatea, 
and crushed by Polyphemus, the Cyclop, 
through jealousy, under a huge rock. His 
blood gushing forth from under the rock was 
changed by the nymph into the river Acis or 
Acinius at the foot of Mount Aetna. This 
story is perhaps only a happy fiction sug- 
gested by the manner in which the little river 
springs forth from under a rock. 

ACMOXIDES (-ae), one of the three 
Cyclopes in Ovid, the same as Pyracmon in 
Virgil, and as Arges in other accounts. 

ACOETES (-ae), a sailor who was saved by 
Bacchus, when his companions were de- 
stroyed, because he was the only one of the 
crew who had espoused the cause of the god. 

ACOXTIUS (-i), a beautiful youth of the 
island of Ceos. Having come to Delos to 
celebrate the festival of Diana, he fell in love 
with Cydippe, the daughter of a noble 
Athenian. In order to gain her, he had re- 
course to a stratagem. While she was sitting 
in the temple of Diana, he threw before her an 
apple upon which he had written the words 
" I swear by the sanctuary of Diana to marry 
Acontius." The nurse took up the apple and 
handed it to Cydippe, who read aloud what 
was written upon it, and then threw the 
apple away. But the goddess had heard her 
vow ; and the repeated illness of the maiden, 
when she was about to marry another man, 
at length compelled her father to give her in 
marriage to Acontius. 

ACRAE (-arum), a town in Sicily, W. of 
Syracuse, and 10 stadia from the river Anapus, 
founded by the Syracusans 70 years after the 
foundation of their own city. 

ACRAEPHIA (-ae), ' ACRAEPHIAE 
(-arum), or ACRAEPIIIUM (-i), a town in 
3oeotia, on the lake Copais. 

ACRAGAS (-antis). [Agrigextoi.] 
ACRISIOXE (-es), a patronymic of Danae, 
daughter of Acrisius. Perseus, grandson of 
Acrisius, was called in the same way Acri- 
sioniades. 



ACRISIUS (-i), son of Abas, king of Argos, 
grandson of Lynceus, and great-grandson of 
Danaus. An oracle had declared that Danae, 
I the daughter of Acrisius, would give birth to 
a son who would kill his grandfather. Eor 
this reason he kept Danae shut up in a sub- 
terraneous apartment, or in a brazen tower. 
; But here she became the mother of Perseus, 
by Zeus (Jupiter), who visited her in a shower 
of gold. Acrisius ordered mother and child 
i to be exposed on the sea in a chest ; but the 
chest floated towards the island of Seriphus, 
where both were rescued by Dictys. As to 
the fulfilment of the oracle, see Perseus. 

ACROCERAUXIA (-oruni), a promontory 
in Epirus, jutting out into the Ionian sea, 
the most westerly part of the Ceraunii 
Montes. The coast of the Acroceraunia was 
dangerous to ships, whence Horace speaks of 
infames scoindos Acroceraunia. 
ACROPOLIS. [AthenaeJ 
ACROTHOUM (-i), or ACROTHOI (5rum), 
a town near the extremity of the peninsula 
of Athos. 

ACTAEOX (-onis), a celebrated huntsman, 
son of Aristaeus and Autonoe, a daughter of 




Actaeon. (British Museum.) 



Cadmus. One day as he was hunting he saw 
Artemis (Diana) with her nymphs bathing 
in the vale of Gargaphia, whereupon the 
goddess changed him into a stag, in which 



ACTAEUS. 



7 



form he was torn to pieces by his 50 dogs on 
Mount Cithaeron. 

ACTAEUS (-i), the earliest king of Attica. 
The adjective Actaeus is used by the poets in 
the sense of Attic or Athenian. 

ACTE (-es), properly a piece of land 
running into the sea, and attached to another 
larger piece of land, hut not necessarily, by a 
narrow neck. (1) An ancient name of Attica, 
used especially by the poets. Hence Orithyia, 
the daughter of Erectheus, king of Athens, is 
called Actias by Virgil. — (2) The peninsula 
between the Strymonic and Singitic gulfs on 
which Mount Athos is. 

ACTIUM (-i : La Punta not Azio), a pro- 
montory in Acarnania, at the entrance of the 
Ambracian gulf, off which Augustus gained 
the celebrated victory over Antony and 
Cleopatra, on September 2, b.c. 31. At 
Actium there was a temple of Apollo, who 
was hence called Actiacus and Act i us. This 
temple was beautified by Augustus, who 
established, or rather revived, a festival to 
Apollo, called Actia, and erected Nicopolis 
on the opposite coast, in commemoration of 
his victory. A few buildings sprung up 
around the temple at Actium, but the place 
was only a kind of suburb of Nicopolis. 

ACTIUS. [Attius.] 

ACTOR (-oris). (1) Son of Deion and 
Diomedes, father of Menoetius, and grand- 
father of Patroclus. — (2) A companion of 
Aeneas, of whose conquered lance Turnus 
made a boast. This story seems to have given 
rise to the proverb Actoris spolium, for any 
poor spoil. 

ACTORIDES (-ae), a patronymic of de- 
scendants of an Actor, such as Patroclus, 
Erithus, Eurytus, and Cteatus. 

ADDUA (-ae: Adda), a river of Gallia 
Cisalpina, rising in the Rhaetian Alps, and 
flowing through the Lacus Larius (L. di 
Como) into the Po, about 8 miles above 
Cremona. 

ADHERE AL (-alis). [Jtjgurtha.] 

ADIABENE (-es), a district of Assyria, E. 
of the Tigris, and between the river Lycus, 
called Zabatus in the Anabasis of Xenophon, 
and the Caprus, both of which are branches 
of the Tigris. 

ADMETUS (-i). (1) King of Pherae in 
Thessaly, sued for Alcestis, the daughter of 
Pelias, who promised her on condition that 
he should come in a chariot drawn by 
lions and boars. This task Admetus per- 
formed by the assistance of Apollo. The god 
tended the flocks of Admetus for 9 years, 
when he was obliged to serve a mortal for 
having slain the Cyclops. Apollo prevailed 
upon the Moirae or Eates to grant to Admetus 
deliverance from death, if his father, mother, 



or wife would die for him. Alcestis died in 
his stead, but was brought back by Hercules 




Hercules and Alcestis. (From a Bas-relief 
at Florence.) 

from the lower world. — (2) King of the 
Molossians, to whom Themistocles fled for 
protection, when pursued as a party to the 
treason of Pausanias. 

ADONIS (-is or -idis). (1) A beautiful youth, 
son of Cinyras, by his daughter Smyrna or 
Myrrha, He was beloved by Aphrodite (Venus), 




Death of Adonis. (A Painting found at Pompeii.) 

but he died of a wound which he received from 
a boar during the chase. The flower anemone 
sprung from his blood. The grief of the 
goddess at his death was so great, that the 



ADRAMYTTIUM. 



S 



AEACUS. 



gods of the lower world allowed him to spend 
6 months of every year with Aphrodite upon 
the earth. The worship of Adonis was of 
Phoenician origin, and appears to hare had 
reference to the death of nature in winter and 
to its revival in spring : hence Adonis spends 
6 months in the lower and 6 months in the 
upper world. His death and his return to life 
were celebrated in annual festivals {Adonia) 
at Byblos, Alexandria in Egypt, Athens, and j 
other places. — (2) A small river of Phoenicia, j 
rising in the range of Lib anus. 

ADRAMYTTIUM or EUM (-i), a town of 
Mysia, near the head of the gulf of Adramyt- j 
tiuni, and opposite to the Island of Lesbos. 

AD P ANA (-ae : JEder), a river in Germany, | 
flowing into the Pulda near Cassel. 

ADRASTUS (-i). (1) Son of Talaus, king 
of Argos. Being expelled from Argos by | 
Amphiaraus, he fled to Polybus, king of 
Sicyon, whom he succeeded on the throne of 
Sicyon, and instituted the Xemean games. 
Afterwards he became reconciled to Aniphi- j 
araus, and returned to his kingdom of Argos. | 
He married his two daughters Deipyle and 
Argla, the former to Tydeus of Calydon, and 
the latter to PolynTces of Thebes, both fugi- 
tives from their native countries. He then 
prepared to restore Polynices to Thebes, who , 
had been expelled by his brother Eteocles, 
although Amphiaraus foretold that all who 
should engage in the war should perish, with 
the exception of Adrastus. Thus arose the 
celebrated war of the " Seven against Thebes," 
in which Adrastus was joined by 6 other 
heroes, viz., Polynices, Tydeus, Amphiaraus, 
Capaneus, Hippomedon, and Parthenopaeus. 
This war ended as unfortunately as Amphi- 
araus had predicted, and Adrastus alone was 
saved by the swiftness of his horse ArTon, 
the gift of Hercules. Ten years afterwards, 
Adrastus persuaded the 6 sons of the heroes 
who had fallen in the war, to make a new 
attack upon Thebes, and Amphiaraus now 
promised success. This war is known as 
the war of the "Epigoni" or descendants. 
Thebes was taken and razed to the ground. 
The only Argive hero that fell in this war, 
was Aegialeus, the son of Adrastus : the latter 
died of grief at Megara on his return to Argos, 
and was buried in the former city. The 
legends about Adrastus and the two wars 
against Thebes, furnished ample materials for 
the epic as well as tragic poets of Greece. — 
(2) Son of the Phrygian king Gordius, 
having unintentionally killed his brother, fled 
to Croesus, who received him kindly. While 
hunting he accidentally killed Atys, the son 
of Croesus, and in despair put an end to his 
own life. 

ADPJA or HADRIA (-ae). (1) A town in 



Gallia Cisalpina, between the mouths of 
the Po and the Athesis (Adige), from which 
the Adriatic sea takes its name. It was 
originally a powerful town of the Etruscans. 
— (2) A town of Picenum in Italy, and after- 
wards a Roman colony, at which place the 
family of the emperor Hadrian lived. 

ADRIA (-ae) or MARE ADE IATICUM, also 
MARE SUPERUM, so called from the town 
Adria [No. 1], was in its widest signification 
the sea between Italy on the W., and Illyri- 
cum, Epirus, and Greece on the E. By the 
Greeks the name Adrias was only applied to 
the northern part of the sea, the southern 
part being called the Ionian Sea. 
ADELINES. [Hadriaxus. - 
ADRUMETUM. [HABRUMEroM.] 
ADUATUCA (-ae); a castle of the Eburones 
in Gaul, probably the same as the later Aduaca 
TongTorum [Tovujerri)ji 

ADUATUCI or ADUATICI (-oruni), a 
powerful people of Gallia Belgica in the time 
of Caesar, were the descendants of the 
Cimbri and Teutoni, and lived between 
the Scaldis [Schelde] and Mosa iltaas). 
ADTJLA (-ae) MONS. "Alpes.] 
ADULE (-es) or ADELIS (-is) a maritime 
city of Aethopia, on a bay of the Red Sea, 
called Adulitanus Sinus. It feU into the 
power of the Auxumitae, for whose trade it 
became the great emporium. Here was found 
the Monumentum Adulitanum, a Greek inscrip- 
tion recounting the conquests of Ptolemy II. 
Euergetes in Asia and Thrace. 

ADYRMACHIDAE (-arum}, a Libyan 
people, who appear to have once possessed the 
whole coast of Africa from the Canopic mouth 
| of the Nile to the Catabathmus Major, but 
i were afterwards pressed further inland, 
i AEA (-ae), sometimes with the addition of 
the word Colchis, may be considered either a 
part of Colchis or another name for the 
I country.^ 

AEACIDES (-ae), a patronymic of the de- 
scendants of Aeacus. as Peleus, Telamon, and 
j Phocus, sons of Aeacus ; Achilles, son of 
i Peleus, and grandson of Aeacus ; Pyrrhus, 
j son of Achilles, and great-grandson of Aeacus ; 
and Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who claimed to 
be a descendant of Achilles. 

AEACUS (-i), son of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, was 
born in the island of Aegina, which derived 
its name from his mother. [Aegina.] Some 
| traditions related that at the birth of Aeacus, 
; Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus 
1 changed the ants of the island into men 
'Myrmidones) over whom Aeacus ruled. 
Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his 
justice and piety, and after his death became 
one of the 3 judges in Hades. 



AEAEA. 



9 



AEGEUS. 



AEAEA [-ae) . a surname of Circe, the sister 
of Aeetes, was believed to have inhabited a 
small island of this name off the coast of 
Italy, which was afterwards nnited to the 
mainland, and formed the promontory of 
Circeii. Hence magic arts are called Aeaeae 
artes and Aeaea carmina. Telegone, the 
son of Circe, and founder of Tusculuni, is 
also called Aeaeus. 

AAEAS. [Aotjs.] 

AECULAXUM or AECLXAUM (-i), a town 
of the Hirpini in Samnium, a few miles S. of 
Beneventum. 

AEDON (-onis), daughter of Pandareus of 
Ephesus, wife of Zethus, king of Thebes, and 
mother of Itylus. Envious of Niobe, the wife 
of her brother Amphion, who had 6 sons and 
6 daughters, she resolved to kill the eldest of 
Xiobe's sons, but by mistake slew her own 
son Itylus. Zeus (Jupiter) relieved her 
grief by changing her into a nightingale, 
whose melancholy tunes are represented as 
Aedon*s lamentations for her child. 

AEDUI or ELEDET (-orum), one of the most 
powerful people in Gaul, lived between the 
Liger [Loire] and the Arar (Saone). They were 
the first Gallic people who made an alliance 
with the Pvomans, by whom they were called 
"brothers and relations." On Caesar's 
arrival in Gaul, b.c. 58, they were subject to 
Aiiovistus, but were restored by Caesar to 
their former power. Their principal town 
was Bibeacte. 

AEETES or AEETA f-ae' 1 , son of Helios 
(the Sun) and Perseis, and father of Medea 
and Absyrtus. He was king of Colchis at 
the time when Phrixus brought thither the 
golden fleece. Eor the remainder of his 
history, see Absyetes, Aegoxaetae, Jasox, 
Medea. 

AEETES (.-idis) 3 AEETIAS (-adis), and 
AEETINE (-es), patronymics of Medea, 
daughter of Aeetes. 

AEGAE (-arum). (1) A town in Achaia on 
the Crathis, with a celebrated temple of 
Poseidon Neptune), originally one of the 12 
Achaean towns, but its inhabitants subse- 
quently removed to Aegira. — (2) A town in 
Emathia in Macedonia, the ancient capital of 
Macedonia and the burial-place of the Mace- 
donian kings. It was also called Edessa. — 
(3) A town in Euboea with a celebrated 
temple of Poseidon, who was hence called 
Aegaeus. — (4) Also Aegaeae, one of the 12 
cities of Aeolis in Asia Minor, X. of Smyrna, 
on the river Hyllus. — (5) A sea-port town 
of Cilicia. 

AEGAEOX (-onis), son of Uranus (Heaven) 
by Gaea (Earth). Aegaeon and his brothers 
Gyes or Gyges and Cottus are known under 
the name of the Uranids, and are described 



as huge monsters with 100 arms and 50 heads. 
Most writers mention the third Uranid under 
the name of Briareus instead of Aegaeon, 
which is explained by Homer, who says 
that men called him Aegaeon, but the gods 
Briareus. According to the most ancient 
tradition, Aegaeon and his brothers con- 
quered the Titans when they made war upon 
the gods, and secured the victory to Zeus 
(Jupiter), who thrust the Titans into Tartarus, 
and placed Aegaeon and his brothers to guard 
them. Other legends represent Aegaeon as 
one of the giants who attacked Olympus ; and 
many writers represent him as a marine god 
living in the Aegaean sea. 

AEGAEUM (-!) MABE, the part of the Medi- 
terranean Sea now called the Archipelago. It 
was bounded on the X. by Thrace and Mace- 
donia, on the W. by Greece, and on the E. by 
Asia Minor. It contains in its southern part 
two groups of islands, the Cyclades, which 
were separated from the coasts of Attica and 
Peloponnesus by the Myrtoan sea, and the 
Sporades, lying off the coasts of Caria and 
Ionia. The part of the Aegaean which 
washed the Sporades was called the Icarian 
sea, from, the island Iearia, one of the Spo- 
rades. 

AEGALEOS, a mountain in Arnica oppo- 
site Salamis, from which Xerxes saw the 
defeat of his fleet, b.c. 480. 

AEGATES (-urn), the Goat Islands, were 3 
islands off the W. coast of Sicily, between 
Drepanum and Eilybaeum, near which the 
Bomans gained a naval victory over the Car- 
thaginians, and thus brought the first Punic 
war to an end, b.c 241. The islands were 
Aegusa or Capraria, Phorbantia and Hiera. 

AEGEBIA or EGEBIA (-ae), one of the 
Camenae in Boman mythology, from whom 
Xunia received his instructions respecting the 
forms of worship which he introduced. The 
grove in which the king had his interviews 
with the goddess, and in which a weU gushed 
forth from a dark recess, was dedicated by 
him to the Camenae. The Boman legends 
point out two distinct places sacred to Aegeria, 
one near Aricia, and the other near Borne at 
the Porta Capena. 

AEGESTA. "Segesta.] 

AEGESTUS. ^ [Acestes.] 

AEGEUS (eos, el, or eT ; acc. -ea), son of 
Pandion and king of Athens, and father 
of Thesees, whom he begot by Aethra at 
Troezen. Theseus afterwards came to 
Athens and restored Aegeus to the throne, 
of which he had been deprived by the 
50 sons of Pallas. \Yhen Theseus went to 
Crete to deliver Athens from the tribute it 
had to pay to Minos, he promised his father 
to hoist white sails on his return as a signal 



AEGIALE, 



10 



AEGYPTUS. 



of Ms safety. On approaching Attica lie 
forgot his promise, and his father, perceiving 
the black sails, thought that his son had 
perished and threw himself into the sea, 
which according to some traditions received 
from this event the name of the Aegean. 

AEGIALE or AEGIALEA (-es), daughter 
or grand-daughter of Adrastus, whence she is 
called Adrastine, and husband of Diomedes. 
For details see Diomedes. 

AEGIALEA. AEGIALUS. [Achaia.] 

AEGIALEUS. [An&ASTUS.] 

AEGIDES (-ae), a patronymic from Aegeus, 
especially his son Theseus. 

AEGTT/TA. (1) An island between Crete and 
Cythera. — (2) An island W. of Euboea and 
opposite Attica. 

AEGIXA (-ae), a rocky island in the 
middle of the Saronic gulf, about 200 stadia 
in circumference, said to have obtained its 
name from Aegina, the daughter of the river- 
god Asopus, who there bore him a son Aeacus. 
As the island had then no inhabitants. Zeus 
(Jupiter), changed the ants into men (Myr- 
midones over whom Aeacus ruled. It was 
first colonised by Achaeans, and afterwards by 
Dorians from Epidaurus, whence the Doric 
dialect and customs prevailed in the island. 
It was subject to the Argive Phldon, who is 
said to have established a silver uiint in the 
island. It early became a place of great com- 
mercial importance, and its silver coinage was 
the standard in most of the Dorian states. In 
the sixth century B.C., Aegina became inde- 
pendent, and for a century before the Persian 
war was a prosperous and powerful state. It 
was at that time the chief seat of Grecian art. 
In b.c. 429 the Athenians took possession of 
the island and expelled its inhabitants. In the 
N.W. of the island there was a city of the 
same name, which contained the Aeaceuni or 
temple of Aeacus, and on a hill in the X.E. 
of the island was the celebrated temple of 
Zeus (Jupiter) Panhellenius, the ruins of 
which are still extant. 

AEGIXIUM, a town of the Tymphaei in 
Thcssaly, on the confines of Athamania. 

AEGIPLANCTUS (-i) MOXS, a mountain 
in Megaris. 

AEGIPtA (-ae), formerly Hyperesia, one of 
the 1 2 towns of Achaia, situated on a steep hill. 

AEGERUSSA '-ae), one of the 12 cities of 
Aeolis in Asia Minor. 

AEGISTHUS (-i), son of Thyestes by his own 
daughter Pelopia. He slew his uncle Atreus, 
and placed Thyestes upon the throne, of 
which he had been deprived by Atreus. 
Homer appears to know nothing of these 
tragic events ; and we learn from him only 
that Aegisthus succeeded his father Thyestes 
in a part of his dominions. Aegisthus took 



no part in the Trojan war, and during the 
absence of Agamemnon, he seduced his wife 
Clytenmestra. He murdered Agamemnon on 
his return home, and reigned 7 years over 
Mycenae. In the 8th Orestes, the son of 
Agamemnon, avenged the death of his father 
by putting the adulterer to death. 

AEGIUM (4), one of the 12 towns of 
Achaia, and the capital after the destruction 
of Helice. 

AEGLE (-es), that is, "Brightness" or 
" Splendour," the name of several nymphs. 

AEGOS-POTAMOS, the "goafs-river," a 
small river, with a town of the same name 
on it, in the Thracian Chersonesus. flowing 
into the Hellespont. Here the Athenians were 
defeated by Lysander, b.c. 405. 

AEGYPTUS {-1, king of Aegypt, son of 
Belus, and twin-brother of Danaus. Aegyptus 
had 50 sons, and his brother Danaus 50 
daughters. Danaus fearing the sons of his 
brother, fled with his daughters to Argos in 
Peloponnesus. Thither he was followed by 
the sons of Aegyptus, who demanded his 
daughters for their wives. Danaus complied 
with their request, but to each of his 
daughters he gave a dagger, with which they 
were to kill their husbands in the bridal 
night. All the sons of Aegyptus were thus 
murdered, with the exception of Lynceus, 
who was saved by Hypermnestra. 

AEGYPTUS (-i: Egypt), a country in the 
X.E. corner of Africa, bounded on the X. by 
the Mediterranean, on the E. by Palestine, 
Arabia Petraea, and the Bed Sea, on the S. by 
Aethiopia, the division between the two 
countries being at the First or Little Cataract 
of the Xile, close to Syene, and on the W. by 
the Great Libyan Desert. Erom Syene the 
Xile flows due X. for about 500 miles, through 
a valley whose average breadth is about 7 
miles, to a point some few miles below Mem- 
phis. Here the river divides into branches 
(7 in ancient time, but now only 2), which 
flow through a low alluvial land, called, from 
its shape, the Delta, into the Mediterranean. 
The whole district thus described is periodi- 
cally laid under water by the overflowing of 
the Xile from April to October. The river, 
in subsiding, leaves behind a rich deposit of 
fine mud, which forms the soil of Egypt. All 
beyond the reach of the inundation is rock 
or sand. Hence Egypt was called the " Gift 
of the Xile." The outlying portions of 
ancient Egypt consisted of 3 cultivable valleys 
(called Oases), in the midst of the Western 
or Libyan Desert. At the earliest period, to 
' which history reaches back, Egypt was inha- 
bited by a highly civilised people, under a 
settled monarchical government, divided into 
; castes, the highest of which was composed of 



AELANA. 



11 



AENEAS. 



the priests, Its ancient history may he 
divided into 4 great periods : — (1) From the 
earliest times to its conquest by Cambyses, 
during which it was ruled by a succession of 
native princes. The last of them, Psam- 
menitus, was conquered and dethroned by 
Cambyses in b.c. 525, when Egypt became a 
province of the Persian empire. The Homeric 
poems show some slight acquaintance with 
the country and its river (which is also called 
Ar/vrrcs, Od. xiv. 25), and refer to the wealth 
and splendour of "Thebes with the Hundred 
Gates/' (2) From the Persian conquest in 
525, to the transference of their dominion to . 
the Macedonians in 332. This period was 
one of almost constant struggles between the 
Egyptians and their conquerors. It was 
during this period that Egypt was visited : 
by Greek historians and philosophers, such ' 
as Hellanicus, Herodotus, Anaxagoras, Plato, 
and others, who brought back to Greece j 
the knowledge of the country which they 
acquired from the priests and through per- 
sonal observation. (3j The dynasty of 
Macedonian kings, from the accession of 
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, in 323, down to 
30, when Egypt became a province of the 
Ponian empire. Alexander, after the conquest j 
of the country, gave orders for the bunding 
of Alexandria, "Alexandria.] (4) Egypt 
under the Romans, down to its conquest by 
the Arabs in a. d. 63S. As a Poman province, 
Egypt was one of the most flourishing por- 
tions of the empire. The fertility of its soil, 
and its position between Europe and Arabia 
and India, together with the possession of 
such a port as Alexandria, gave it the full 
benefit of the two great sources of wealth, 
agriculture and commerce. From the earliest 
times the country was divided into (1) The 
Delta, or Power Egypt ; (2) the Heptanomis, j 
or Middle Egypt ; 3 the Thehais, or Upper 
Egypt : and it was further subdivided into 
36 nomes or governments. 

AELAXA (-ae^ , the Elath of the Hebrews, 
a town on the northern arm of the Ped Sea, 
called by the Greeks Aelanltes from the name 
of the town. 

AELIA (-ae), a name given to Jerusalem 
after its restoration by the Poman emperor 
Aelius Hadrianus. 

AELIANUS (-i), CLAUDIUS (-i), was born 
at Praeneste in Italy, and lived at Pome about i 
the middle of the 3rd century of the Christian 
era. He wrote two works which have come 
down to us ; one a collection of miscel- j 
laneous history in 14 books, called Yaria ; 
Eistoria ; and the other on the peculiarities 
of animals in 17 books, called Be Aaimalium 
Xaturd. 

AELIUS, the name of a plebeian gens at 



Pome, divided into the families of G alius. 
Lamia, Laetus, and Tubero. 

AELLO (-us), one of the Harpies. [Har- 
pyiae.] 

AEMILIA (-ae). (1) The 3rd daughter of 
L. Aemilius Paulus, who fell in the battle of 
Cannae, was the wife of Scipio Africanus I. 
and the mother of the celebrated Cornelia, the 
mother of the Gracchi. — (2) Aemiiia Lepida. 
]Lepeda.] 

AEMIIIA (-ae) YIA (-ae), made by M. 
Aemilius Lepidus, cos. b.c. 18 7, continued the 
Yia Flaminia from Armiinum, and traversed 
the heart of Cisalpine Gaul through Bononia, 
Mutina, Parma, Placentia (where it crossed 
the Po) to Mediolanum. It was subsequently 
continued as far as Aquileia. 

AEMT7JAXUS (-i), an agnomen of P. Cor- 
nelius Scipio Africanus the younger, as the 
son of L. Aemilius Paulus. [Scipio.] 

AEMILIUS (-i), the name of one of the 
most ancient patrician gentes at Pome, the 
chief members of which are given under their 
surnames Lepides, Paeles, and Scaeres. 

AEXAPIA, also called PITHECUSA and 
INAEJME (Ischia), a volcanic island off the 
coast of Campania, at the entrance of the bay 
of Xaples, under which the Poman poets 
represented Typhoeus as lying. 

AEXEADES (-ae;, a patronymic from 
Aeneas, given to his son Ascanius or lulus, and 
to those who were believed to be descended 
from him, such as Augustus, and the Pomans 
in general. 

AEXEAS (-ae ; roc. -a), the Trojan hero. — 
Homeric Story. Aeneas was the son of 
Anchises and Aphrodite (Yenus), and was 
bom on mount Ida. He was brought up 
at Dardanus, in the house of Alcathous, the 
husband of his sister. At first he took no 
part in the Trojan war ; and it was not 
till Achilles attacked him on mount Ida, 
and drove away his flocks, that he led his 
Dardanians against the Greeks. Hence- 
forth Aeneas and Hector appear as the great 
bulwarks of the Trojans against the Greeks, 
and Aeneas is beloved by gods and men. On 
more than one occasion he is saved in battle 
by the gods : Aphrodite carried him off when 
he was wounded by Diomedes, and Poseidon 
(Xeptune) saved him when he was on the 
point of perishing by the hands of Achilles. 
Homer makes no aUusion to the emigration 
of Aeneas after the capture of Troy, but on 
the contrary he evidently conceives Aeneas 
and his descendants as reigning at Trey after 
the extinction of the house of Priam. — Later 
Stories. Most accounts agree that after the 
capture of Troy, Aneas withdrew to mount 
Ida with his friends and the images of the 
gods, especially that of Pallas (Palladium) ; 



AEXEAS SILYirS. 



12 



AEPYTUS. 



and that from thence he crossed over to 
Europe, and finally settled at Latimn in Italy, 
where he became the ancestral hero of the 
Romans. A description of the wanderings of 
Aeneas before he reached Latimn, is given by 
Virgil in his Aeneid. After visiting Epirus 
and Sicily, he was driven by a storm on the 
coast of Africa, where he met with Dido. 
[Dido.] He then sailed to Latimn, where he 
was hospitably received by Latinus, king of 
the Aborigines. Here Aeneas founded the 
town of Lavinium, called after Lavinia, the 
daughter of Latinus, whom he married. 
Turnus, to whom Lavinia had been betrothed, 
made war against Latinus and Aeneas. 
Latinus fell in the first battle, and Turnus 
was subsequently slain by Aeneas ; whereupon 
after the death of Latinus, Aeneas became 
sole ruler of the Aborigines and Trojans, 
and both nations were united into one. Soon 
after this Aeneas fell in battle against the 
Rutuiians who were assisted by Mezentius, 
king of the Etruscans. As his body was not 
found after the battle, it was believed that it 
had been carried up to heaven, or that he 
had perished in the river Xuruicius. The 
Latins erected a monument to him, with the 
inscription To the fattier and native god. 
Virgil represents Aeneas landing in Italy 7 
years after the fall of Troy, and comprises all 
the events in Italy from the landing to the 
death of Turnus, within the space of 20 days. 
The story of the descent of the Romans from 
the Trojans through Aeneas was believed at 
an early period, but rests on no historical 
foundation. 

AEXEAS SILVIUS (-i), son of Silvius, and 
grandson of Ascanius, is the 3rd in the list 
of the mythical kings of Alba in Latium. 

AENESIDEMTJS (-i), a celebrated sceptic, 
born at Cnossus in Crete, and lived a little 
later than Cicero. He wrote several works, 
but none of them have come down to us. 

AENIANES (-urn), an ancient Greek race, 
originally near Ossa, afterwards in southern 
Thessaly, between Oeta and Othrys, on the 
banks of the Spercheus. 

AENUS (4). (1) An ancient town in 
Thrace, near the mouth of the Hebrus, men- 
tioned in the Iliad, colonised by the Aeolians 
of Asia Minor. Virgil supposes it to have been 
built by Aeneas. — (2) (Inn) a river in Rhaetia, 
the boundary between Rhaetia and Xoricum. 

AEOLES (-um) or AEOLII (-orum), one of 
the chief branches of the Hellenic race,, 
supposed to be descended from Aeolus, the 
son of Helen. [Aeolus, Xo. 1.] They 
originally dwelt in Thessaly, from whence 
they spread over various parts of Greece, 
and also settled in Aeolis in Asia Minor, 
and in the island of Lesbos. 



AEOLIAE IXSULAE (-arum: Lipari 
Islands), a group of islands X.E. of Sicily, 
where Aeolus, the god of the winds, reigned. 
Virgil accordingly speaks of only one Aeolian 
island, supposed to be Strongyle or Lipara. 
These islands were also called Hephaestlades 
or Vulcanlae, because Hephaestus or Tulcan 
was believed to have his workshop in one of 
them called Hiera. They were also named 
Liparenses, from Lipara, the largest of them. 

AEOLIDES (-ae), a patronymic given to the 
sons of Aeolus, as Athamas, Cretheus, Sisy- 
phus, Salmoneus, &c, and to his grandsons, 
as Cephalus, Ulysses and Phrixus. Aeolis is 
the patronymic of the female descendants of 
Aeolus, given to his daughters Canace and 
Alcvone. 

AEOLIS (-idis) or AE 6 LI A (-ae), a district 
of Mysia in Asia Minor, was peopled by 
Aeolian Greeks, whose cities extended from the 
Troad along the shores of the Aegaean to the 
river Hermus. In early times, their 12 most 
important cities were independent and formed 
a League. They were Cyme, Larissae, Xeon- 
tlchos, Temnus, Cilia, Xotium, Aegirusa, 
Pitane, Aegaeae, Mvrina,Grynea, and Smyrna ; 
but Smysna subsequently became a member 
of the Ionian confederacy. These cities 
were subdued by Croesus, and were incorpo- 
rated in the Persian empire on the conquest 
of Croesus by Cyrus. 

AEOLUS (-i). (1) Son of Hellen and the 
nymph Orsei's, and brother of Dorus and 
Xuthus. He was the ruler of Thessaly, and 
the founder of the Aeolic branch of the Greek 
nation. His children are said to have been 
very numerous ; but the most ancient story 
mentioned only 4 sons, viz. Sisyphus, Atha- 
mas, Cretheus, and Salmoneus. — (2) Son of 
Hippotes, or, according to others, of Poseidon 
(Xeptune) and Arne, a descendant of the 
previous Aeolus. He is represented in Homer 
as the happy ruler of the Aeolian islands, to 
whom Zeus had given dominion over the winds, 
which he might soothe or excite according to 
his pleasure. This statement of Homer and the 
etymology of the name of Aeolus from ZciK'ha, 
led to Aeolus being regarded in later times as 
the god and king of the winds, which he kept 
enclosed in a mountain. 

AEPYTUS (-i). (1) A mythical king of 
Arcadia, from whom a part of the country 
was called Aepytis. — (2) Youngest son of the 
Heraclid Cresphontes, king of Messenia, and of 
Merope, daughter of the Arcadian king Cyp- 
selus. When his father and brothers were 
murdered during an insurrection, Aepytus, 
who was with his grandfather Cypselus, alone 
escaped. The throne of Cresphontes was mean- 
time occupied by Polyphontes, who forced 
Merope to become his wife. When Aepytus 



AEQUI. 



13 



AESCHYLUS. 



had grown to manhood, he returned to his 
kingdom, and put Polyphontes to death. 
From him the kings of Messenia were called 
Aepytids instead of the more general 
name Heraclids. 

AEQUI (-drum) , AE QUI CO LI _ (-orum) , 
AEQUICOLAE (-arum), AEQUICTLAXI 
(-oruni), an ancient and warlike people 
of Italy, dwelling in the upper valley of the 
Anio in the mountains forming the eastern 
boundary of Latium, and between the Latini, 
Sahini, Hemic:, and Marsi. In conjunction 
with the Tolsci, who were of the same 
race, they carried on constant hostilities 
with Koine, hut were finally subdued in b.c. 
302. One of their chief seats was Mount 
Algidus, from which they were accustomed to 
make their marauding expeditions. 

AEQUI JFALISCI. [Fauerh.] 

AEROPE (-es), daughter of Catreus, king 
of Crete, and wife of Pllsthenes, the son of 
Atreus, by whom she became the mother of 
Agamemnon and Menelaus. After the death 
of Pllsthenes, Aerope married Atreus ; and 
her two sons, who were educated by Atreus, 
were generally believed to be his sons. Aerope 
was faithless to Atreus, being seduced by 
Thyestes. 

AESACUS (-i) , son of Priam and Alexirrhce, 
fell in loA'e with Hesperia, the daughter of 
Cebren, and while he was pursuing her, she 
was stung by a viper and died. Aesacus in 
his grief threw himself into the sea, and was 
changed by Thetis into an aquatic bird. 

AESAH" (-aris) or AESARUS (-i), a river 
near Croton in Bruttii, in southern Italy. 

AESCHINES (-is). (1) The Athenian orator 
horn b.c. 389, was the son of Atrometus and 
Glaucothea. In his youth he assisted his 
father in his school ; he next acted as secre- 
tary to Aristophon; and afterwards to Eubu- 
lus ; he subsequently tried his fortune as an 
actor, but was unsuccessful ; and at length, 
after serving with distinction in the army, 
came forward as a public speaker and soon 
acquired great reputation. In 347 he was 
sent along with Demosthenes as one of the 
10 ambassadors to negotiate a peace with 
Philip. From this time he appears as the 
friend of the Macedonian party and as the 
opponent of Demosthenes. Shortly after- 
wards Aeschines formed one of a second 
embassy sent to Philip, and on his return to 
Athens was accused by Timarchus. He evaded 
the danger by bringing forward a counter- 
accusation against Timarchus (345), showing 
that the moral conduct of his accuser was 
such that he had no right to speak before the 
people. The speech in which Aeschines 
attacked Timarchus is still extant : Timarchus 
was condemned and Aeschines gained a bril- 



1 liant triumph. In 343 Demosthenes renewed 
the charge against Aeschines of treachery 
j during his second embassy to Philip. This 
\ charge of Demosthenes (JJe Falsa Legatione) 
was not spoken, but published as a me- 
I morial, and Aeschines answered it in a 
! similar memorial on the embassy, which was 
{ likewise published. After the battle of 
Chaeronea in 338, which gave Philip the 
supremacy in Greece, Ctesiphon proposed 
! that Demosthenes should be rewarded for his 
! services with a golden crown in the theatre at 
! the great Dionysia. Aeschines in consequence 
accused Ctesiphon ; but he did not prosecute 
the charge till 8 years later. 330. The speech 
j which he delivered on the occasion is extant, 
\ and was answered by Demosthenes in his 
I celebrated oration on the Crown. Aeschines 
I was defeated, and withdrew from Athens. 

He went to Asia Minor, and at length estab- 
: lished a school of eloquence at Ehodes. On 
i one occasion he read to his audience in 
; Ehodes his speech against Ctesiphon, and 
when some of his hearers expressed their 
astonishment at his defeat, he replied, " Yon 
would cease to be astonished if you had heard 
j Demosthenes." From Ehodes he went to 
Samos, where he died in 314. — '2) An 
' Athenian philosopher and rhetorician, and a 
I disciple of Socrates. He wrote several dia- 
logues, but the 3 which have come down to 
us under his name are not genuine. 

AESCHYLUS (-i), the celebrated tragic 
poet, the son of Euphorion, was born at 
Eleusis in Attica, b.c 525. At the age of 25 
(499), he made his first appearance as a com- 
petitor for the prize of tragedy, without being 
successful. He fought with his brothers 
CynaegTrus, and Aniinius, at the battle of 
Marathon (490), and also at those of Salamis 
(480) and Plataea (479). In 484 he gained 
I the prize of tragedy ; and in 472 he gained 
the prize with the trilogy, of which the 
j Persae, the earliest of his extant dramas, 
! was one piece. In 468 he was defeated 
in a tragic contest by his younger rival 
i Sophocles ; and he is said in consequence 
to have quitted Athens in disgust, and to 
have gone to the court of Hiero, king of 
I Syracuse. In 467, his patron Hiero died; 

and in 458, it appears that Aeschylus was 
! again at Athens, from the fact that the trilogy 
of the Oresteia was produced in that year. 
In the same or the following year, he again 
visited Sicily, and he died at Gela in 456, in 
the 69th year of his age. It is said that an 
! eagle, mistaking the poet's bald head for a 
i stone, let a tortoise fall upon it to break the 
shell, and so fulfilled an oracle, according to 
I which he was fated to die by a blow from 
I heaven. The alterations made bv Aeschylus 



AESCULAPIUS. 



14 



AESOPUS. 



in the composition and dramatic representa- 
tion of Tragedy were so great, that he was 
considered by the Athenians as the father of 
it. The principal alteration which he made 
was the introduction of a second actor, and 
the consequent formation of the dialogue 
properly so called, and the limitation of the 
choral parts. He furnished his actors with 
more suitable and magnificent dresses, with 
significant and various masks, and with the 
thick-soled cothurnus, to raise their stature 
to the height of heroes. With him also arose 
the usage of representing at the same time a 
trilogy of plays connected in subject, so that 
each formed one act, as it were, of a great 
whole. A satirical play commonly followed 
each tragic " trilogy. Aeschylus is said to 
have written 70 tragedies. Of these only 7 
are extant, namely, the. Persians, the Seven 
against Thebes, the Suppliants, the Prometheus, 
the Agamemnon, the Choephori, and Pume- 
nides ; the last three forming the trilogy of 
the Oresteia. 

AESCULAPIUS (-i), called ASCLEPIUS 
(-i), by the Greeks, the god of the medical art. 
In Homer he is not a divinity, but simply the 
"blameless physician" whose sons, Machaon 
and Podalirius, were the physicians in the 
Greek army. The common story relates that 
Aesculapius was a son of Apollo and Coronis, 
and that when Coronis was with child by Apollo, 
she became enamoured of Ischys, an Arcadian. 
Apollo, informed of this by a raven, killed 
Coronis and Ischys. When the body of 
Coronis was to be burnt, the child Aescula- 
pius was saved from the flames, and was i 
brought up by Chiron, who instructed him in 
the art of healing and in hunting. There are 
other tales respecting his birth, according to 
some of which he was a native of Epidaurus, 
and this was a common opinion in later 
times. After he had grown up, he not only 
cured the sick, but recalled the dead to life. 




Aesculapius and a Sick Man. (Millin, Gal. 
Myth., tav. 32, Is'o. 105.) 



Zeus (Jupiter), fearing lest men might con- 
trive to escape death altogether, killed Aescu- J 



lapius with his thunderbolt ; but on the 
request of Apollo, Zeus placed him among 
the stars. He was married to Epione, by 
whom he had the 2 sons spoken of by 
Homer, and also other children. The chief 
seat of the worship of Aesculapius was Epi- 
daurus, where he had a temple surrounded 
with an extensive grove. Serpents were 
sacred to him because they were a symbol of 
renovation, and were believed to have the 
power of discovering healing herbs. The 
cock was sacrificed to him. At Rome the 
worship of Aesculapius was introduced from 
Epidaurus in b.c. 293, for the purpose of 
averting a pestilence. The supposed de- 
scendants of Aesculapius were called by 
the patronymic name of Asclepiaclae, and 
their principal seats were Cos and Cnidus. 
They were an order or caste of priests. The 
knowledge of medicine was regarded as a 
sacred secret, which was transmitted from 
I father to son in these families. 

AESEPUS (-i), a river rising in the moun- 
tains of Ida, and flowing into the Propontis. 

AESERXIA (-ae), a town in Samniuin, 
made a Roman colony in the first Punic war. 

AESIS (-is), a river forming the boundary 
between Picenum and Umbria, anciently the 
S. boundary of the Senones, and the N.E. 
boundary of Italy proper. 

AESIS (-is), or AESIUM (-i), a town and 
Roman colony in Umbria on the river Aesis. 

AESON (-onis), son of Cretheus and Tyro, 
and father of Jason. He was excluded from 
the throne by his half-brother Pelias. During 
I the absence of Jason on the Argonautic expe- 
dition, Pelias attempted to murder Aeson, 
but the latter put an end to his own life. 
According to Ovid, Aeson survived the return 
of the Argonauts, and was made young again 
by Medea. 

AESOPUS (-i), a writer of Fables, lived 
about b.c. 570, and was a contemporary of 
Solon. He was originally a slave, and re- 
ceived his freedom from his master Iadmon 
the Samian. Upon this he visited Croesus, 
who sent him to Delphi, to distribute among 
the citizens 4 minae apiece ; but in conse- 
quence of some dispute on the subject, he 
refused to give any money at all, upon which 
the enraged Deiphians threw him from a 
precipice. Plagues were sent upon them from 
the gods for the offence, and they proclaimed 
their willingness to give a compensation for 
his death to any one who could claim it. At 
length Iadmon, the grandson of his old 
master, received the compensation, since no 
nearer connection could be found. Later 
writers represent Aesop as a perfect monster 
I of ugliness and deformity ; a notion for which 
j there is no authority in the classical authors. 



AESOPUS. 



15 



AETOLIA. 



Whether Aesop left any written works at all, is a 
question which affords room for doubt ; though 
it is certain that fables, bearing Aesop's name, 
were popular at Athens in its most intellectual 
age. They were in prose, and were turned 
into poetry by several writers. Socrates 
turned some of them into verse during his 
imprisonment, The only Greek versifier of 
Aesop, of whose writings any whole fables 
are preserved, is Babrius. Of the Latin 
writers of Aesopean fables, Phaedrus is the 
most celebrated. [Phaedres.] The fables 
now extant in prose, bearing the name of 
Aesop, are unquestionably spurious. 

AESOPUS (-i), CLAUDIUS, or CLODIUS 
(-i), was the greatest tragic actor at Pvome, and 
contemporary of Boscius, the greatest comic 
actor. Both of them lived on intimate terms 
with Cicero. Aesopus appeared for the last 
time on the stage at an advanced age at 
the dedication of the theatre of Pompey (b.c. 
55), when his voice failed him, and he could 
not go through with the speech. He realised 
«.n immense fortune by his profession, which 
was squandered by his son, a foolish spend- 
thrift. 

AESTII (-5rum), AESTYI, or AESTUI 
(-orum), a people dwelling on the sea-coast, in 
the X.E. of Germany, probably in the modern 
Kurland, who collected amber, which they 
called glesmm. They were probably a Sar- 
matian or Slavonic and not a Germanic race. 

AESULA ^-ae), a town of the Aequi on a 
mountain between Praeneste and Tibur. 

AETHALIA (-ae), or ASTHALIS (-idis), 
called ILYA (-ae) (Elba), by the Bornans, a 
small island in the Tuscan sea, opposite the 
town of Populonia, celebrated for its iron 
mine's. 

AETHALIDES (-ae), son of Hermes (Mer- 
cury) and Eupolemla, the herald of the 
Argonauts. His soul, after many migra- 
tions, at length took possession of the body 
of Pythagoras, in which it still recollected its 
former migrations. 

AETHICES (-urn), a Thessalian or Epirot 
people, near M. Pindus. 

AETKIOPES (-urn : said to be from *ftt» 
and tu-^, but perhaps really a foreign name 
corrupted), was a name applied (1) most 
generally to all black or dark races of men ; 
(2) to all the inhabitants of Inner Africa, S. 
of Mauritania, the Great Desert, and Egypt, 
from the Atlantic to the Red Sea and Indian 
Ocean, and to some of the dark races of Asia ; 
and (3) most specifically to the inhabitants of 
the land S. of Egypt, which was called 
Aethiopia. 

AETHIOPIA (-ae : JYubia, Kordofan, 
Sennaar, Abyssinia), a country of Africa, S. 
of Egypt, the boundary of the countries being 



at Syene and the Smaller Cataract of the 
Nile, and extending on the E. to the Bed Sea, 
and to the S. and S.Vv. indefinitely, as far 
apparently as the knowledge of the ancients 
extended. The people of Aethiopia seem to have 
been of the Caucasian race, and to have spoken 
a language allied to the Arabic. Monuments 
are found in the country closely resembling 
those of Egypt, but of an inferior style. It 
was the seat of a powerful monarchy, of 
which Meroe was the capital. Some tradi- 
tions made Meroe the parent of Egyptian 
civilisation, while others ascribed the 
civilisation of Ethiopia to Egyptian colo- 
nisation. So great was the power of the 
Ethiopians, that more than once in its history 
Egypt was governed by Ethiopian kings. 
Under the Ptolemies Graeeo-Egyptian colonies 
established themselves in Ethiopia ; but the 
country -was never subdued, The Romans 
failed to extend their empire over Ethiopia, 
though they made expeditions into the 
country, in one of which C. Petronius, pre- 
fect of Egypt under Augustus, advanced as 
far as Napata, and defeated the warrior 
queen Candace (b.c. 22). Christianity very 
early extended to Ethiopia, probably in con- 
sequence of the conversion of the treasurer of 
queen Candace (Acts, viii. 27). 

AETHBA(-ae). (i) Daughter of Pittheus 
of Troezen, and mother of Theseus by Aegeus. 
She afterwards lived in Attica, from whence 
she was carried off to Lacedaemon by Castor 
and Pollux, and became a slave of Helen, with 
whom she was taken to .Troy. At the capture 
of Troy she was restored to liberty by her 
grandson Acamas or Demophon. — (2) Daugh- 
ter of Oceanus, by whom Atlas begot the 12 
Hyades and a son Hyas. 

AETNA (-ae). (1) A volcanic mountain 
in the X. E. of Sicily between Tauro- 
menium and Catana. It is said to have de- 
rived its name from Aetna, a Sicilian nymph, 
a daughter of Heaven and Earth. Zeus 
(Jupiter) buried under it Typhon or Ence- 
ladus ; and in its interior Hephaestus ( Vulcan) 
and the Cyclops forged the thunderbolts for 
Zeus. There were several eruptions of M. 
Aetna in antiquity. One occurred in b. c. 47 5, 
to which Aeschylus and Pindar probably 
allude, and another in 425, which Thucydides 
says was the third on record since the Greeks 
had settled in Sicily. — (2) A town at the foot 
of M. Aetna, on the road to Catana, formerly 
called Inessa or Innesa. It was founded in 
b. c. 461, by the inhabitants of Catana, who 
had been expelled from their own town by the 
Siculi. They gave the name of Aetna to 
Inessa, because their own town Catana had 
been called Aetna by Hiero I. 

AETOLIA (-ae), a division of Greece, was 



AETOLUS. 



16 



AFRICA, 



bounded on the W. by Acarnania, from which 
it was separated by the river Achelous, on the 
N. by Epirus and Thessaly, on the E. by the 
Ozolian Locrians, and on the S. by the en- 
trance to the Corinthian gulf. It was divided 
into two parts, — Old Aetolia, from the 
Achelous to the Evenus and Calydon, — and 
>~ ew Aetolia, or the Acquired, from the Evenus 
and Calydon to the Ozolian Locrians. On 
the coast the country is level and fruitful, but 
in the interior mountainous and unproductive. 
The mountains contained many wild beasts, 
and were celebrated in mythology for the 
hunt of the Calydonian boar. The country 
was originally inhabited by Curetes and 
Leleges, but was at an early period colonised 
by Greeks from Elis, led by the mythical 
Aetoixs. The Aetolians took part in the 
Trojan war, under their king Thoas. They 
continued for a long time a rude and uncivil- 
ised people, living to a great extent by 
robbery ; and even in the time of Thucydides 
(b. c. 410) many of their tribes spoke a 
language which was not Greek, and were in 
the habit of eating raw flesh. They appear 
to have been early united by a kind of League, 
but this League first acquired political 
importance about the middle of the 3rd 
century b. c. and became a formidable rival 
to the Macedonian monarchs and the Achaean 
League. The Aetolians took the side of 
Antiochus III. against the Romans, and on 
the defeat of that monarch, b. c. 189, they 
became virtually the subjects of Eome. On the 
conquest of the Achaeans, b. c. 146, Aetolia 
was included in the Roman province of Achaia. 

AETOLUS (-i), son of Endymion and hus- 
band of Pronoe, by whom he had two sons, 
Pleuron and Calydon. He was king of Elis, 
but having slain Apis, he fled to the country 
near the Achelous, which was called Aetolia 
after him. 

AFRANIUS (-i), L. (1) A Roman comic 
poet, flourished about b. c. 100. His 
comedies depicted Roman life with such 
accuracy, that he is classed with Menander. 
Only a few fragments of them are pre- 
served. — (2) A person of obscure origin, 
who was, through Pompey's influence, made 
consul, b. c. 60. When Pompey obtained 
the provinces of the two Spains in his 2nd 
consulship (55), he sent Afranius and Petreius 
to govern them, while he himself remained in 
Rome. In 49, Afranius and Petreius were 
defeated by Caesar in Spain. Afranius there- 
upon passed over to Pompey in Greece ; was 
present at the battle of Pharsalia, (48) ; and 
subsequently at the battle of Thapsus in 
Africa, (46). He then attempted to fly into 
Mauretania, but was taken prisoner by P. 
Sittius, and killed. 



AFRICA (-ae), was used by the ancients in 
two senses, (1) for the whole continent of 
| Africa, and (2) for the portion of X. Africa 
j which the Romans erected into a province — 
(1) In the more general sense the name was 
not used by the Greek writers ; and its use by 
the Romans arose from the extension to the 
whole continent of the name of a part of it. 
The proper Greek name for the continent is 
| Libya. Considerably before the historical 
period of Greece begins, the Phoenicians 
extended their commerce over the Mediter- 
ranean, and founded several colonies on the 
X. coast of Africa, of which Carthage was the' 
! chief. [Carthago.] The Greeks knew very 
little of the country until the foundation of the 
I Dorian colony of Cyrexe (b. c. 620), and the 
intercourse of Greek travellers with Egypt in 
the 6th and 5th centuries ; and even then 
: their knowledge of all but the part near 
Cyrene was derived from the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians, who sent out some remarkable 
expeditions to explore the country. A 
: Phoenician fleet sent by the Egyptian king 
! Pharaoh Necho (about b. c. 600), was said to 
have sailed from the Red Sea, round Africa, 
' and so into the Mediterranean : the authen- 
ticity of this story is still a matter of dispute. 
\Ye still possess an authentic account of 
\ another expedition, which the Carthaginians 
despatched under Hanno (about b. c. 510), 
j and which reached a point on the W. coast 
\ nearly, if not quite, as far as lat. 10° N. 
In the interior, the Great Desert (Sahara) 
interposed a formidable obstacle to discovery ; 
but even before the time of Herodotus 
the people on the northern coast told of 
individuals who had crossed the Desert, 
and had reached a great river flowing 
towards the E., with crocodiles in it, and 
! black men living on its banks ; which, if the 
| story be true, was probably the Niger in its 
upper course, near Timbuctoo. There were 
great differences of opinion as to the boun- 
daries of the continent. Some divided the 
whole world into only two parts, Europe and 
Asia, and they were not agreed to which of 
these two Libya (£. e. Africa) belonged ; and 
those who recognised three divisions differed 
again in placing the boundary between Libya 
and Asia either on the W. of Egypt, or along 
the Nile, or at the isthmus of Suez and the 
Red Sea : the last opinion gradually prevailed. 
Herodotus divides the inhabitants of Africa 
| into four races, two native, namely, the Liby- 
J ans and Ethiopians, and two foreign, namely, 
I the Phoenicians and the Greeks. The Libyans, 
however, were a Caucasian race : the Ethio- 
; pians of Herodotus correspond to our Xegro 
; races. The whole of the north of Africa fell 
j successively under the power of Rome, and 



AERICAXUS. 



17 



AGAMEMXOX. 



was finally divided into provinces as follows : 
— (1) Aegypf ; (2) Libya, including' («) Libyae 
Xomos or Libya Exterior, (b) Marniarica, (c) 
Cyrenai'ca ; (3) Africa Propria, the former 
empire of Carthage see below, No, 2 ; (4) 
Xumidia ; (5) Mauretania, divided into (a) 
Sitifensis, (b) Caesariensis, (c) Tingitana : 
these, with (6) Aethiopia, make up the whole 
of Africa, according to the divisions recog- 
nised by the latest of the ancient geographers. 
The northern district was better known to 
the Romans than it is to us, and was ex- ! 
tremely populous and flourishing. — (2) j 
Africa Propria or Provixcia, or simply 
Africa, was the name under which the 
Romans, after the Third Punic War b. c, 
146, erected into a province the whole of the 
former territory of Carthage. It extended 
from the river Musca, on the W,, which 
divided it from Xumidia, to the bottom of the 
Syrtis Minor, on the S. E. It was divided 
into two districts (regiones) , namely, (1) Zeugis 
or Zeugitana, the district round Carthage, 
(2) Byzacium or Byzacena, S. of Zeugitana, 
as far as the bottom of the Syrtis Minor. It 
corresponds to the modern regency of Tunis. 
The province was full of flourishing towns, 
and was extremely fertile : it furnished Rome 
with its chief supplies of corn. 

AERICAXUS (-i), a surname given to the 
Scipios, on account of their victories in Africa. 
[Scipio.] 

AERICUS (-i: Kty by the Greeks), the 
S.W. wind, so called because it blew from 
Africa. 

AGAMEDES (-ae), commonly called son of 
Erginus, king of Orchomenus, and brother of 
Trophonius. Agamedes and Trophonius dis- 
tinguished themselves as architects. They 
built a temple of Apollo at Delphi, and a 
treasury of Hyrieus, king of Hyria in Boeotia. 
In the construction of the latter, they con- 
trived to place a stone in such a manner, that 
it could be taken away outside without any 
body perceiving it. They now constantly 
robbed the treasury ; and the king, seeing 
that locks and seals were uninjured while his 
treasures were constantly decreasing, set 
traps to catch the thief. Agamedes was thus 
caught, and Trophonius cut off his head to 
avert the discovery. After this Trophonius 
was immediately swallowed up by the earth 
in the grove of Lebadea. Here he was 
worshipped as a hero, and had a celebrated 
oracle. A tradition mentioned by Cicero 
states that Agamedes and Trophonius, after 
building the temple of Apollo at Delphi, 
prayed to the god to grant them in reward 
for their labour what was best for men. The 
god promised to do so on a certain day, and 
when the day came, the two brothers died. 



A G AM EMX X (-onis), son of Plisthenes and 
Aerope or Eriphyle, and grandson of Atreus, 
king of Mycenae ; but Homer and others call 
him a son of Atreus and grandson of Pelops. 
Agamemnon and his brother Menelaus were 
brought up together with Aegisthus, the son 
of Thyestes, in the house of Atreus. After 
the murder of Atreus by Aegisthus and 
Thyestes, who succeeded Atreus in the king- 
dom of Mycenae [Aegisthus], Agamemnon 
and Menelaus went to Sparta. Here Aga- 
memnon married Clytemnestra, the daughter 
of Tyndareus, by whom he became the father 
of Iphianassa (IphigenTa), Chrysothemis, 
Laodice (Electra), and Orestes. The manner 
in which Agamemnon obtained the kingdom 
of Mycenae, is differently related. Erom 
Homer, it appears as if he had peaceably 
succeeded Thyestes ; while, according to 
others, he expelled Thyestes, and usurped his 
throne. He now became the most powerful 
prince in Greece. Homer says he ruled over 
all Argos, which signifies Peloponnesus, or 
the greater part of it, for the city of Argos 
was governed by Diomedes. "When Helen, 
the wife of Menelaus, was carried off by Paris, 
and the Greek chiefs resolved to recover her 
by force of arms, Agamemnon was chosen 
their commander in chief. After two years 
of preparation, the Greek army and fleet 
assembled in the port of Aulis in Boeotia. 
At this place Agamemnon killed a stag which 
was sacred to Artemis (Diana), who in return 
visited the Greek army with a pestilence, and 
produced a calm which prevented the Greeks 
from leaving the port. In order to appease 
her wrath, Agamemnon consented to sacrifice 
his daughter Iphigenia ; but at the moment 
of the sacrifice, she was carried off by Artemis 
herself to Tauris, and another victim was 
substituted in her place. The calm now 
ceased, and the army sailed to the coast of 
Troy. The quarrel between Agamemnon and 
Achilles in the tenth year of the war, is 
related elsewhere. [Achilles.] Agamemnon, 
although the chief commander of the Greeks, 
is not the hero of the Iliad, and in chivalrous 
spirit, bravery, and character, altogether 
inferior to Achilles. But he nevertheless 
rises above all the Greeks by his dignity, 
power, and majesty : his eyes and head are 
likened to those of Zeus (Jupiter), his girdle 
to that of Ares (Mars) , and his breast to that 
of Poseidon (Xeptune). At the capture of 
Troy he received Cassandra, the daughter of 
Priam, as his prize. On his return home he 
was murdered by Aegisthus, who had seduced 
Clytemnestra during the absence of her hus- 
band. The tragic poets make Clytemnestra 
alone murder Agamemnon. His death wr.s 
avenged by his son Orestes. 



AGAMEMNONIDES. 



1 



8 



AGESIPOLIS. 



AGAMEMNONIDES (-ae), the son of Aga- 
memnon, i, e. Orestes. 

AGANIPPE (-es), a nymph of the fountain 
of the same name at the foot of Mt. Helicon, 
in Boeotia. It was sacred to the Muses (who 
were hence called Aganippides), and was 
believed to inspire those who drank of it. 
The fountain of Hippocrene has the epithet 
Aganippis, from its being sacred to the Muses, 
like that of Aganippe. 

AGATHOCLES (-is or eos) , was born at Ther- 
mae, a town of Sicily subject to Carthage, and 
was brought up as a potter at Syracuse. His 
strength and personal beauty recommended 
him to Damas, a noble Syracusan, who drew 
him from obscurity, and on whose death he 
married his rich widow, and so became one of 
the wealthiest citizens in Syracuse. His 
ambitious schemes then developed themselves, 
and he was driven into exile. After several 
changes of fortune, he collected an army, and 
was declared sovereign of Syracuse, b.c. 317. 
In the course of a few years the whole of 
Sicily, which was not under the dominion of 
Carthage, submitted to him. In 310 he was 
defeated at Himera by the Carthaginians, 
under Hamilcar, who straightway laid siege 
to Syracuse ; whereupon he formed the bold 
design of averting the ruin which threatened 
him, by carrying the war into Africa. His 
successes were most brilliant and rapid. He 
constantly defeated the troops of Carthage, 
but was at length summoned from Africa by 
the affairs of Sicily, where many cities had 
revolted from him, 307. These he reduced, 
after making a treaty with the Carthaginians. 
He had previously assumed the title of king 
of Sicily. He afterwards plundered the 
Lipari isles, and also carried his arms into 
Italy, in order to attack the Bruttii. But his 
last days were embittered by family misfor- 
tunes. His grandson Archagathus murdered 
his son Agathocles, for the sake of succeeding 
to the crown, and the old king feared that 
the rest of his family would share his fate.. 
He accordingly sent his wife and her two 
children to Egypt; and his own death fol- 
lowed almost immediately, 289, after a reign 
of 28 years, and in the 72nd year of his age. 
Some authors relate an incredible story of 
his being poisoned by Maeno, an associate of 
Archagathus. The poison, we are told, was 
concealed in the quill with which he cleaned 
his teeth, and reduced him to so frightful a 
condition, that he was placed on the fimeral 
pile and burnt while yet living, being un- 
able to give any Bigns that he was not 
dead. _ 

AGATHON, an Athenian tragic poet, a 
contemporary and friend of Euripides and 
Plato. He died about u.c. 400. 



AGATHYENA (-ae), AGATHYRXUM (-i), 
a town on the N. coast of Sicily. 

AGATHYESI (-orum), a people in European 
Sarmatia, on the river Maris (Marosch) in 
Transylvania. From the practice of painting 
or tattooing their skin, they are called by 
Virgil picti Agathyrsi. 

AGAVE (-es), daughter of Cadmus, wife of 
Echlon, and mother of Pentheus. For details 
see Pentheus. 

AGBATAXA. [Ecbatana.] 

AGENDICUM or AGEDICUM (-i : Sens), 
the chief town, of the Senones in Gallia 
Lugdunensis. 

AGENOR (-oris). (1) Son of Poseidon 
(Neptune), king of Phoenicia, and father of 
Cadmus, and Europa. Virgil calls Carthage 
the city of Agenor, since Dido was descended 
from Agenor. — (2) Son of the Trojan Antenor 
and Theano, one of the bravest among the 
Trojans. ^ 

AGENOEIDES (-ae), a descendant of an Age- 
nor, such as Cadmus, Phineus, and Perseus. 

AGESILAUS (-i), kings of Sparta. — (1) 
Eeigned about b.c. 886, and was contem- 
porary with the legislation of Lycurgus. — 
(2) Son of ArchidamusIL, succeeded his half- 
brother Agis II., b.c. 398, excluding, on the 
ground of spurious birth, and by the interest 
of Ly sander, his nephew Leotychides. From 
396 to 394 he carried on the war in Asia 
Minor with great success, but in the midst 
of his conquests was summoned home to 
defend his country against Thebes, Corinth, 
and Argos, which had been induced by 
Artaxerxes to take up arms against Sparta. 
In 394 he met and defeated at Coronea in 
Boeotia the allied forces. During the next 
4 years he regained for his country much of 
its former supremacy, till at length the fatal 
battle of Leuctra, 371, overthrew for ever the 
power of Sparta, and gave the supremacy for 
a time to Thebes. In 361 he crossed with a 
body of Lacedaemonian mercenaries into 
Egypt, where he died, in the winter of 361-360, 
after a life of above 80 years and a reign of 
38. In person Agesilaus was small, mean- 
looking, and lame, on which last ground 
objection had been made to his accession, an 
oracle, curiously fulfilled, having warned 
Sparta of evils awaiting her under a "lame 
sovereignty." In his reign, indeed, her fall 
took place, but not through him, for he was 
one of the best citizens and generals that 
Sparta_ ever had. 

AGESIPOLIS, kings of Sparta.— CI) Suc- 
ceeded his father Pausanias, while yet a minor, 
in b.c. 394, and reigned 14 years.- — (2) Son 
of Cleombrotus, reigned one year, 371.' — C3) 
Succeeded Cleomenes in 220, but was soon 
deposed by his colleague Lycurgus. 



AGIXXUM. 



1 



9 



AGRIPPA. 



AGINNUM (-i : Agen\ the chief town of 
the Xitiobriges in Gallia Aquitanica. 

AGIS (-Mis), kings of Sparta. — (1) Son of 
Eurysthenes, the founder of the family of the 
Agidae. — (2) Son of Archidamus II., reigned 
b.c. 427-398. He took an active part in the 
Peloponnesian war, and invaded Attica several 
times. While Alcibiades was at Sparta he 
was the guest of Agis, and is said to have 
seduced his wife Tiniaea ; in consequence of 
which Leotychides, the son of Agis, was 
excluded from the throne as illegitimate. — 
(3) Son of Archidamus III., reigned 338-330. 
He attempted to overthrow the Macedonian 
power in Europe, while Alexander the Great 
was in Asia, but was defeated and killed in 
battle by Antipater in 330. — (4) Son of Euda- 
midas II., reigned 244-240. He attempted 
to re-establish the institutions of Lycurgus, 
and to effect a thorough reform in the Spartan 
state ; but he was resisted by his colleague 
Leonidas II. and the wealthy, was thrown 
into prison, and was there put to death by 
command of the ephors, along with his 
mother and grandmother. 

AGLAIA (-ae), " the bright one," one of 
the Chabites or Graces. 

AGBAULOS (-i). (1) Daughter of Actaeus, 
first king of Athens, and wife of Cecrops. — 
(2) Daughter of Cecrops and Agraulos, of 
whom various stories are told. Athena 
(Minerva) is said to have given Erichthonius in 
a chest to Agraulos and her sister Herse, with 
strict injunctions not to open it ; but they 
disobeyed the command. [ERiCHTHOxrus.] 
Agraulos was subsequently punished by being 
changed into a stone by Hermes (Mercury), 
because she attempted to prevent the god 
from entering the house of Herse, with whom 
he had fallen in love. Another legend relates 
that Agraulos threw herself down from the 
Acropolis because an oracle had declared that 
the Athenians would conquer if some one 
would sacrifice himself for his country. The 
Athenians in gratitude built her a temple on 
the Acropolis, in which the young Athenians, 
on receiving their first suit of armour, took 
an oath that they would always defend their 
country to the last. A festival (Agraulia) 
was celebrated at Athens in her honour. 

AGRI DECUMATES, tithe lands, the name 
given by the Romans to a part of Germany, 
E. of the Rhine and N. of the Danube, which 
they took possession of when the Germans 
retired eastward, and which they gave to 
Gauls and subsequently to their own veterans 
on the payment of a tenth of the produce 
(decuma). Towards the end of the first or 
the beginning of the second century after* 
Christ, these lands were incorporated in the 
Roman empire. 



AGRICOLA (-ae), CX. JULIUS (4), born 
June 13th, a.d. 37, at Forum Julii {Frcjus, in 
Provence), was the son of Julius Graecinus, 
who was executed by Caligula, and of Julia Pro- 
cilia. He received a careful education ; he first 
served in Britain, a.d. 60, under Suetonius 
Paulinus ; was quaestor in Asia in 63 ; was 
governor of Aquitania from 74 to 76 ; and 
was consul in 77, when he betrothed his 
daughter to the historian Tacitus, and in the 
following year gave her to him in marriage. 
In 7 8 he received the government of Britain, 
which he held for 7 years, during which time 
he subdued the whole of the country with the 
exception of the highlands of Caledonia, and 
by his wise administration introduced among 
the inhabitants the language and civilisation 
of Rome. He was recalled in 85 through the 
jealousy of Domitian, and on his return lived 
in retirement till his death in 93, which 
according to some was occasioned by poison, 
administered by order of Domitian. His 
character is drawn in the brightest colours 
by his son-in-law Tacitus, whose Life of 
Agricola has come down to us. 

AGRIGEXTUM (-i), called ACRAGAS 
(-antis) by the Greeks (Girgenti), a city 
on the S. coast of Sicily, about 2£ miles 
from the sea. It was celebrated for its 
wealth and populousness, and was one 
of the most splendid cities of the ancient 
world. It was founded by a Doric colony 
from Gela, about b.c. 579, was under the 
government of the cruel tyrant Phalaris 
(about 560), and subsequently under that of 
Theron (488-472). It was destroyed by the 
Carthaginians (405), and, though rebuilt by 
Timoleon, it never regained its former great- 
ness. It came into the power of the Romans 
in 210. It was the birthplace of Einpe- 
docles. There are still gigantic remains of 
the ancient city. 

AGRIPPA (lae), HERODES (-is). (1) Called 
"Agrippa the Great," son of Aristobulus and 
Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great. 
He was educated at Rome, and lived on inti- 
mate terms with the future emperors Caligula 
and Claudius. Caligula gave him the 
tetrarchies of Abilene, Batanaea, Trachonitis, 
and Auranitis ; and Claudius annexed Judaea 
and Samaria to his dominions. His govern- 
ment was exceedingly popular amongst the 
Jews. It was probably to increase his popu- 
larity with the Jews that he caused the Apostle 
James to be beheaded, and Peter to be cast 
into prison (a.d. 44). The manner of his 
death, which took place at Caesarea in the 
same year, is related in Acts xii. — (2) Son of 
the preceding, king of Chalcis. On the break- 
ing out of the Jewish war he sided with the 
Romans, and after the capture of Jerusalem, 

c 2 



AGRIPPA. 



20 



AHENOBARBUS. 



he went with his sister Berenice to Rome, 
and died in the 70th year of his age, a.d. 100. 
It was before this Agrippa that the apostle 
Paul made his defence, a.d. 60 (Acts, xxv. 
xxvi.). 

AGRIPPA (-ae), M. TIPSANIUS (4), horn 
in b.c. 63, of an obscure family, studied with 
young Octavius (afterwards the emperor Au- 
gustus) at Apollonia in Illyria ; and upon the 
murder of Caesar in 44, was one of the friends 
of Octavius, who advised him to proceed im- 
mediately to Rome. In the civil wars which 
followed, and which terminated in giving 
Augustus the sovereignty of the Roman 
world, Agrippa took an active part ; and his 
military abilities contributed greatly to that 
result. He commanded the fleet of Augustus 
at the battle of Actiuni in 31. He was thrice 
consul, and in his third consulship in 27 he 
built the Pantheon, In 21 he married Julia, 
daughter of Augustus. He continued to be 
employed in various military commands till 
his death in b.c. 12. By his first wife Pom- 
ponia, Agrippa had Vipsania, married to 
Tiberius, the successor of Augustus ; and by 
Julia he had 2 daughters, Julia and Agrippina, 
and 3 sons, Caius Caesar, Lucius Caesar 
[Caesar], and Agrippa Postumus : the last 
was banished by Augustus to the island of 
Planasia, and was put to death by Tiberius at 
his accession, a.d. 14. 

AGRIPPINA (-ae) . (1) Daughter of M.Vip- 
sanius Agrippa and of "Julia, the daughter of 
Augustus, married Germanicus, by whom she 
had 9 children, among whom were the emperor 
Caligula, and Agrippina, the mother of Nero. 
She was distinguished for her virtues and 
heroism, and shared all the dangers of her 
husband's campaigns. On his death in a.d. 1 7 
she returned to Italy ; but the favour with 
which she was received by the people in- 
creased the hatred which Tiberius and his 
mother Livia had long entertained towards 
her. At length in a.d. 30 Tiberius banished 
her to the island of Pandataria, where she 
died 3 years afterwards, probably by volun- 
tary starvation. — (2) Daughter of Germanicus 
and Agrippina [No. 1], and mother of the 
emperor Nero, was born at Oppidum Ubiorum, 
afterwards called in honour of her Colonia 
Agrippina, now Cologne. [Colonia.] She was 
beautiful and intelligent, but licentious, cruel, 
and ambitious. She was first married to Cn. 
Domitius Ahenobarbus (a.d. 28), by whom 
she had a son, afterwards the emperor Nero ; 
next to Crispus Passienus ; and thirdly to 
the emperor Claudius (49), although she was 
his niece. In 50 she prevailed upon Claudius 
to adopt her son, to the prejudice of his own 
son Britannicus ; and in order to secure the 
succession for her son, she poisoned the 



emperor in 54. The young emperor soon 
became tired of the ascendancy of his mother, 
and after making several attempts to shake 
off her authority, he caused her to be assas^ 
sinatedjn 59. 

AGRIUS f-i), son of Porthaon and Euryte, 
and father of Thersites and 5 other sons. 

AGYIEUS (trisyll.), a surname of Apollo, 
as the protector of the streets and public 
places. 

AGYLLA. [Caere.] 

AGYRIUM, a town in Sicily on the Cya- 
mosorus, N.W. of Centuripae and N.E. of 
Enna, the birthplace of thehistorian Diodorus. 

AHALA (-ae), C. SERYILIUS (-i), magister 
equitum in b.c. 439 to the dictator L. Cincin- 
natus, when he slew Sp. Maelius in the 
forum, because he refused to appear before the 
dictator. Ahala was brought to trial, and only 
escaped condemnation by a voluntary exile. 

AHARNA (-ae), a town in Etruria, N.E. of 
Volsinii. 

AHENOBARBUS, (-i), the name of a dis- 
tinguished family of the Domitia gens. They 
are said to have obtained the surname of Ahe- 
nobarbus, i.e. "Brazen-Beard" or "Red- 
Beard," because the Dioscuri (Castor and 
Pollux) announced to one of their ancestors 
the victory of the Romans over the Latins at 
lake Regillus (b.c. 496), and, to confirm the 
truth of what they said, stroked his black hair 
and beard, which immediately became red. — 
(1) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul, b.c. 
122, conquered the Allobroges in Gaul, at 
the confluence of the Sulga and Rhodanus. 
— (2) Cn. Domitius Ahenobabbtjs, tribune of 
the plebs, 104, brought forward the law (Lex 
Domitia), by which the election of the priests 
was transferred from the collegia to the 
people. The people afterwards elected him 
Pontifex Maximus out of gratitude. He was 
consul in 96, and censor in 92, with Licinius 
Crassus, the orator. — (3) L. Domitius Ahe- 
nobarbus, married Porcia, the sister of 
M. Cato, and was a staunch and courageous 
supporter of the aristocratical party. He 
was aedile in 61, praetor in 58, and 
consul in 54. On the breaking out of the 
civil war in 49 he threw himself into Cor- 
finium, but was compelled by his own troops 
to surrender to Caesar. He next went to 
Massilia, and, after the surrender of that town, 
repaired to Pompey in Greece ; he fell in the 
battle of Pharsalia (48), where he commanded 
the left wing, and, according to Cicero's asser- 
tion in the second Philippic, by the hand of 
Antony. — (4) Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
son of No. 3, was taken with his father at 
Corfinium (49), was present at the battle of 
Pharsalia (48), and returned to Italy in 46, 
when he was pardoned by Caesar. He ac- 



AIDES. 



21 



ALBA. 



companied Antony in his campaign against 
the Parthians in 36. He was consul in 32, 
and deserted to Augustus shortly before the 
battle of Actium. — (5) C>\ Domitius Aheno- 
barbtjs, consul a.d. 32, married Agrippina, 
daughter of Germanicus, and was father of 
the emperor Nero L [Agrippina.] 
AIDES or AIDOXEUS. [Hades.] 
AIUS (4) LOCUTIUS (-i) or LOQUENS 
(-entis), a Roman divinity. A short time 
before the Gauls took Rome (b.c. 390) a 
voice was heard at Rome during the silence 
of night, announcing that the Gauls were 
approaching. The Romans afterwards 
erected on the spot where the voice had been 
heard, an altar with a sacred enclosure 
around it, to Aius Locutius, or the " An- 
nouncing Speaker." 

AJAX (-acis), called AIAS by the Greeks. 
— (l)Son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and 
grandson of Aeacus. Homer calls him Ajax 




Ajax. (Aegina Marbles.) 



the Telamonian, Ajax the Great, or simply 
Ajax, whereas the other Ajax, son of 
O'ileus, is always distinguished from the 
former by some epithet. He sailed against 
Troy in 1 2 ships, and is represented in the 
Iliad as second only to Achilles in bravery. 
In the contest for the armour of Achilles, 
he was conquered by Ulysses, and this, 
says Homer, was the cause of his death. 
Later poets relate that his defeat by Ulysses 



threw him into an awful state of madness ; 
that he rushed from his tent and slaughtered 
the sheep of the Greek army, fancying they 
were his enemies ; and that at length he put 
an end to his own life. From his blood there 
sprang up a purple flower bearing the letters 
Ai (A/) on its leaves, which were at once the 
initials of his name and expressive of a sigh. 
Homer does not mention his mistress 
Tecmessa. — (2) Son of Oileus, king of the 
Locrians, also called the lesser Ajax, sailed 
against Troy in 40 ships. He is described as 
small of stature, but skilled in throwing the 
spear, and, next to Achilles, the most swift- 
footed among the Greeks. On his return 
from Troy his vessel was wrecked ; he himself 
got safe upon a rock through the assistance of 
Poseidon (Neptune) ; but as he boasted that 
he would escape in defiance of the immortals, 
Poseidon split the rock with his trident, and 
Ajax was swallowed up by the sea. This is 
the account of Homer. Virgil tells us that 
the anger of Athena (Minerva) was excited 
against him, because, on the night of the 
capture of Troy, he violated Cassandra in the 
temple of the goddess. 

ALABAXDA (-orum), an inland town 
of Caria, near the Marsyas, to the S. of the 
Maeander, situated between two hills. It 
was a prosperous place, but one of the most 
corrupt and luxurious towns in Asia Minor. 

ALALCOMENAE (-arum), an ancient 
town of Boeotia, E. of Coronea, with a temple 
of Athena (Minerva), who is said to have been 
born in the town, and who was hence called 
Alalcojneneis. 

ALALIA. [Aleria.] 

ALAjST (-orum), a great Asiatic people, 
included under the general name of Scythians. 
They are first found about the E. part of the 
Caucasus, in the country called Albania, which 
appears to be only another form of the same 
name. At a later time they pressed into 
Europe, as far as the banks of the Lower 
Danube, where, towards the end of the 5th 
century, they were routed by the Huns, who 
then compelled them to become their allies. 
In a.d. 406, some of the Alani took part with 
the Vandals in their irruption into Gaul and 
Spain, where they gradually disappear from 
history. 

ALARICUS, (-i) in German Al-ric, i. e. 
4 £ All-rich," king of the Visigoths, who took 
and plundered Rome, 24th of August, a.d. 
410. He died shortly afterwards at Consentia 
in Bruttium. 

ALBA (-ae) SILVIUS (-i), one of the 
mythical kings of Alba, son of Latinus, 
reigned 39 years. 

ALBA (-ae). (1) Fctentia or Fucexti?, 
a town of the Marsi, and subsequently a 



ALBANIA. 



22 



ALCAEUS. 



Roman colony, situated on a lofty rock near 
the lake Fucinus, and used by the Romans 
as a state prison. — (2) Loxga, the most 
ancient town in Latium, is said to hare been 
built by Ascanius, and to hare founded 
Rome. It was called Longa, from its stretch- 
ing in a long line down the Alban Mount 
towards the Alban Lake. It was destroyed 
by Tullus Hostilius, and was never rebuilt ; 
its inhabitants were removed to Rome. At 
a later time the surrounding country was 
studded with the splendid villas of the Roman 
aristocracy and emperors (Pompey's, Domi- 
tian's, &c), each of which was called .Aloanum. 
— (3) Pompeia, a town in Liguria, colonised 
by Ponipeius Magnus, the birthplace of the 
emperor Pertinax. 

ALBANIA (-ae : intheS.E. part of Georgia), 
a country of Asia on the W. side of the Caspian, 
extending from the rivers' Cyrus and Araxes 
on the S. to M. Ceraiinius (the E. part of the 
Caucasus) on the N., and bounded on the W. 
by Iberia. It was a fertile plain, abounding 
in pasture and vineyards ; but the inhabitants 
were fierce and warlike. They were a 
Scythian tribe, identical with the Axaxi. 
The Romans first became acquainted with 
them at the time of the Mithridatic war, when 
they encountered Pompey with a large armv. 

ALBANLM. [Alba, No. 2.] 

ALBANUS (-i) LACLS, a small lake 
about 5 miles in circumference, W. of the 
Mons Albanus between Bovillae and Alba 
Longa, is the crater of an extinct volcano, 
and is many hundred feet deep. The emis- 
sarium which the Romans bored through the 
solid rock during the siege of Yeii, in order 
to carry off the superfluous water of the lake, 
is extant at the present day. 

ALBANUS MONS, was, in its narrower 
signification, the mountain in Latium on 
whose declivity the town of Alba Longa was 
situated. It was the sacred mountain of the 
Latins, on which the religious festivals of the 
Latin League were celebrated (FeriaeLatinae , 
and on its highest summit was the temple of 
Jupiter Latiaris, to which the Roman generals 
ascended in triumph, when this honour was 
denied them in Rome. The Mons Albanus 
in its wider signification included the Mons 
Algidus and the mountains about Tusculum. 

ALBICI (-orivm), a warlike Gallic people 
inhabiting the mountains north of Massilia. 

ALBINOYANUS (-i), C. PKDO (-onis), 
a friend of Ovid, who addresses to him one of 
his Epistles from Pontus. 

ALB IN US or ALBUS (-i), POSTUMIUS 
(-i), the name of a patrician family at Rome, 
many of the members of which held the highest 
offices of the state from the commencement of 
the republic to its downfal. The founder of 



the family was dictator b.c. 498, when he 
conquered the Latins in the great battle near 
lake Regillus. 

ALBINUS (-i), CLODIUS (-i), was governor 
I of Britain at the death of Commodus in 
j a. d. 192. In order to secure his neutrality, 
I Septimius Severus made him Caesar ; but 
j after Severus had defeated his rivals, he 
j turned his arms against Albums. A great 
j battle was fought between them at Lugdunum 
I (Lyons), in Gaul, 197, in which Albinus was 
defeated and killed. 

ALBION (-onis), another name of Bei- 
j taxxia, the white land, from its white cliffs 
j opposite the coast of Gaul. 

ALBIS (-is : Elbe), one of the great rivers in 
| Germany, the most easterly which the Romans 
| became acquainted with. The Romans 
| reached the Elbe for the first time in b. c. 9 
under Drusus. The last Roman general who 
j saw the Elbe was Tiberius in a. d. 5. 
I ALBIUM INGAUNUM or ALBINGAUNUM 
I (-i), a town of the Ingauni on the coast 
of Liguria, and a municipium. 

ALBIUM INTEMELIUM or ALBINTE- 
MELIUM (-i), a town of the Intemelii on 
the coast of Liguria, and a municiphun. 

ALBULA (-ae), an ancient name of the 
river Tiber. 

ALBULAE AQUAE 1 [Albuxea.) 
ALBUNEA or ALBUNA (-ae), a prophetic 
nymph or Sybil, to whom a grove was con- 
secrated in the neighbourhood of Tibur, with a 
fountain and a temple. This fountain was 
the largest of the Albulae aquae, sulphureous 
springs at Tibur, flowing into the Anio. The 
temple is still extant at Tivoli. 

ALBURNUS (-i) MONS, a mountain in 
Lucania, covered with wood, behind Paestum. 

ALCAEUS (-i), of Mytilene in Lesbos, the 
earliest of the Aeolian lyric poets, began to 
flourish about b. c. 611. In the war between 
the Athenians and Mytilenaeansfor the posses- 
sion of Sigeum (b. c. 606) he incurred the 
disgrace of leaving his arms on the field of 
battle. Alcaeus belonged by birth to the 
nobles, and was driven into exile with his 
brother Antimenidas, when the popular party 
got the upper hand. He attempted by force 
of arms to regain his country ; but all his 
attempts were frustrated by PrrTACirs, who 
had been chosen by the people Aesymnetes or 
dictator for the purpose of resisting him and 
the other exiles. Alcaeus and his brother 
afterwards travelled into various countries : 
the time of his death is uncertain. The 
extant fragments of his poems, and the ex- 
cellent imitations of Horace, enable us to 
understand something of their character. 
Those which have received the highest praise 
are his warlike odes, in which he tried to 



ALCATHOUS. 



23 



ALGMAEON. 



rouse the spirits of the nobles, the Alcaei 
minaces Camenae of Horace. Alcaeus is said 
to have invented the well-known Alcaic metre. 

ALCATHOUS (-i), son of Pelops and Hippo- 
damla, obtained as his wife Evaechme, the 
daughter of Megareus, by slaying the Cithae- 
ronian lion, and succeeded his father-in-law 
as king of Megara. He restored the walls of 
Megara, which is therefore sometimes called 
Alcathoe by the poets. In this work he was 
assisted by Apollo. The stone upon which 
the god used to place his lyre while he was 
at work, was believed, even in late times, to 
give forth a sound, when struck, similar to 
that of a lyre. 

ALCESTIS (-is) or ALCESTE (-es), wife of 
Admetus.^ [Ajdmetus.] 

ALCIBIADES (-is), son of Cllnias and Dino- 
mache, was born at Athens about b. c. 450, 
and on the death of his father in 447, was 
brought up by his relation Pericles. He 
possessed a beautiful person, transcendant 
abilities, and great wealth. His youth was 
disgraced by his amours and debaucheries, 
and Socrates, who saw his vast capabilities, 
attempted to win him to the paths of virtue, 
but in vain. Their intimacy was strength- 
ened by mutual services. At the battle of 
Potidaea (432) his life was saved by Socrates, 
and at that of Delium (424) he saved the life of 
Socrates. After the death of Cleon (422) he 
became one of the leading politicians, and the 
head of the war party in opposition to Jsicias. 
In 415 he was appointed, along with Xicias and 
Lamachus, as commander of the expedition 
to Sicily. While the preparations for the 
expedition were going on, there occurred the 
mysterious mutilation of the busts of the 
Hermae, which the popular fears connected 
with an attempt to overthrow the Athenian 
constitution. Alcibiades was charged with 
being the ringleader in this attempt. He 
demanded an investigation before he set sail, 
but this his enemies would not grant ; but he 
had not been long in Sicily, before he was 
recalled to stand his trial. On his return 
homewards, he managed to escape at Thurii, 
and thence proceeded to Sparta, where he 
acted as the avowed enemy of his country. 
The machinations of his enemy Agis II. induced 
him to abandon the Spartans and take refuge 
with Tissaphernes (412), whose favour he soon 
gained. Through his influence Tissaphernes 
deserted the Spartans and professed his 
willingness to assist the Athenians, who 
accordingly recalled Alcibiades from banish- 
ment in 411. He did not immediately return 
to Athens, but remained abroad for the next 
4 years, during which the Athenians under 
his command gained the victories of Cynos- 
sema, Abydos, and Cyzicus, and got possses- 



sion of Chalcedon and Byzantium. In 407 
he returned to Athens, where he was received 
with great enthusiasm, and was appointed 
commander-in-chief of all the land and sea 
forces. But the defeat at Notium, occasioned 
during his absence by the imprudence of his 
lieutenant, Antiochus, furnished his enemies 
with a handle against him, and he was super- 
seded in his command (406). He now went 
into voluntary exile to his fortified domain at 
Bisanthe in the Thracian Chersonesus. After 
the fall of Athens (404), he took refuge with 
Pharnabazus. He was about to proceed to 
the court of Artaxerxes, when one night his 
house was surrounded by a band of armed 
men, and set on fire. He rushed out sword 
in hand, but fell pierced with arrows (404). 
The assassins were probably either employed 
by the Spartans, or by the brothers of a lady 
whom Alcibiades had seduced. He left a son 
by his wife Hipparete named Alcibiades, who 
never distinguished himself. 

ALCIDES (-ae), a name of Hercules, as 
the grandson of Alceus or Alcaeus. 

ALCIMEDE (es), daughter of Phylacus 
and Ciymene, wife of Aeson, and mother of 
Jason. 

ALCIXOUS (-i), son of Nausithous, and 
grandson of Poseidon (Xeptune), is celebrated 
in the Odyssey, as the happy ruler of the 
Phaeacians in the island of Scheria. 

ALCIPHRON (-onis), the most distin- 
guished of the Greek epistolary writers, was 
perhaps a contemporary of Lucian, about a.d. 
180. The letters (113 in number) are written 
by fictitious personages,' and the language is 
distinsruished bv its purity and elegance. 

ALCITHOE (-es) or ALCATHOE (-es), 
daughter of Minyas, changed, together with 
her sisters, into bats, for refusing to join the 
other women of Boeotia in the worship of 
Dionysus (Bacchus). 

ALCMAEON (-onis), son of Amphiaraus 
and Eriphyle, and brother of Amphilochus. 
Alcmaeon took part in the expedition of the 
Epigoni against Thebes, and on his return home 
he slew his mother according to the injunction 
of his father. [Amphiarais.] Eor this 
deed he became mad, and was haunted by 
the Erinnyes. He went to Phegeus in 
Psophis, and being purified by the latter, he 
married his daughter Arsino or Alphesiboea, 
to whom he gave the necklace and peplus of 
Harmonia. But as the land of this country 
ceased to bear on account of its harbouring a 
matricide, he left Psophis and repaired to the 
country at the mouth of the river Achelous. 
The god Achelous gave him his daughter 
Callirrhoe in marriage. Callirrhoe wish- 
ing to possess the necklace and peplus of 
Harmonia, Alcmaeon went to Psophis and 



ALCMAEOXIDAE. 



24 



ALEXANDER. 



obtained them from. Phegeus, under the 
pretext of dedicating 1 them at Delphi ; hut 
when Phegeus heard that the treasures were 
fetched for Callirrhoe, he caused his sons to 
murder Alcmaeon. 

ALCMAEOXIDAE (-arum), a noble family 
at Athens, were a branch of the family of 
the Xelidae, who were driven out of Pylus in 
Messenia by the Dorians, and settled at 
Athens. In consequence of the way in which 
Megacles, one of the family, treated the 
insurgents under Cylon (b.c. 612), they 
brought upon themselves the guilt of sacri- 
lege, and were in consequence banished from 
Athens, about 595, About 560 they returned 
from exile, but were again expelled by Pisis- 
tratus. In 548 they contracted with the 
Amphictyonic council to rebuild the temple 
of Delphi, and obtained great popularity 
throughout Greece by executing the work in 
a style of magnificence which much exceeded 
their engagement. On the expulsion of 
Hippias in 510, they were again restored to 
Athens. They now joined the popular party, 
and Ciisthenes, who was at that time the 
head of the family, gave a new constitution 
to Athens. [Clisthenes.] 

ALCMAX (-anis), the chief lyric poet of 
Sparta, by birth a Lydian of Sardis, was 
brought to Laconia as a slave, when very 
young, and was emancipated by his master, 
who discovered his genius. He probably 
flourished about b.c. 631. He is said to have 
died, like Sulla, of the morbus pedicularis. 
Alcman is said by some to have been the 
inventor of erotic poetry. 

ALCMENE (-es) or ALCMENA (-ae), daugh- 
ter of Electryon, king of Mycenae, promised 
to marry Amphitryon, provided he avenged 
the death of her brothers, who had been slain 
by the sons of Pterelaus. Amphitryon under- 
took the task ; but during his absence, Zeus 
(Jupiter), in the disguise of Amphitryon, 
visited Alcmene, and pretending to be her 
husband, related in what way he had avenged 
the death of her brothers. Amphitryon 
himself returned the next day : Alcmene 
became the mother of Hercules by Zeus, and 
of Iphicles by Amphitryon. [Hercules.] 

ALCYOXE or HALCYOXE (-es). (1) A 
Pleiad, daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and 
beloved by Poseidon (Xeptune). — (2) Daughter 
of Aeolus and Enarete, and wife of Ceyx. 
Her husband having perished in a shipwreck, 
Alcyone for grief threw herself into the sea, 
but the gods, out of compassion, changed the 
two into birds. While the bird alcyon was 
breeding, there always prevailed calms at sea. 

ALCYOXIUM MARE, the E. part of the 
Corinthian gulf. 

ALEA (-ae), a town in Arcadia, S. of the | 



Stymphalean lake. Athena (Minerva) was 
worshipped under the name of Alea in this 
place and in Tegea. 

ALECTO (-us ; acc. o), one of the Furies. 

[ElTMENIDES.] 

ALEMAXXI or ALAMAXXI or ALAMAXI 
(-orum) (from the German alle Marnier, all 
men), a confederacy of German tribes, be- 
tween the Danube, the Rhine, and the Main. 
They first came into contact with the Romans 
in the reign of Caracalla, who assumed the 
surname of Alemannicus on account of a 
pretended victory Over them (a.d. 214). 
After this time they continually invaded the 
Roman dominions, and in the fifth century 
were in possession of Alsace and of German 
Switzerland. 

ALERIA or ALALIA (-ae), one of the chief 
cities of Corsica, on the E. of the island, 
founded by the Phocaeans b.c. 564, and made 
a Roman colony by Sulla. 

ALES A (-ae). '[Halesa.] 

ALESIA (-ae), an ancient town of the 
Mandubii in Gallia Lugdunensis, and situated 
on a high hill (now Auxois)), which was 
washed by the two rivers Lutosa (Oze) and 
Osera ( Ozerain) . It was taken and destroyed 
by Caesar, in b.c 52, after a memorable 
siege. 

ALETRIUM or ALATRIUM, an ancient 
town of the Hernici, subsequently a muni- 
cipium and a Roman colony, W. of Sora and 
E. of Anagnia. 

ALEUADAE (-arum). [Alexias.] 
ALEXIAS (-ae),a descendant of Hercules, 
was the ruler of Larissa in Thessaly, and the 
reputed founder of the celebrated family of 
the Aleuadae. They were divided into two 
branches, the Aleuadae and the Scopadae, of 
whom the latter inhabited Crannon, while the 
former remained at Larissa. In the invasion 
of Greece by Xerxes (b.c. 480), the Aleuadae 
espoused the cause of the Persians, and the 
family continued to be the predominant one 
in Thessaly for a long time afterwards. 

ALEXAXDER (-dri), the usual name of 
Paris in the Iliad. 

ALEXAXDER SEYERUS. [Sevebxjs.] 
ALEXAXDER. I. Kings of Epirus. — 
(1) Son of Neoptolemus and brother of 
Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great, 
was made king of Epirus by Philip, b.c 336. 
In 332, Alexander crossed over into Italy, to 
aid the Tarentines against the Lucanians and 
Bruttii. He was defeated and slain in battle 
in 326, near Pandosia, on the banks of the 
Acheron in Southern Italy. — (2) Son of 
Pyrrhus and Lanassa, succeeded his father in 
272. 

II. Kings of Macedonia. — •(!) Son of Amyn- 
tas I., succeeded his father about b.c 505, was 



ALEXANDER. 



25 



ALEXANDER. 



obliged to submit to the Persians, and accom- 
panied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece (b.c. 
480) . He was secretly inclined to the cause of 
the Greeks. He died about 455, and was suc- 
ceeded by Perdiccas II. — (2) Son of Amyn- 
tas II., whom he succeeded, reigned 369 — 
367. He was murdered by Ptolemy Alorites. 
— (3) Surnamed the Great, son of Philip II. 
and Olympias, was born at Pella, b.c. 356. 
He was educated by Aristotle, who acquired a 
great influence over his mind and character. 
He first distinguished himself at the battle 
of Chaeronea (338), where the victory was 
mainly owing to his impetuosity and courage. 
On the murder of Philip (336), he ascended 
the throne, at the age of 20, and found him- 
self surrounded by enemies on every side. 
He first put down rebellion in his own king- 
dom, and then rapidly marched into Greece. 
His unexpected activity overawed all oppo- 
sition ; Thebes, which had been most active 
against him, submitted when he appeared at 
its gates ; and the assembled Greeks at the 
Isthmus of Corinth elected him to the com- 
mand against Persia. He now directed his 
arms against the barbarians of the north, and 
crossed the Danube (335). A report of his 
death having reached Greece, the Thebans 
once more took up arms. But a terrible 
punishment awaited them. He took Thebes 
by assault, destroyed all the buildings, with 
the exception of the house of Pindar, killed 
most of the inhabitants, and sold the rest as 
slaves. Alexander now prepared for his great 
expedition against Persia. In the spring of 
334, he crossed the Hellespont, with about 
35,000 men. Of these 30,000 were foot and 
5000 horse ; and of the former only 12,000 
were Macedonians. Alexander's first engage- 
ment with the Persians was on the river 
Granlcus in Mysia (May, 334), where they 
were entirely defeated by him. In the 
following year (333) he collected his army 
at Gordium in Phrygia, where he cut or 
untied the celebrated Gordian knot, which, 
it was said, was to be loosened only by the 
conqueror of Asia. From thence he marched 
to Issus, on the confines of Syria, where he 
gained a great victory over Darius, the Persian 
king. Darius himself escaped ; but his 
mother, wife, and children, fell into the hands 
of Alexander, who treated them with the 
utmost delicacy and respect. Alexander 
now directed his arms against the cities of 
Phoenicia, most of which submitted ; but 
Tyre was not taken till the middle of 332, 
after an obstinate defence of 7 months. He 
next marched into Egypt, which willingly 
submitted to him. At the beginning of 3 3 1 , he 
founded at the mouth of the Nile the city of 
Alexandria, and about the same time visited 



the temple of Jupiter Ammon, in the desert 
of Libya, and was saluted by the priests as 
the son of Jupiter Ammon. In the spring of 
the same year (331), he set out against Darius, 
who had collected another army. He crossed 
the Euphrates and the Tigris, and at length 
met with the immense hosts of Darius, said 
to have amounted to more than a million of 
men, in the plains of Gaugamela. The battle 
was fought in the month of October, 331, and 
ended in the complete defeat of the Persians. 
Alexander was now the conqueror of Asia, 
and began to adopt Persian habits and cus- 
toms, by which he conciliated the affections 
of his new subjects. From Arbela he marched 
to Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis, all of which 
surrendered to him. He is said to have set 
fire to the palace of Persepolis, and, according 
to some accounts, in the revelry of a banquet, 
at the instigation of Thais, an Athenian 
courtesan. At the beginning of 330, Alex- 
ander marched from Persepolis into Media, 
in pursuit of Darius, whom he followed into 
Parthia, where the unfortunate king was 
murdered by Bessus, satrap of Bactria. In 
329 Alexander crossed the mountains of the 
Paropamisus (thellindooKoosJi), and marched 
into Bactria against Bessus, who was betrayed 
to him, and was put to death. During the 
next 2 years he was chiefly engaged in the 
conquest of Sogdiana. He also crossed the 
Jaxartes (the Sir), and defeated several 
Scythian tribes N. of that river. On the 
conquest of a mountain fortress he obtained 
possession of Roxana, the daughter of the 
Bactrian chief Oxyartes, whom he made his 
wife. It was about this time that he killed 
his friend CLiTrs in a drunken brawl. He 
had previously put to death his faithful 
servant Parmexton, on the charge of treason. 
In 327 he invaded India, and crossed the 
Indus, probably near the modern Attock. He 
met with.no resistance till he reached the 
Hydaspes, where he was opposed by Porus, 
an Indian king, whom he defeated after a 
gallant resistance, and took prisoner. Alex- 
ander restored to him his kingdom, and treated 
him with distinguished honour. He founded 
a town on the Hydaspes, called Bucephala, 
in honour of his horse Bucephalus, who died 
here, after carrying him through so many 
victories. From thence he penetrated as far 
as the Hyphasis (Garret). This was the 
furthest point which he reached, for the 
Macedonians, worn out by long service, and 
tired of the war, refused to advance further ; 
and Alexander, notwithstanding his entreaties 
and prayers, was obliged to lead them back. 
He returned to the Hydaspes, and then sailed 
down the river with a portion of his troops, 
while the remainder marched along the banks 



ALEXANDER. 



26 



ALGIDUS. 



in two divisions. He finally reached the 
Indian ocean about the middle of 326. 
Nearchus was sent with the fleet to sail along 
the coast to the Persian gulf [Nearchus] ; 
and Alexander marched with the rest of his 
forces through Gedrosia, in which country 
his army suffered greatly from want of water 
and provisions. He reached Susa at the 
beginning of 325. Here he allowed himself 
and his troops some rest from their labours ; 
and anxious to form his European and Asiatic 
subjects into one people, he assigned Asiatic 
wives to about 80 of his generals. He himself 
took a second wife, Barsine, the eldest 
daughter of Darius. Towards the close of 
the year 325, he went to Ecbatana, where he 
lost his great favourite Hephaestion. From 
Ecbatana he marched to Babylon, which he 
intended to make the capital of his empire, 
as the best point of communication between 
his eastern and western dominions. His 
schemes were numerous and gigantic ; but 
he was cut off in the midst of them. He was 
attacked by a fever, which was probably 
aggravated by the quantity of wine he had 
drunk at a banquet given to his principal 
officers, and he died after an illness of i 1 days, 
in the month of May or June, b.c. 323, at the 
age of 32, after a reign of 12 years and 8 
months. He appointed no one as his suc- 
cessor, but just before his death he gave his 
ring to Perdiccas. Boxana was with child at 
the time of his death, and afterwards bore a 
son who is known by the name of Alexander 
Aegus. — (4) Aegtts, son of Alexander the 
Great and Boxana, was born shortly after the 
death of his father, in b.c. 323, and was 
acknowledged as the partner of Philip Arrhi- 
daeus in the empire, under the guardianship 
of Perdiccas, Antipater, and Polysperchon, 
in succession. Alexander and his mother 
Boxana were imprisoned by Cassander, when 
he obtained possession of Macedonia in 316, 
and remained in prison till 311, when they 
were put to death by Cassander. 

III. Kings of Syria. — (1) Surnamed Balas, 
a person of low origin, pretended to be the 
son of Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, and reigned 
in Syria b. c. 150 — 146. He was defeated and 
dethroned by Demetrius II. Nicator. — (2) 
Surnamed Zebixa or Zabinas, son of a 
merchant, was set up by Ptolemy Physcon as 
a pretender to the throne of Syria, b.c. 128. 
He was defeated by Antiochus Grypus, by 
whom he was put to death, 122. 

IV. Literary. — (1) Of Aegae, a peripatetic 
philosopher at Borne in the first century after 
Christ, was tutor to the emperor Nero. — (2) 
The Aetolian*, of Pleuron in Aetolia, a Greek 
poet, lived in the reign of Ptolemaeus Phila- 
delphus (b.c 285 — 247), at Alexandria, where 



he was reckoned one of the 7 tragic poets who 
constituted the tragic pleiad. — (3) Of Aphro- 
disias, in Caria, the most celebrated of the 
commentators on Aristotle, lived about 
a.d. 200. Some of his works were edited 
and translated into Latin at the revival of 
literature. 

ALEXANDBIA, oftener IA, rarely E A (-ae), 
the name of several cities founded by, or 
in memory of, Alexander the Great. Of 
these the most important are: — (1) The 
capital of Egypt under the Ptolemies, ordered 
by Alexander to be founded in b.c 332. It 
was built on the narrow neck of land between 
the Lake Mareotis and the Mediterranean, 
opposite to the I. of Pharos, which was joined 
to the city by an artificial dyke. On this 
island a great lighthouse was built in the 
reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (283). Under 
the care of the Ptolemies, as the capital of a 
great kingdom, and commanding by its posi- 
tion all the commerce of Europe with the 
East, Alexandria soon became the most 
wealthy and splendid city of the known world. 
It was celebrated for its magnificent library, 
founded by the first two Ptolemies. The 
library suffered severely by fire when Julius 
Caesar was besieged in Alexandria, and was 
finally destroyed by Amrou, the lieutenant of 
the Caliph Omar, in a.d. 651. Under the 
Bomans, Alexandria retained its commercial 
and literary importance, and became also a 
chief seat of Christianity and theological 
learning. Its site is now covered by a mass 
of ruins, among which are the two obelisks 
(vulg. Cleopatra's Needles) , which adorned 
the gateway of the royal palace, and, outside 
the walls, to the S., the column of Diocletian 
(vulg. Pompey's Pillar). The modern city 
stands on the dyke uniting the island of 
Pharos to the mainland. — (2) A. Troas, also 
Troas simply, on the sea-coast S.W. of 
Troy, was enlarged by Antigonus, hence 
called Antigonla, but afterwards it resumed its 
first name. It flourished greatly, both under 
the Greeks and the Bomans ; and both Julius 
Caesar and Constantine thought of establish- 
ing the seat of empire in it. — (3) A. Ad 
Issum, a sea-port at the entrance of Syria, a 
little S. of Issus. — (4) In Susiana, aft, Anti- 
ochia, aft. Charax Spasini, at the mouth of 
the Tigris, built by Alexander ; destroyed by 
a flood ; restored by Antiochus Epiphanes : 
birthplace of Dionysius Periegetes and 
Isidorus Characenus. 

ALFENUS VABUS (-i), a celebrated Boman 
jurist, who was originally a shoemaker or a 
barber. He is mentioned by Horace. 

ALGIDUS MONS, a range of mountains in 
Latium, extending S. from Praeneste to M. 
Albanus, cold, but covered with wood, and 



ALIENUS. 



27 



ALPES. 



containing good pasturage. On it was situated 
the town of Algidum. It was an ancient 
seat of the worship of Diana. From it the 
Aequi usually made their incursions into the 
Romanterritory. 

ALIENUS CAECINA. [Caecina.] 
ALIMENTUS, L. CINCIUS (4), a celebrated 
Roman annalist, antiquary, and jurist ; was 
praetor in Sicily, b.c. 209, and wrote several 
works, of which the best known was his 
Annales, which contained an account of the 
second Punic war. 

ALIPHERA (-ae), a fortified town in Ar- 
cadia, situated on a mountain on the borders 
of Elis, S. of the Alpheus. 

ALISO (-5nis : Elsen), a strong fortress 
built by Drusus, b.c. 11, at the confluence 
of the Luppia (Lippe) and the Eliso (Alme). 

ALLIA (-ae), or more correctly ALIA, a 
small river flowing into the Tiber about 6 miles 
from Rome. It is memorable by the defeat 
of the Eomans by the Gauls on its banks, 
July 16th, b.c 390. Hence the dies Alliensis 
was anjmlucky day in the Koman calendar. 

ALLIEAE or ALIFAE (-arum), a town of 
Samnium, on the Vulturnus, celebrated for 
the manufacture of its large drinking-cups 
(Allifana pocula) . 

ALLOBROGES (-urn), a powerful people of 
Gaul dwelling between the Rhodanus (Rhone) 
and the Isara (Isere), as far as the L. Lemannus 
(Lake of Geneva), consequently in the modern 
Dauphine and Savoy. Their chief town was 
Vienna on the Rhone. They were conquered, 
in b.c. 121, by Q. Fabius Maximus Allobro- 
gicus, and made subjects of Rome, but they 
bore the yoke unwillingly, and were always 
disposed to rebellion. 

ALMO (-onis), a small river, rising near 
Bovillae, and flowing into the Tiber S. of 
Rome, in which the statues of Cybele were 
washed annually. 

ALMOPES (-urn), a people in Macedonia, 
inhabiting the district Almopia between 
Eordaea and Pelagonia. 

ALOEUS (-eos, el or el ; dat. eo or e5 ; 
acc. ea), son of Poseidon (Neptune) and 
Canace, married Iphimedla, the daughter of 
Triops. His wife was beloved by Poseidon, 
by whom she had two sons, Otus and Ephi- 
altes, who are usually called the Aloidae, from 
their reputed father Aloeus. They were 
renowned for their extraordinary strength 
and daring spirit. When they were 9 years 
old, each of their bodies measured 9 cubits in 
breadth, and 27 in height. At this early 
age, they threatened the Olympian gods with 
war, and attempted to pile Ossa upon Olym- 
pus, and Pelion upon Ossa. They would have 
accomplished their object, says Homer, had 
they been allowed to grow up to the age of 



manhood ; but Apollo destroyed them before 
their beards began to appear. They also put 
the god Ares in chains, and kept him impri- 
soned for 13 months. 

ALOIDAE (-arum). [Aloeus.] 

ALOPE (-es), a town in the Opuntian Locris, 
opposite Euboea. 

ALOPECONNESUS(-i),atown in theThra- 
cian Chersonesus, founded by the Aeolians. 

ALPENUS (-i), a town of the Epicnemidii 
Locri at the entrance of the pass of Ther- 
mopylae. 

ALPES (-ium : probably from the Celtic Alb 
or Alp, " a height "), the mountains forming 
the boundary of northern Italy, which were 
distinguished by the following names. AVe 
enumerate them in order from W. to E. 
1. Alpes Mabitimae, the Maritime or Ligu- 
rian Alps, from Genua (Genoa), where the 
Apennines begin, run W. as far as the river 
Varus (Yar), and then N. to M. Vesulus 
(Monte Yiso), one of the highest points of the 
Alps. — 2. Alpes Cottiae or Cottiaxae, the 
Cottian Alps (so called from a king Cottius in 
the time of Augustus) , from Monte Viso to 
Mont Cenis, contained M. Matrona, after- 
wards called M. Janus or Janua {Mont 
Genevre), across which Cottius constructed a 
road, which became the chief means of com- 
munication between Italy and Gaul. — 3. 
Alpes Gbaiae, also Salttts Graixs (the name 
is probably Celtic, and has nothing to do 
with Greece), the Graian Alps, from Mont 
Cenis to the Little St. Bernard inclusive, con- 
tained the Jugum Cremonis (le Cramont) and 
the Centronicae Alpes, apparently the Little 
St. Bernard and the surrounding mountains. 
The Little St. Bernard, which is sometimes 
called Alpis Graia, is probably the pass by 
which Hannibal crossed the Alps ; the road 
over it, which was improved by Augustus, led 
to Augusta (Aosta) in the territory of the 
SalassL — 4. Alpes Pexxixae, the Pennine 
Alps, from . the Great St. Bernard to the 
Simplon inclusive, the highest portion of the 
chain, including Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, 
and Mont Cervin. The Great St. Bernard was 
called M. Pennlnus, and on its summit the 
inhabitants worshipped a deity, whom the 
Romans called Jupiter Penninus. The name 
is probably derived from the Celtic pen, " a 
height." — 5. Alpes Lepoxtiorv^i or Lepox- 
tiae, the Lcpontian or Helvetian Alps, from 
the Simplon to the St. Gothard. — 6. Alpes 
Rhaeticae, the JRhactian Alps, from the 
St. Gothard to the Orteler by the pass of the 
Stelvio. M. Adula is usually supposed to be 
the St. Gothard. — 7. Alpes TridextIxae, the 
mountains of southern Tyrol, in which the 
Athesis (Adige) rises, with the pass of the 
Brenner. — 8. Alpes Nobicae, the Xoric Alps, 



ALPHESIBOEA. 



2S 



AMASTRIS. 



N.E. of the Tridentine Alps, comprising the 
mountains in the neighbourhood of Salzburg. 
— 9. Alpes Carnicae, the Carnic Alps,\E. of 
the Tridentine, and S. of the Noric, to Mount 
Terglu. — 10. Alpes Juliae, the Julian Alps, 
from Mount Terglu to the commencement of 
the Illyrian or Dalmatian mountains, which 
are known by the name of the Alpes Dalma- 
ticae, further north by the name of the Alpes 
Pannonicae. The Alpes Juliae were so called 
because Julius Caesar or Augustus constructed 
roads across them : they are also called Alpes 
Yenetae. 

ALPHESIBOEA (-ae), daughter of Phegeus, 
and wife of Alcmaeon. Eor details see 
Alcmaeon. 

ALPHEUS (-i), the chief river of Pelopon- 
nesus, rising in the S.E. of Arcadia, flowing 
through Arcadia and Elis, not far from Olym- 
pia, and falling into the Ionian sea. In some 
parts of its course the river flows under ground ; 
and this subterranean descent gave rise to 
the story about the river-god Alpheus and 
the nymph Arethusa. The latter, pursued 
by Alpheus, was changed by Artemis into the 
fountain of Arethusa in the island of Ortygia 
at Syracuse, but the god continued to pursue 
her under the sea, and attempted to mingle 
his stream with the fountain in Ortygia. 

ALPINUS (-i), a name which Horace gives 
in ridicule to a bombastic poet. He probably 
means Bibacultjs. 

ALSIUM (4), one of the most ancient 
Etruscan towns on the coast near Caere, and 
a Roman colony after the 1st Punic war. 

ALTHAEA (-ae), daughter of Thestius, 
wife of Oeneus, and mother of Meleagee, 
upon whose death she killed herself. 

ALTINUM (4), a wealthy town of the 
Yeneti in the N. of Italy, at the mouth of the 
river Silis, and the chief emporium for all 
the goods which were sent from southern 
Italy to the countries of the north. 

ALTIS. [Olympia.] 

ALUNTIUM or HALUNTIUM (4), a town 
on the N. coast of Sicily on a steep hill, cele- 
brated for its wine. 

ALUS or HALUS, a town in Phthiotis in 
Thessaly, at_the extremity of M. Othrys. 

ALYATTES (-is), king of Lydia, b.c. 617— 
560, succeeded his father Sadyattes, and was 
himself succeeded by his son Croesus. The 
tomb of Alyattes, N. of Sarclis, near the lake 
Gygaea, which consisted of a large mound 
of earth, raised upon a foundation of great 
stones, still exists. It is nearly a mile in 
circumference. 

ALYZIA or ALYZEA (-ae), a town in Acar- 
nania near the sea opposite Leucas, with a 
harbour and a temple both sacred to Hercules. 

AMALTHEA (-ae), the nime of the infant 



Zeus (Jupiter) in Crete, was according to 
some traditions the goat which suckled Zeus, 
and was rewarded by being placed among 
the stars. According to others, Amalthea 
was a nymph, who fed Zeus with the milk of 
a goat. When this goat broke off one of her 
horns, Amalthea filled it with fresh herbs 
and gave it to Zeus, who placed it among the 
stars. According to other accounts Zeus 
himself broke off one of the horns of the goat, 
and endowed it with the wonderful power of 
becoming filled with whatever the possessor 
might wish. Hence this horn was commonly 
called the horn of plenty or cornucopia : and 
it was used in later times as the symbol of 
plenty in general. 

AMALTHEUM (4) or AMALTHEA (-ae), a 
villa of Atticus in Epirus, perhaps originally 
a shrine of the nymph Amalthea, which 
Atticus converted into a beautiful summer 
retreat. Cicero, in imitation, constructed a 
similar retreat on his estate at Arpinum. 

AMANTIA (ae), a Greek town and district 
in Illyricum, at some distance from the coast, 
E. of Oricum. 

AMANTJS (4) , a branch of Mt. Taurus, which 
runs from the head of the Gulf of Issus N. E. 
to the principal chain, dividing Syria from 
Cilicia and Cappadocia. Its inhabitants were 
wild banditti. 

AMARDI or MARDI (-drum), a powerful, 
warlike, and predatory tribe who dwelt on the 
S. shore of the Caspian Sea. 

AMARYNTHUS (4), a town in Euboea 7 
stadia from Eretria, with a celebrated temple 
of Artemis (Diana), who was hence called 
Amjirynthia or Amarysia. 

AMASENUS (4), a small river in Latium, 
which, after being joined by the Ufens, falls 
into the sea between Circeii and Terracina, 
though the greater part of its waters are lost 
in the Pontine marshes. 

AMASIA (-ae) or -EA (-ae), the capital of 
the kings of Pontus, was a strongly fortified 
city on both banks of the river Iris. It was 
the birthplace of Mithridates the Great and 
of the geographer Strabo. 

AMASIS (4s), king of Egypt, b. c. 570— 
526, succeeded Apries, whom he dethroned. 
During his long reign Egypt was in a very 
prosperous condition ; and the Greeks were 
brought into much closer intercourse with 
the Egyptians than had existed previously. 

AMASTRIS (4s). (1) Wife of Xerxes, and 
mother of Artaxerxes I., was of a cruel and 
vindictive character, — (2) Also called Amas- 
TFvixE, niece of Darius, the last king of Persia. 
She married, 1. Craterus ; 2 Dionysius, 
tyrant of Heraclea in Bithynia, b. c. 322 ; 
and 3. Lysimachus, 302. She was drowned 
by her two sons about 288.— (3) A city on 



AM AT A. 



29 



AMISUS. 



the coast of Paphlagonia, biiilt by Amastris 
after her separation from Lyshnachus. 

AMATA (-ae), wife of king Latinus and 
mother of Lavinia, opposed Lavinia being 
given in marriage to Aeneas, because she had 
already promised her to Turnus. TThen she 
heard that Turnus had fallen in battle, she 
hung herself. 

AMATHUS -untis . an ancient town on 
the S. coast of Cyprus, with a celebrated 
temple of Aphrodite (Venus), who was hence 
called Am at h& sia. There were copper-mines 
in the neighbourhood of the town. 

AMAZOXES (.m; and AMAZONEDES 
(-um) a mythical race of warlike females, 
are said to have come from the Caucasus, 
and to have settled in Asia Minor, about 
the river Thermodon, where they founded 
the citv Theniiscvra. Thev were go- 



AMBIYARITI (-orum), a Gallic people, 
W. of the Maas, in the neighbourhood of 
Namur. 

AM BR ACT A (-ae : Arta), a town on the left 
bank of the Arachthus, N. of the Ambracian 
gulf, was originally included in Acarnania, but 
afterwards in Epirus. It was colonised by 
the Corinthians about b. c. 660. Pyrrhus 
made it the capital of his kingdom, and 
adorned it with public buildings and statues. 
At a later time it joined the Aetolian League, 
was taken by the Romans in b. c. 189, and 
stripped of its works of art. Its inhabitants 
were transplanted to the new city of Xicopolis, 
founded by Augustus after the battle of 
Actiuin, b. c. 31. 

AMBRACIUS SIXES [G. of Arta), a gulf 
of the Ionian sea between Epirus and Acar- 
nania, 25 miles long and 10 wide. 







Amazons. (From a Sarcophagus in the Capitol at Rome.) 



verned by a queen, and the female children 
had their right breasts cut off that they 
might use the bow with more ease. They s 
constantly occur in Greek mythology. One 
of the labours imposed upon Hercules, was 
to take from Hippolyte, the queen of the 
Amazons, her girdle. 'Hercxxes.] In the 
reign of Theseus they invaded Attica. Towards 
the end of the Trojan war, they came under 
their queen Penthesilea, to the assistance of 
Priam ; but she was killed by Achilles. 

AMBABEI (-orum; , a people of Gaul, on 
the Arar_(&?o«e) E. of the Aedui. 

AMBIANI (-orum" , a Belgic people, be- 
tween the Bellovaei and Atrebates, conquered 
by Caesar in b.c. 57. Their chief town 
was Samarobrlva, afterwards Ambiani, now 
Amiens. 

AMBIORTX .(-lgis), a chief of the Ebu- 
rones in Gaul, who cut to pieces the Roman 
troops under Sabinus and Cotta, b. c. 54. 

AMBIYARETI (-orum), the clientes or vas- 
sals of the Aedui, probably dwelt X. of the 
latter. 



AMBROXES (-uni), a Celtic people, who 
joined the Cinibri and Teutoni in their inva- 
sion of the Roman dominions, and were de- 
feated by Marius near Aquae Sextiae {Aix) 
in b.c. 102. 

AMBRYSUS or AMPLER YSES (-i), a town 
in Phocis, S. of M. Parnassus. 

AMEXAXES (-i), a river in Sicily near Ca- 
tana, only flowed occasionally, 

AMERLA (-ae", an ancient town in 
Umbria, and a municipium, the birth-place 
of Sex. Roscius defended by Cicero, was 
situate in a distinct rich in vines. 

AMERIOLA (-ae), a town in the land of 
the Sabines, destroyed by the Romans. 

AMESTRATUS (-i), a town in the X. of 
Sicily not far from the coast. 

AMID A (-ae), a city in Sophene (Armenia 
Major"; on the upper Tigris. 

AMILCAR. ;Haaiilcab.] 

AMISIA or AMISIUS (-i: _E»?s}, a river in 
northern Germany well known to the Romans. 

AMISUS (4), a large city on the coast 
of Pontus, on a bav of the Euxine Sea. called 



AMITERNUM. 



SO 



AMPHION. 



after it (Amisenus Sinus). Mithridates en- 
larged it, and made it one of his residences. 

AMITERNUM (-i), one of the most ancient 
towns of the Sabines, on the Aternus, the 
birth-place of the historian Sallust. 

AMMLANUS MARCELLINUS (-i), by birth 
a Greek, and a native of Syrian Antioch, served 
among the imperial body guards. He at- 
tended the emperor Julian in his campaign 
against the Persians (a.d. 363). He wrote 
a history of the Roman empire, of which 
18 books are extant, embracing the period 
from a.d. 353, to the death of Yalens, 378. 
His style is harsh and inflated, but his accu- 
racy, fidelity, and impartiality deserve praise. 

AMMOX (-onis), an Egyptian divinity, 
whom the Greeks identified with Zeus, and 
the Romans with Jupiter. He possessed a 
celebrated temple and oracle in the oasis of 
Ammonium (Siwak) in the Libyan desert, 
which was visited by Alexander the Great. 

AMNISUS (-i), a town in the N. of Crete, 
and the harbour of Cnossus, situated on a 
river of the same name. 

AMOR (-oris), the god of love, had no 
place in the religion of the Romans, who 
only translate the Greek name Eros into Amor. 
[Eros.] 

AaIORGUS (-i), an island in the Grecian 
Archipelago, one of the Sporades, the birth- 
place of Simonides, and under the Roman 
emperors a place of banishment. 

AMPELrSLA. (-ae), the promontory at the 
W. end of the African coast of the Eretum 
Gaditanum (Straits of Gibraltar) . 

AMPHIARAUS (-i), son of Oicles and Hy- 
permnestra, a great prophet and hero at 
Argos. By his wife Eriphyle, the sister of 
Adrastus, he was the father of Alcmaeon, 
Amphiloehus, Eurydice, and Denionassa. He 
joined Adrastus in the expedition against 
Thebes, although he foresaw its fatal termi- 
nation, through the persuasions of his wife 
Eriphyle, who had been induced to persuade 
her husband by the necklace of Harmonia, 
which Polynices had given her. On leaving 
Argos he enjoined his sons to punish their 
mother for his death. During the war against 
Thebes, Amphiaraus fought bravely, but could 
not escape his fate. Pursued by Periclyme- 
nus, he fled towards the river Ismenius, and 
the earth swallowed him up together with his 
chariot, before he was overtaken by his 
enemy. He was made immortal, and was 
worshipped as a hero. His oracle between 
Potniae and Thebes, where he was said to 
have been swallowed up, enjoyed great 
celebrity. His son, Alcmaeon, is called 
Amph i a r aides. 

AMPHICLEA (-ae), a town in the X. of 
Phocis. 



AMPHICTYOX (-onis), son of Deucalion 
and Pyrrha, believed to have been the founder 
of the Amphictyonic council. 

AMPHILOCHIA (-ae), the country of the 
Amphilochi, an Epirot race, at the E. end of 
the Ambracian gulf, usually included in 
Acarnania. Their chief town was Argos 
Amphilochicum. [Amphxlochtts.] 

AMPHILOCHTJS (-i), son of Amphiaraus 
and Eriphyle, and brother of Alcmaeon. He 
took part in the expedition of . the Epigoni 
against Thebes, assisted his brother in the 
murder of their mother [Alcmaeon], and 
afterwards fought against Troy. Like his 
father he was a celebrated seer. He was 
killed in single combat by Mopsus, who was 
also a seer, at Mallos in Cilicia. According 
to some he founded Argos Amphilochicum on 
the Ambracian gulf. 

AMPHIOX (-onis), son of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and Antiope, and twin-brother of Zethus. They 




I 



Zethus and Amphion. 
(From a Basreliefat Rome.) 

were born on Mount Cithaeron, and grew up 
among the shepherds. Having become ac- 
quainted with their origin they marched 



AMPHIPOLIS. 



31 



AMYXTAS. 



against Thebes, where Lycus reigned, the 
husband of their mother Antiope, who had 
married Dirce in her stead. They took the 
city, and killed Lycus and Dirce because they 
had. treated Antiope with great cruelty. 
They put Dirce to death by tying her to a 
bull, who dragged her about till she perished ; 
and they then threw her body into a fountain, 
which was from this time called the fountain 
of Dirce. After they had obtained possession 
of Thebes, they fortified it by a wall. Am- 
phion had received a lyre from Hermes 
(Mercury), on which he played with such 
magic skill, that the stones moved of their 
own accord and formed the wall. Amphion 
afterwards married Xiobe, who bore him 
many sons and daughters, all of whom were 
killed by Apollo, whereupon he put an end to 
his own life. [Niobe.] 

AMPHIPOLIS (-is), a town in Macedonia on 
the eastern bank of the Strymon, about 3 miles 
from the sea. The Strymon flowed almost 
round the town, nearly forming a circle, 
whence its name Amphi-polis. It was origin- 
ally called Ennea Hodoi, the "Xm^Yays," and 
belonged to the Edonians, a Thracian people. 
It was colonised by the Athenians in 437, who 
drove the Edonians out of the place. It was 
one of the most important of the Athenian 
possessions in the X. of the Aegaean sea. 
Hence their indignation when it fell into the 
hands of Brasidas (424) and of Philip (358). 
The port of Amphipolis was Eion. 

AMPHISSA (-ae), one of the chief 
towns of the Locri Ozoiae on the borders of 
Phocis, 7 miles from Delphi. In consequence 
of the Sacred War declared against Amphissa 
by the Amphictyons, the town was destroyed 
by Philip, b.c._33_8, but was afterwards rebuilt. 

AMPHITRITE (-es), aXereid or an Oceanid, 
wife of Poseidon (Xeptune) and goddess of 




Arnphitrite. 

(From a 13 asrelief published by Winckelmann.) 



the sea, especially of the Mediterranean. She 
was the mother of Triton. 



AMPHITPvYOX or AMPHITRUO (-onis), 
son of Alcaeus and Hipponome, and wife of 
Alcmene. For details see Alcmene. Hercules, 
the son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Alcmene, is 
called Amplutry Unlades in allusion to his re- 
puted father. Amphitryon fell in a war 
against Erginus, king of the Minyans. 

AMPHRYSES (-i). (1) A small river in 
Thessaly which flowed into the Pagasaeangulf, 
on the banks of which Apollo fed the herds 
of Admetus. — (2) See Ambrysus. 

AMPSAGA (-ae), a river of X. Africa, 
dividing X'umidia from Mauretania Sitifensis, 
and flowing past the town of Cirta. 

AMPSAXCTES or AMSAXCTUS LACUS, 
a small lake in Sanrnium near Aeculanum, 
from which mephitic vapours arose. Hence 
it was regarded as an entrance to the lower 
world. 

AMPYCUS (-i), son of Pelias, husband of 
Chloris, and father of the famous seer Mopsus, 
who is hence called Ampy tides. 

AMULETS. [Koiruixs.] 

AMYCLAE (-arum). (1) An ancient town 
of Laconia on the Eurotas, 2i miles S.E. of 
Sparta. It is said to have been the abode of 
Tyndarus, and of Castor and Pollux, who are 
hence called Amyclaei Fr aires. After the 
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, the 
Achaeans maintained themselves in Amyciae 
for a long time ; but it was at length taken and 
destroyed by the Lacedaemonians under 
Teleclus. Amyciae still continued memorable 
by the festival of the Hyacinthia celebrated at 
the place annually, and by the colossal statue of 
Apollo, who was hence called Amycl.aeus. — 
(2) An ancient town of Latium, E. of Terra- 
cina, on the Sinus Amyelanus, claimed to be 
an Achaean colony from Laconia. The in- 
habitants were said to have deserted it on 
account of its being infested by serpents ; 
whence Yirgil_ speaks of tacitae Amyciae. 

AMYCLIDES (-ae), a name of Hyacinthus, 
as the son of Amyclas, the founder of Amyciae. 

AMYOUS (-i), son of Poseidon (Xeptune), 
king of the Bebryces, celebrated for his skill 
in boxing. He used to challenge strangers 
to box with him and slay them ; but ^vhen 
the Argonauts came to his dominions, Pollux 
killed him_in_a boxing-match. 

AMYMOXE (-es), one of the 50 daughters 
of Danaus, was the mother by Poseidon (Xep- 
tune) of Xauplius, the father of Palamedes. 
The fountain of Amymone in Argolis was 
called after her. 

AMYXTAS (-ae). (1) King of Macedonia, 
reigned from about b.c 540 to 500, and was 
succeeded by his son Alexander I. — (2) King 
of Macedonia, son of Philip, the brother of 
Perdiccas II., reigned 393 — 369, and obtained 
the crown by the murder of the usurper 



AMYNTOR. 



32 



AXCHISES. 



Pausanias. He carefully cultivated the 
friendship of Athens. He left by his wife 
Eurydice 3 sons, Alexander, Perdiccas, and 
the famous Philip, who is hence called by 
Ovid Amyntiades 

AMYNTOPv (-oris), king of the Dolopes, and 
father of Phoenix, who is hence called Amyn- 
t or ides. [Phoexix.] 

AMYTHAOX (-onis), son of Cretheus and 
Tyro, father of Bias and of the seer Melarnpus, 
who is hence called Amythaonius. 

AXACES or ANACTES, i. e. " the Kings," 
a name frequently given to Castor and Pollux. 

AXACHARSIS (-is), a Scythian of princely 
rank, left his native country in pursuit of 
knowledge, and came to Athens, about 
b.c. 594. He became acquainted with Solon, 
and by his talents and acute observations, he 
excited general admiration. He was killed 
by his brother Saulius on his return to his 
native country. The letters which go under 
his name are spurious. 

AXACREOX (-ontis), a celebrated lyric poet, 
born at Teos, an Ionian city in Asia Minor. 
He removed to Abdera, in Thrace, when Teos 
was taken by the Persians (about b.c. 544), but 
he lived chiefly at Samos, under the patronage 
of Polycrates. After the death of Polycrates 
(522), he went to Athens at the invitation of 
the tyrant Hipparchus. He died at the age 
of 85, probably about 478. Of his poems 
only a few genuine fragments have come 
down to us ; for the " Odes " attributed to 
him are spurious. In his poems he celebrates 
the praises oflove and wine. 

ANACTORIUM (4), a town in Acarnania, 
built by the Corinthians, upon a promontory 
of the same name at the entrance of the Am- 
bracian gulf. 

ANAGNIA (-ae), the chief town of the 
Hernici in Latium, and subsequently both a 
municipium and a Roman colony. In the 
neighbourhood Cicero had a beautiful estate, 
Anagninum (sc. praedium). 

AXAPHE (-es), a small island in the S. of 
the Aegean sea, E. of Thera. 

AXAPUS (-i). (1) A river in Acarnania, 
flowing into the Achelous. — (2) A river in 
Sicily, flowing into the sea S. of Syracuse 
through marshes. 

ANAPvTES (-ium) or -TI (-orum), a people 
of Dacia, X. of the Theiss. 

ANAS (-ae : Guadiana), one of the chief 
rivers of Spain, forming the boundary be- 
tween Lusitania and Baetica, and flowing 
into the ocean by two mouths (now only one). 

ANAXAGOPvAS (-ae), a celebrated Greek 
philosopher of the Ionian school, was born at 
Clazomenae in Ionia, b.c. 500. He gave up 
his property to his relations, as he intended 
to devote his life to higher ends, and went to 



Athens at the age of 20 ; here he remained 
30 years, and became the intimate friend and 
teacher of Euripides and Pericles. His doc- 
trines gave offence to the religious feelings of 
the Athenians ; and he was accused of 
impiety, 450. It was only through the 
eloquence of Pericles that he was not put to 
death ; but he was sentenced to pay a fine of 
5 talents and to quit Athens. He retired to 
Lampsacus, where he died in 428, at the age 
of 72. He taught that a supreme intelligence 
was the cause of all things. 

AXAXAXDRIDES, king of Sparta, reigned 
from about b.c 560 to 520. Having a barren 
wife whom he would not divorce, the ephors 
made him take with her a second. By her he 
had Cleomenes ; and after this by his first 
wife Dorieus, Leonidas, and Cleombrotus. 

AXAXAPCHUS (-i), a philosopher of 
Abdera, of the school of Democritus, accom- 
panied Alexander into Asia (b.c 334). After 
the death of Alexander (323), Anaxarchus was 
thrown by shipwreck into the power of Xico- 
creon, king of Cyprus, to whom he had given 
offence, and who had him pounded to death 
in a stone mortar. 

AXAXARETE (-es), a maiden of Cyprus, 
treated her lover Iphis with such haughtiness 
that he hung himself at her door. She looked 
with indifference at the funeral of the youth, 
but Yenus changed her into a stone statue. 

AXAXIMAXDEPv (-dri), of Miletus, was 
born b.c 610, and died 547, in his 64th year. 
He was one of the earliest philosophers of 
the Ionian school, and the immediate successor 
of Thales, its first founder. 

AXAXlMEXES (-is), of Miletus, the third 
in the series of Ionian philosophers, flourished 
about b.c 544 ; but as he was the teacher of 
Anaxagoras, b.c 480, he must have lived to 
a great age. He considered air to be the first 
cause of all things. 

AXAZAKBUS (-i) or -A (-ae), a city of 
Cilicia Campestris, at the foot of a mountain 
of the same name. Augustus conferred^ upon 
it the name of Caesarea (ad Anazarbum). 
• AXCAEUS (-i). (1) Son of the Arcadian 
Lycurgus, and father of Agapenor. He was 
one of the Argonauts, and was killed by the 
Calydonian boar. — (2) Son of Poseidon 
(Xeptune) and Astypalaea, also one of the 
Argonauts, and the helmsman of the ship 
Argo after the death of Tiphys. 

AX CHI ALE (-es) and -LUS (-i). (1) A 
town in Thrace, on the Black Sea, on the 
borders of Moesia. — (2) An ancient city of 
Cilicia, W. of the Cydnus near the coast, said 
to have been built by Sardanapalus. 

AXCHISES (-ae), son of Capys and Themis, 
the daughter of Ilus, and king of Dardanus on 
Mount Ida. In beauty he equalled the im- 



AXCOXA. 



S3 



ANDROMEDA. 



mortal gods, and was beloved by Aphrodite 
(Venus), by •whom, he became the father of 
Aeneas, who is hence called Anchlsiddes. 
Having boasted of his intercourse with the 
goddess, he was struck by a flash of lightning, 
which deprived him of his sight. On the 
capture of Troy by the Greeks, Aeneas carried 
his father on his shoulders from the burning 
city. He died soon after the arrival of Aeneas 
in Sicily, and was buried on mount Ervx. 

AXCOXA (-ae) or AXCOX (-onis), a town 
in Picenum on the Adriatic sea, lying in a bend 
of the coast between two promontories, and 
hence called Ancon, or an " elbow." It was 
built by the Syracusans in the time of the 
elder Dionysius, b.c. 392. The Romans made 
it a colony. It possessed an excellent har- 
bour, completed by Trajan, and was one of 
the most important sea-ports of the Adriatic. 

AXCUS MARCIUS (-i), fourth king of Rome, 
reigned 24 years, b.c. 640 — 616, and is said to 
have been the son of Xuma's daughter. He 
took many Latin towns, transported the inhabi- 
tants to Rome, and gave them the Aventine 
to dwell on : these conquered Latins formed 
the original Plebs. He was succeeded by 
Tarquinius Priscus. 

AXCYRA (-ae). (1) A city of Galatia in 
Asia Minor, originally the chief city of a 
Gallic tribe named the Tectosages, who came 
from the S. of France. When Augustus re- 
corded the chief events of his life on bronze 
tablets at Rome, the citizens of Ancyra had a 
copy made, which was cut on marble blocks 
and placed at Ancyra in a temple dedicated 
to Augustus and Rome. This inscription is 
still extant, and called the Monuraentum An- 
cyranum.—(2) A town in Phrygia Epictetus 
on the borders of Mysia. 

AXDECAVI, AXDEGAYI (-orum), or 
AXDES (-ium), a Gallic people X. of the Loire, 
with a town of the same name, also called 
Juliomagus, now Angers. 

AXDES (-ium), a village near Mantua, 
the birth-place of Virgil. 

AXDOCIDES, one of the 10 Attic orators, 
son of Leogoras, was born at Athens in 
b.c. 467. He belonged to a noble family, and 
was a supporter of the oligarchical party at 
Athens. In 415 he became involved in the 
charge brought against Alcibiades of having 
mutilated the Hermae, and was thrown into 
prison ; but he recovered his liberty by 
denouncing the real or pretended perpetrators 
of the crime. He was four times banished 
from Athens, and after leading a wandering 
und disreputable life, died in exile. Four of 
his orations have come down to us. 

AXDRAEMOX (-onis). (1) Husband of 
Gorge, daughter of Oeneus king of Calydon in 
Aetolia, whom he succeeded, and father of 



Thoas, who is hence called Andraemonides. — 
(2) Son of Oxylus, and husband of Dryope, 
who was mother of Amphissus by Apollo. 

AXDROCLUS (-i) or -CLES (-is), the slave 
of a Roman consular, was sentenced to be 
exposed to the wild beasts in the circus ; but 
a lion, which had been let loose upon him, 
exhibited signs of recognition, and began lick- 
ing him. Upon inquiry it appeared that An- 
droclus had run away from his master in 
Africa ; and that having taken refuge in 
a cave, a lion entered, went up to him, and 
held out his paw. Androclus extracted a 
large thorn which had entered it. Hence- 
forth they lived together for some time, the 
lion catering for his benefactor. But at 
last, tired of this savage life, Androclus left 
the cave, was apprehended by some soldiers, 
brought to Rome, and condemned to the wild 
beasts. He was pardoned, and presented with 
the lion, which he used to lead about the city. 

AXDROGEOS (-6) or AXDROGEUS (-i), 
son of Minos and Pasiphae, conquered all his 
opponents in the games of the Panathenaea 
at Athens, and was in consequence slain at 
the instigation of Aegeus. Minos made war 
on the Athenians to avenge the death of his 
son, and compelled them to send every year 
to Crete 7 youths and 7 damsels to be devoured 
by the Minotaur. From this shameful tribute 
they were delivered by Theseus. 

AXDROMACHE (is) or AXDROMACHA 
(-ae), daughter of Eetion, king of the Cilician 
Thebes, and wife of Hector, by whom she had 
a son Scamandrius (Astyanax). On the 
taking of Troy her son was hurled from the 
walls of the city, and she herself fell to 
the share of Xeoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son 
of Achilles, who took her to Epirus. She 
afterwards married Helenus, a brother of 
Hector, who ruled over Chaonia. 

AXDROMEDA (-ae) or AXDROMEDE 




Andromeda and Perseus. (From a terra-cotta of 
S. Campana.) 

(-es), daughter of Cepheus, king of Aethiopia, 



ANDR0NICU3. 



n 



ANTHEMUS. 



and Cassiopea. In consequence of her mother 
boasting that the beauty of her daughter 
surpassed that of the Nereids, Poseidon 
(Neptune) sent a sea-monster to lay waste 
the country. The oracle of A mm on promised 
deliverance if Andromeda was given up to 
the monster : and Cepheus was obliged to 
chain his daughter to a rock. Here she was 
found and saved by Perseus, who slew the 
monster and obtained her as his wife. She i 
had been previously promised to Phineus, and 
this gave rise to the famous fight of Phineus 
and Perseus at the wedding, in which the 
former and all his associates were slain. After 
her death, she was placed among the stars. 
ANDRONICUS LIYIUS. [Lrvrus.] 
ANDROS or RUS (-i), the most northerly 
and one of the largest islands of the Cyclades, | 
S. E. of Euboea, 21 miles long and 8 broad, | 
early attained importance, and colonised 
Acanthus and StagTra about b.c. 654. It was j 
celebrated for its wine, whence the whole 
island was regarded as sacred to Dionysus. 

ANGLI or ANGLII ( -orum), a German 
people on the left bank of the Elbe, who passed | 
over with the Saxons into Britain, which was 
called after them England. "Sax ones." Some j 
of them appear to have settled in Angel n in j 
Schleswig. 

AN G RIV ARII (-drum), a German people 
dwelling on both sides of the Yisurgis ( Weser), 
separated from the Cherusci by an agger or 
mound of earth. 

ANIGRUS (-i), a small river in the Tri- 
phylian Elis, the Minyeius of Homer, flowing 
into the Ionian sea near Samicum. Its waters 
had a disagreeable smell, in consequence it is 
said of the Centaurs having washed in them 
after they had been wounded by Hercules. 

ANIO, anciently ANIEN (hence Gen. 
Anienis), a river rising in the mountains of the 
Hernici near Treba, which, after receiving 
the brook Digentia, forms at Tibur beautiful 
water-falls, and flows into the Tiber, 3 miles 
above Rome. The water of the Anio was 
conveyed to Rome by two Aqueducts, the 
Anio vetus and Anio nouns. 

ANIL'S (-i), son of Apollo by Creiisa, and 
priest of Apollo at Delos. By Dry ope he had 
three daughters, to whom Dionysus gave the 
power of producing at will any quantity of 
wine, corn, and oil, — whence they were called 
Oenotrdpae, With these necessaries they are 
said to have supplied the Greeks during the 
first 9 years of the Trojan war. 

ANNA (-ae), daughter of Belus and sister of 
Dido. After the death of the latter, she fled 
from Carthage to Italy, where she was kindly 
received by Aeneas. Here she excited the 
jealousy of Lavinia, and being warned in a 
dream bv Dido, she fled and threw herself 



into the river Numicius. Henceforth she was 
worshipped as the nymph of that river under 
the name of Anna Perenna. 
ANNIES MILO. [Mtlo.1 
ANSER (-eris), a poet of the Augustan 
age, a friend of the triumvir 31. Antonius, 
and one of the detractors of Virgil. 

AN SIB ARII or AMPSIVARII (-drum), a 
German people, originally dwelling between 
the sources of the Ems and the Weser, and 
afterwards in the interior of the country 
near the Cherusci. 

ANTAEOPOLIS (-is), an ancient city of 
Upper Egypt (the Theba'fs), on the E. side of 
the Nile, and one of the chief seats of the 
worship of Osiris. 

ANTAEUS (-i), son of Poseidon (Neptune) 
and Ge (Earth), a mighty giant and wrestler 
j in Libya, whose strength was invincible so long 
as he remained in contact with his mother 
earth. Hercules discovered the source of his 
strength, lifted him from the earth, and 
crushed him in the air. 

ANTALCIDAS (-ae), a Spartan, son of Leon, 
I is chiefly known by the celebrated treaty eon* 
I eluded with Persia in b. c. 387, usually 
called the peace of Antalcidas, since it was 
| the fruit of his diplomacy. According to 
this treaty all the Greek cities in Asia Minor 
| were to belong to the Persian king : the 
j Athenians were allowed to retain only Lemnos, 
; Imbros, and Scyros ; and all the other Greek 
cities were to be independent, 
j ANT ANDRES (4), a city of Great Mysia, 
on the Adramyttian Gulf, at the foot of Mount 
Ida ; an Aeolian colony. 

ANTEA or ANTIA. [Belleeophox.] 
i ANTEMNAE (-arum), an ancient Sabine 
| town at the junction of the Anio and the 
I Tiber, destroyed by the Romans in the earliest 
j times. 

ANTENOR (-oris), a Trojan, son of Aesyetes 
i and Cleomestra, and husband of Theano. He 
'■ was one of the wisest among the elders at 
Troy ; he received Menelaus and Ulysses into 
j his house when they came to Troy as ambassa- 
I dors ; and he advised his fellow-citizens to 
i restore Helen to Menelaus. On the capture 
| of Troy, Antenor was spared by the Greeks. 
: His history after this event is told differ- 
ently. Some relate that he went with the 
! Heneti to the western coast of the Adriatic, 
j where he founded Patavium. His sons and 

descendants were called Antenoriclae. 
i ANTEROS_. [Eeos.] 

ANTHEDON (-onis), a town of Boeotia with 
a harbour, on the coast of the Euboean sea, said 
j to have derived its name from Anthedon, son 
, of Glaucus, who was here changed into a god. 

ANTHEMUS (-untis), a Macedonian town 
I in Chalcidice. 



ANTHEMUSLA. 



ANTINOUS. 



ANTHEMUSIA (-ae) or ANTHEMUS 
-untis), a city of Mesopotamia, S.W. of Edessa, 
and a little E. of the Euphrates. The sur- 
rounding district was called by the same 
name, hut was generally included under the 
name of Osrhoexe. 

ANTHENE -es , a place in Cynuria, in 
the Peloponnesus. 

AXTHYLLA '-ae; , a considerable city of 
Lower Egypt, near the mouth of the Canopic 
branch of the Nile, below Naucratis. 

ANTIAS '-atis), Q. VALERIUS (-i), a 
Soman historian, flourished about b.c. So, 
and wrote the history of Koine from the 
earliest times down to those of Sulla. His 
work was full of falsehoods. 

ANTICLEA (-ae), daughter of Autolycus, 
wife of Laertes, and mother of Ulysses, died 
of grief at the long absence of her son. It 
is said that before marrying Laertes, she lived 
on intimate terms with Sisyphus ; whence ; 
Ulysses is sometimes called a son of Sisyphus. 

ANTICYBA, more ancientlyANTICIPJ: HA 
(-ae). (1) A town in Phocis, on a bay of the 
Crissaean gulf. — "2. A town in Thessaly, on 
the Spercheus. not far from its mouth. Both 
towns were celebrated for their hellebore, the 
chief remedy in antiquity for madness : hence 
the proverb Xaviget Anticyram, when a per- 
son acted senselessly. 

ANTIGONE -es . daughter of Oedipus by 
his mother Jocaste, and sister of Ismene and 
of Eteocles and Polynices. In the tragic story 
of Oedipus, Antigone appears as a noble 
maiden, with a truly heroic attachment to her 
father and brothers. When Oedipus had put 
out his eyes, and was obliged to quit Thebes, \ 
he was accompanied by Antigone, who re- 
mained with him till he died in Colonus, and 
then returned to Thebes. After her two 
brothers had killed each other in battle, and 
Creon, the king of Thebes, would not allow 
Polynices to be buried, Antigone alone defied 
the tyrant, and buried the body of her brother. 
Creon thereupon ordered her to be shut up in 
a subterraneous cave, where she killed herself. 
Her lover Haemon, the son of Creon, killed 
himself hj her side. 

ANTIGOXEA and -IA (-ae). (1) A town 
in Epirus (Illyrieuni), at the junction of 
a tributary with the Aous, and near a narrow 
pass of the Acroceraunian mountains. — . 
(2) A town on the Orontes in Syria, founded by 
Antigonus as the capital of his empire (b. c. ; 
306), but most of its inhabitants were trans- j 
ferred by Seleucus to Axtiochia, which was 
built inits_ neighbourhood. 

ANTIGONUS -i). (1) Ehng of Asia, sur- 
named the One-eyed, son of Philip ofElymiotis, 
and father of Demetrius Poliorcetes by Stra- 
tonlce. He was one of the generals of Alex- 



• ander the Great, and in the division of the 
empire after the death of the latter (b. c. 323), 
i he received the provinces of the Greater Phry- 
j gia, Lycia, and Pamphylia. On the death of 
the regent Antipater in 319, he aspired to the 
: sovereignty of Asia. In 31G, he defeated and 
put Eumenes to death, after a struggle of 
nearly 3 years. He afterwards carried on 
war, with varying success, against Seleucus, 
Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus. After 
the defeat of Ptolemy's fleet in 306, An- 
tigonus assumed the title of king, and his 
example was followed by Ptolemy, Lysi- 
machus, and Seleucus. Antigonus and his 
son Demetrius were at length defeated by 
Lysimachus at the decisive battle of Ipsus 
in Phrygia, in 301* Antigonus fell in the 
battle in the Slst year of his age. — (2) 
Goxatas, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and 
grandson of the piTceding. He assumed the 
title of king of Macedonia after his father's 
death in Asia in 2 S3, but he did not obtain 
possession of the throne till 2 7 7. He was 
driven out of his kingdom by Pyrrhus of 
Epirus in 2 7 3, but recovered it in the follow- 
ing year. He died in 2 39. He was succeeded 
by Demetrius II. His surname Gonatas is 
usually derived from Gonnos or Gonni in 
Thessaly ; but some think that Gonatas is a 
Macedonian word, signifying an iron plate 
protecting the knee. — (3) Dosox (so called 
because he was always about to give but never 
did), son of Demetrius of Cyrene, and grand- 
son of Demetrius Poliorcetes. On the death 
of Demetrius II. in 229, he was left guardian 
of his son Philip, but he married the widow 
of Demetrius, and became king of Macedonia 
himself. He supported Aratus and the 
Achaean League against Cleomenes, king of 
Sparta, whom he defeated at Sellasia in 221, 
and took Sparta. He died in 220. 

AXTILIBAXTS (-i), a mountain on the 
confines of Palestine, Phoenicia, and Syria, 
parallel to Libanus, which it exceeds in 
height.^ Its highest summit is M. Hermon. 

A2s TIL 6 CHT7 S (-i), son of Xestor and 
Anaxibia, accompanied his father to Troy, and 
distinguished himself by his bra very. He was 
slain before Troy by Memnon the Ethiopian. 

AXTIMACHCS (4), a Greek epic and 
elegiac poet of Claros or Colophon, flourished 
towards the end of the Peloponnesian war ; 
his chief work was an epic poem called 
Thebais. 

AXTIXOOPOLIS (-is), a splendid city, 
built by Hadrian, in memory of his favourite 
Axrixors, on the E. bank of the Nile. 

AXTIXOUS (-i). (1) Son of Eupithes of 
Ithaca, and one of the suitors of Penelope, 
was slain by Ulysses. — (2) A youth of extraor- 
dinarv beaut v, bom at Ciaudiopolis in Bithv- 

d 2 



AXTIOCHIA. 



36 



ANTIOCHUS. 



nia, was the favourite of the emperor Hadrian, 
and his companion in all his journeys. He 
was drowned in the Nile, a. b.122. The grief 
of the emperor knew no bounds. He enrolled 
Antinous amongst the gods, caused a temple 
to be erected to him at Mantinea, and founded 
the city of Antixoopolis in honour of him. 

AXTIOCHIA and EA (-ae). (l) The 
capital of the Greek kingdom of Syria, and 
long the chief city of Asia, stood on the 
left bank of the Orontes, about 20 miles (geog,) 
from the sea, in a beautiful valley. It was 
built by Seleucus Nicator, about b. c. 300, 
who called it Antiochia in honour of his 
father Antiochus, and peopled it chiefly from 
the neighbouring city of Axtigoxia. It was 
one of the earliest strongholds of the Christian 
faith ; the first place where the Christian 
name was used [Acts, xi. 26) ; and the see of 
one of the four chief bishops, who were called 
Patriarchs. — (2) A. An Maeaxdbum, a city of j 
Caria, on the Maeander, built by Antiochus I. j 
Soter on the site of the old city of Pythopolis. 
— (3) A city on the borders of Phrygia and 
Pisidia ; built by colonists from Magnesia ; 
made a colony under Augustus, and called Cae- 
sarea. — The other cities of the name of Antioch j 
are better known under other designations. 

ANTIOCHUS >i\ I. Kings of Syria.— <1) \ 
Soter- (reigned b.c. 280 — 261), was the 
son of Seleucus I., the founder of the Syrian i 
kingdom of the Seleucidae. He married 
his step-mother StratonTce, with whom j 
he fell violently in love, and whom his 
father surrendered to him. He fell in battle 
against the Gauls in 261. — (2) Theos (b.c I 
£61 — 246;, son and successor of Xo, 1. The ' 
Milesians gave him his surname of TJieos, 
because he delivered them from their tyrant, j 
Timarchus. He carried on war with Ptolemy 
Philadelphns, king of Egypt, which was j 
brought to a close by his putting away his 
wife Laodice, and marrying Berenice, the I 
daughter of Ptolemy. After the death of 
Ptolemy, he recalled Laodice, but in revenge 
for the insult she had received, she caused 
Antiochus and Berenice to be murdered. 
He was succeeded by his son Seleucus Cal- j 
linicus. His younger son Antiochus Hierax 
also assumed the crown, and carried on war 1 
some years with his brother. [Seleeces II." — 
(3) The Great (b.c 223 — 187), son and suc- 
cessor of Seleucus Callinicus. He carried on 
war against Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, 
in order to obtain Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, arid 
Palestine, but was obliged to cede these pro- 
vinces to Ptolemy, in consequence of his defeat 
at the battle of Raphia near Gaza, in 2 1 7 . He 
was afterwards engaged for 7 years (212 — 205) 
in an attempt to regain the eastern provinces 
of Asia, which had revolted during the reign | 



of Antiochus II. ; but though he met with 
great success, he found it hopeless to effect 
the subjugation of the Parthian and Bactrian 
kingdoms, and accordingly concluded a peace 
with them. In 198 he conquered Palestine 
and Coele-Syria, which he afterwards gave as 
a dowry with his daughter Cleopatra upon 
her marriage with Ptolemy Epiphanes. He 
afterwards became involved in hostilities with 
the Romans, and was urged by Hannibal, 
who arrived at his court, to invade Italy 
without loss of time ; but Antiochus did not 
follow his advice. In 192 he crossed over 
into Greece ; and in 191 he was defeated by 
the Romans at Thermopylae, and compelled 
to return to Asia. In 190 he was again 
defeated by the Romans under L. Scipio, at 
Mount Sipylus, near Magnesia, and compelled 
to sue for peace, which vras granted in IS 8, 
on condition of his ceding all his dominions 
E. of Mount Taurus, and paying 15,000 
Euboic talents. In order to raise the money 
to pay the Romans, he attacked a wealthy 
temple in Elymais, but was killed by the 
people of the place (187). He was succeeded 
by his son Seleucus Philopator. — .4) Epi- 
phanes (b.c 175 — 164), son of Antiochus 
III., succeeded his brother Seleucus Philopator 
in 17 5. He carried on war against Egypt 171 
— 168) with great success, and he was pre- 
paring to lay siege to Alexandria in 168, 
when the Romans compelled him to retire. 
He endeavoured to root out the Jewish 
religion and to introduce the worship of the 
Greek divinities ; but this attempt led to a 
rising of the Jewish people, under Mattathias 
and his heroic sons the Maccabees, which 
Antiochus was unable to put down. He 
attempted to plunder a temple in Elymais in 
164, but he was repulsed, and died shortly 
afterwards in a state of raving madness, 
which the Jews and Greeks equally attributed 
to his sacrilegious crimes. His subjects gave 
him the name of Epimanes (the " madman") 
in parody of Epiphanes. — (5) Eepator 
(b.c 164 — 162), son and successor of Epi- 
phanes, was 9 years old at his father's death. 
He was dethroned and put to death by Deme- 
trius Soter, the son of Seleucus Philopator. — 

(6) Theos, son of Alexander Balas. He 
was brought forward as a claimant to the 
crown in 114, against Demetrius Nicator by 
Tryphon, but he was murdered by the latter, 
who ascended the throne himself in 142. — 

(7) Sidetes (b.c. 137 — 128), so called from 
Side, in Pamphylia, where he was brought 
up, younger son of Demetrius Soter, suc- 
ceeded Tryphon. He was defeated and slain 
in battle* by the Parthians in 128. — (8) 
Grtpes, or Hook-nosed (b.c. 125 — 96), 
second son of Demetrius Nicator and Cleo- 



AXTIOPE. 



37 



AXTIPHOX. 



patra. He carried on war for some years 
with, his half-brother, A. IX. Cyzieenus. At 
length, in 112, the two brothers agreed to 
share the kingdom between them, A. Cyzi- 
eenus having Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, and 
A. Grypus the remainder of the provinces. 
Grypns was assassinated in 96. — (9) Cyzi- 
ce>~us, from Cyzicus, where he was brought 
up, brother of Xo. S, reigned over Coele- 
Syria and Phoenicia from 112 to 96, but fell 
in battle in 95 against Seleucus Epiphanes, 
son of A. VHI. Grypus. — £10) Eusebes, son j 
of Cyzieenus, defeated Seleucus Epiphanes, 
and maintained the throne against the bro- 
thers of Seleucus. He succeeded his father ! 
in 95. — [11] Epiphanes, son of Grypus 
and brother of Seleucus Epiphanes, carried j 
on war against Eusebes, but was defeated by 
the latter, and drowned in the river Orontes. \ 
— (12) Dionysus, brother of No. 11, held \ 
the crown for a short time, but fell in battle 
against Aretas, king of the Arabians. The 
Syrians, worn out with the civil broils of the 
Seleueidae, offered the kingdom to Tigranes, j 
king of Armenia, who united Syria to his own j 
dominions in S3, and held it till his defeat 
by the Romans in 69. — (13) Asiaticus, son 
of Eusebes, became king of Syria on the j 
defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus in 69 ; but he 
was deprived of it in 65 by Pompey, who J 
reduced Syria to a Ronran province. In this 
year the Seleueidae ceased to reign. 

II. Kings of Commagene. — (1) Made an 
alliance with the Romans, about b.c. 64. 
He as-isted Pompey with troops in 49, and 
was attacked by Antony in 38. He was 
succeeded by Mithridates I. about 31. — 
[2] Succeeded Mithridates I., and was put to 
death at Rome by Augustus in 29. — ^3; Suc- 
ceeded Mithridates II., and died in a.d. 17. 
Upon his death, Commagene became a Roman 
province, and remained so till a.d. 38. — [4) 
Surnamed Epiphanes, received his paternal 
dominion from Caligula in a.d. 38. He as- 
sisted the Romans in their wars against the 
Parthians under Nero, and against the Jews 
under Te spas ia n. In 7 2, he was accused of 
conspiring with the Parthians against the 
Romans, was deprived of his kingdom, and 
retired to Rome, where he passed the 
remainder of his life. 

III. Literary. — Of Ascaeox, the founder 
of the fifth Academy, was a friend of Lucullus 
and the teacher of Cicero during his studies 
at Athens (b.c. 79). 

AXTIOPE (-es). (1) Daughter of Xyeteus, 
and mother by Zeus (Jupiter) of Amphion 
and Zethus. Eor details see Amphiox. — 'o) 
An Amazon, sister of Hippolyte, wife of 
Theseus, and mother of Hippolvtus. 

AXTIPATER ;-tn. (i; The Macedonian, an 



officer greatly trusted by Philip and Alexander 
the Great, was left by the latter regent in 
Macedonia, when he crossed over into Asia in 
b.c. 334. On the death of Alexander (323), 
Antipater, in conjunction with Craterus, 
carried on war against the Greeks, who 
endeavoured to recover their independence. 
This war, usually called the Lamian Mar, 
from Lamia, where Antipater was besieged 
in 323, was terminated by Antipater's victory 
over the confederates at Crannon in 322. 
This was followed by the submission of Athens 
and the death of Demosthenes. Antipater 
died in 319, after appointing Polysperchon 
regent, and his own son Cassaxder to a 
subordinate position. — 2, Grandson of the 
preceding, and second son of Cas-ander and 
Thessalonlca. He and his brother Alexander 
quarrelled for the possession of Macedonia ; 
and Demetrius Poliorcetes availed himself of 
their dissensions to obtain the kingdom, and 
to put to death the two brothers. — '3) 
Eather of Herod the Great, son of a noble 
Idumaean of the same name, espoused the 
cause of Hyrcanus against his brother Aris- 
tobulus. He was appointed by Caesar in 
b.c. 47 procurator of Judaea, which appoint- 
ment he held till his death in 43, when he 
was poisoned. — (4) Eldest son of Herod 
the Great by his first wife, conspired against 
his father's life, and was executed five 
days before Herod's death. — (5; Of Tarsus, 
a Stoic philosopher, the successor of Diogenes 
and the teacher of Panaetius, about b.c. 144. 

AXTIPATER, L. CAELIUS -i , a Roman 
historian, and a contemporary of C. Gracchus 
[b.c. 123 , wrote Annates, which contained a 
valuable account of the second Punic war. 

AXTIP ATRIA [-ae] , a town in Illyiicum on 
the borders of Macedonia, on the Apsus. 

AXTIPHATES [-ae) , king of the mythical 
Laestrygones in Sicily, who are represented as 
. giants and cannibals. They destroyed 11 of 
the ships of Ulysses, who escaped with only 
I one vessel. Eormiae is called by Ovid Anti- 
j phatae domus, because it is said to have been 
! founded by the Laestrygones. 
AXTIPHELLUS. [Phellis . ] 
AXTIPHILES ;-i), of Egypt, a distinguished 
painter, the rival of Apelles, painted for 
Philip and Alexander the Great. 

AXTIPHOX -onis' , the most ancient of the 
10 orators, born at Rhamnus in Attica, b.c. 
480. He belonged to the oligarchical party at 
Athens, and took an active part in the esta- 
blishment of the government of the Four 
Hundred (b.c 411), after the overthrow of 
which he was brought to trial, condemned, 
and put to death. Antiphon introduced 
great improvements in public speaking ; he 
opened a school in which he taught rhetoric, 



ANTIPOLIS. 



3S 



ANTONIUS. 



and the historian Thucydides was one of his 
pupils. The orations which he composed were 
written for others ; and the only time that 
he spoke in public himself was when he was 
accused and condemned to death. This speech 
is now lost. We still possess 15 of his 
orations, 3 of which were written by him for 
others, and the remaining 12 as specimens 
for his school, or exercises on fictitious cases. 

ANTIPOLIS (-is: Antibes), a town in Gallia j 
Xarbonensis on the coast, a few miles W. of 
Nicaea, founded bv Massilia. 

ANTIRRHIUM. [Rhtum.] 

ANTISSA (-ae), a town in Lesbos, on the 
W. coast between Methyinna, and the pro- 
montory Sigrium, was originally on a small 
island opposite Lesbos, which was afterwards 
united with Lesbos. 

ANTISTHENES (-is and-ae), an Athenian, 
founder of the sect of the Cynic philosophers. 
His mother was a Thracian. In his youth he 
fought at Tanagra (b.c. 426), and was a 
disciple first of Gorgias, and then of Socrates, 
whom he never quitted, and at whose death 
he was present. He died at Athens, at the 
age of 70. He taught in the Cynosarges, a 
gymnasium for the use of Athenians born of 
foreign mothers ; whence probably his fol- 
lowers were called Cynics, though others 
derive their name from their dog-like neglect 
of all forms and usages of society. He was 
an enemy to all speculation, and thus was 
opposed to Plato. He taught that virtue is 
the sole thing necessary. From his school 
the Stoics subsequently sprung. 

AXTISTIUS LABEO. r LABE0.1 

AXTITAUBXS (-i : Ali-Dagl\),\ chain of \ 
mountains, which strikes off N.E. from the 
main chain of the Taurus on the S. border of 
Cappadocia, in the centre of which district it 
turns to the E. and runs parallel to the 
Taurus as far as the Euphrates. Its average 
height exceeds that of the Taurus. 

AXTIOI (-i), a very ancient town of La- 
tium on a rocky promontory running out 
some distance into the Tyrrhenian sea. 
It was founded by Tyrrhenians and Pelas- 
gians, and was noted for its piracy. It 
was taken by the Romans in b.c. 468, and a 
colony was sent thither ; but it revolted, was 
taken a second time by the Romans in 338, 
was deprived of all its ships, the beaks of 
which [Rostra) served to ornament the plat- 
form of the speakers in the Roman forum, and 
received another Roman colony. In the latter 
times of the republic and under the empire, it 
was a favourite residence of many of the Roman 
nobles and emperors. The emperor Xero was 
born here, and in the remains of his palace 
the Apollo Belvedere was found. Antium 
possessed temples of Fortune and Xeptune. 



AXTOXIA (-ae). (1) Major, elder daughter 
of M. Antonius and Octavia, husband of L. 
Domitius Ahenobarbus, and mother of Cn. 
Domitius, the father of the emperor Xero. — 
(2) Minor, younger sister of the preceding, 
husband of Drusus, the brother of the 
emperor Tiberius, and mother of Germanicus, 
the father of the emperor Caligula, of Livia, 
or Livilla, and of the emperor Claudius. She 
died a.d. 38, soon after the accession of her 
grandson Caligula. She was celebrated for 
her beauty, virtue, and chastity. — (3) 
Daughter of the emperor Claudius, was put 
to death by Xero, a.d. 66, because she refused 
to marry him. 

AXTOXIA TURRIS, a castle on a rock at 
the X.AV. corner of the Temple at Jerusalem, 
which commanded both the temple and the 
city. It was at first called Baris : Herod the 
Great changed its name in honour of M. 
Antonius. It contained the residence of the 
Procurator_Judaeae. 

AXTOXIXOPOLIS (-is), a city of Mesopo- 
tamia, between Edessa and Dara, aft. 
Maximianopolis, and aft. Constantia. 

AXTOXIXES, M. ATJRELIUS. [M. 

Al'RELirS.] 

AXTOXIXES PIUS (-i), Roman emperor, 
a.d. 138 — 161, born near Lanuvium. a.d. 86, 
was adopted by Hadrian in 138, and succeeded 
the latter in the same year. The senate con- 
ferred upon him the title of Pius, or the duti- 
fully affectionate, because he persuaded them 
to grant to his father Hadrian the apotheosis 
and the other honours usually paid to deceased 
emperors. The reign of Antoninus is almost a 
| blank in history — a blank caused by the sus- 
! pension for a time of war, violence, and crime. 
1 He was one of the best princes that ever 
mounted a throne, and all his thoughts and 
energies were dedicated to the happiness of his 
people. He died 161, in his 7 5th year. He 
was succeeded by M. Aurelius, whom he had 
adopted, when he himself was adopted by 
Hadrian, and to whom he gave his daughter 
Faustina in marriage. 

' AXTOXIUS (-i) . (1) M., the orator, born b.c. 
i 143 ; quaestor in 113 ; praetor in 104, when 
' he fought against the pirates in Cilicia ; consul 
in 99; and censor in 97. He belonged to 
Sulla's party, and was put to death by Marius 
and China, when they entered Rome in 8 7: 
his head was cut off and placed on the Rostra. 
Cicero mentions him and L. Crassus as the 
most distinguished orators of their age ; and 
I he is introduced as one of the speakers in 
j Cicero's Be Oratore. — (2) M., surnamed 
I Creticus, elder son of the orator, and father 
j of the triumvir, was praetor in 75, and 
; received the command of the fleet and all 
I the coasts of the Mediterranean, in order to 



ANTONIUS. 



39 



ANTONIUS. 



clear the sea of pirates ; but he did not sue- : 
ceed in his object, and used his power to 
plunder the provinces. He died shortly after- I 
wards in Crete, and was called Creticus in 
derision. — (3) C, younger son of the orator, 
and uncle of the triumvir, was expelled the 
senate in 70, and was the colleague of Cicero 
in the praetorship (Go) and consulship (63). 
He was one of Catiline's conspirators, but 
deserted the latter by Cicero's promising- hhn 
the province of Macedonia. He had to lead 
an army against Catiline, but unwilling to 
fight against his former friend, he gave the 
command on the day of battle to his legate, 
M. Petreius. At the conclusion of the war 
Antony went into his province, which he 
plundered shamefully ; and on his return to 
Home in 59 was accused both of taking part 
in Catiline's conspiracy and of extortion in 
his province. He was defended by Cicero, 
but was condemned, and retired to the island 
of Cephallenia. He was subsequently recalled, 
probably by Caesar, and was in Home at the 
beginning of 44. — (4) M., the Triumvir, 
was son of Xo. 2. and Julia, the sister of 
L. Julius Caesar, consul in 64, and was born 
about 83. His father died while he was still 
young, and he was brought up by Lentulus, 
who married his mother Julia, and who was 
put to death by Cicero in 63 as one of Cati- 
line's conspirators : hence Antony became 
a personal enemy of Cicero. Antony indulged 
in his earliest youth in every kind of dissipa- 
tion, and his affairs soon became deeply 
involved. In 58 he went to Syria, where he 
served with distinction under A. Gabinius. 
In 54 he went to Caesar in Gaul, and by 
the influence of the latter was elected quaestor 
(52).' He now became one of the most active 
partisans of Caesar. He was tribune of the 
plebs in 49, and in January fled to Caesar's 
camp in Cisalpine GauL after putting his veto 
upon the decree of the senate which deprived 
Caesar of his command. In 48 Antony was 
present at the battle of Pharsalia, where he 
commanded the left wing. In 44 he was 
consul with Caesar, when he offered him 
the kingly diadem at the festival of the 
Lupercalia. After Caesar's murder on the 
15th of March, Antony endeavoured to suc- 
ceed to his power. He pronounced the speech 
over Caesar's body and read his will to the 
people ; and he also obtained the papers and 
private property of Caesar. But he found a 
new and unexpected rival in young Octa- 
vianus, the adopted son and great-nephew of 
the dictator, who at first joined the senate in 
order to crush Antony. Towards the end of 
the year Antony proceeded to Cisalpine Gaul, 
which had been previously granted him by 
the senate ; but Dec. Brutus refused to sur- 



render the province to Antony and threw 
himself into Mutina, where he was besieged 
by Antony. The senate approved of the 
conduct of Brutus, declared Antony a public 
enemy, and entrusted the conduct of the war 
against him to Octavianus. Antony was 
defeated at the battle of Mutina, in April 43, 
and was obliged to cross the Alps. Both the 
consuls, however, had fallen, and the senate 
now began to show their jealousy of Octavi- 
anus. Meantime Antony was joined by 
Lepidus with a powerful army : Octavianus 
became reconciled to Antony; and it was 
agreed that the government of the state should 
be vested in Antony, Octavianus, and Lepidus, 
under the title of Triumviri Bepublicae Con- 
stituendae, for the next 5 years. The mutual 
enemies of each were proscribed, and in the 
numerous executions that followed, Cicero, 
who had attacked Antony in his Philippic 
Orations, fell a victim to Antony. In 42 
Antony and Octavianus crushed the repub- 
lican party by the battle of Philippi, in which 
Brutus and Cassius fell. Antony then went 
to Asia, which he had received as his share 
of the Roman world. In Cilicia he met with 
Cleopatra, and followed her to Egypt, a cap- 
tive to her charms. In 41 Fulvia, the wife 
of Antony, and his brother L. Antonius, made 
war upon Octavianus in Italy. Antony pre- 
pared to support his relatives, but the war 
was brought to a close at the beginning of 40, 
before Antony could reach Italy. The oppor- 
tune death of Fulvia facilitated the reconcili- 
ation of Antony and Octavianus, which was 
cemented by Antony marrying Octavia, the 
sister of Octavianus. Antony remained in 
Italy till 39, when the triumvirs concluded a 
peace with Sext. Pompey, and he afterwards 
went to his provinces in the East. In this 
year and the following Yentidius, the lieu- 
tenant of Antony, defeated the Parthians. 
In 37 Antony crossed over to Italy, when the 
triumvirate was renewed for, 5 years. He 
then returned to the East, and shortly after- 
wards sent Octavia back to her brother, and 
surrendered himself entirely to the charms of 
Cleopatra. In 36 he invaded Parthia, but 
he lost a great number of his troops, and was 
obliged to retreat. He was more successful 
in his invasion of Armenia in 34, for he 
obtained possession of the person of Arta- 
vasdes, the Armenian king, and carried him 
| to Alexandria. Antony now laid aside 
entirely the character of a Roman citizen, 
and assumed the pomp and ceremony of an 
Eastern despot. His conduct, and the un- 
bounded influence which Cleopatra had 
acquired over him, alienated many of his 
I friends and supporters ; and Octavianus saw 
I that the time had now come for crushing his 



ANTONIUa 



40 



APERAXTIA. 



rival. The contest "was decided by the 
memorable sea-right off Actium, September 
2nd. 31, in which Antony's fleet was com- 
pletely defeated. Antony, accompanied by 
Cleopatra, fled to Alexandria, where he put an 
end to his own life in the following year (30), 
when Octavianus appeared before the city. 
— (5) C, brother of the triumvir, was praetor 
in Macedonia in 44, fell into the hands of M. 
Brutus in 43, and was put to death by Brutus 
in 42, to-revenge the murder of Cicero. — (6) 
L., youngest brother of the triumvir, was 
consul in 41, when he engaged in war against 
Octavianus at the instigation of Fulvia, his 
brother r s wife. He threw himself into the 
town of Perusia, which he was obliged to 
surrender in the following year. His life was 
spared, and he was afterwards appointed by 
Octavianus to the command of Iberia. — (7> M. 3 
elder son of the triumvir by Fulvia, was exe- 
cuted by order of Octavianus, after the death 
of his father in 30. — (8) Jules, younger son 
of the triumvir by Fulvia, was brought up by 
his step-mother Octavia at Rome, and received 
great marks of favour from Augustus. He 
was consul in b. c. 10, but was put to death 
in 2, in consequence of his adulterous inter- 
course with Julia, the daughter of Au- 
gustus. _ 

ANTONHJS FELIX. [Felix.] 
ANTONIUS MUSA. [Mesa.] 
AXTOXIUS PRIMUS. [Pnsaros.] 
AXTROX (-onis), a town in Phthiotis in 
Thessaly, at the entrance of the Sinus 
Maliacus. 

ANUBIS (-is), an Egyptian divinity, wor- 
shipped in the form of a human being with a 
dog's head. The Greeks -identified him with 
their own Hermes (the Roman Mercury), and 
thus speak of Hermanuphis in the same man- 
ner as of Zeus (Jupiter) Amnion. His wor- 
ship was introduced at Rome towards the end 
of the republic. 

AXXUR. '-Taebacesa.] 

AXVTUS (-i), a wealthy Athenian, the most 
influential and formidable of the accusers of 
Socrates, b. c. 399. He was a leading man 
of the democratical party, and took an active 
part, along with Thrasybulus, in the over- 
throw of the 30 Tyrants' 

AOXES (-um;, an ancient race in Boeotia. 
Hence the poets frequently use Aonius as 
equivalent to Boeotian. As Mount Helicon 
and the fountain Aganippe were in Aonia, 
the Muses are called Aomdes. 

AORSI or ADORSI (-orum), a powerful 
people of Asiatic Sarmatia, chiefly found be- 
tween the Pains Maeotis (Sea of Azof) and 
the Caspian, whence they spread far into 
European Sarmatia. 

AO US (4) or AEAS (-antis), the principal 



river of the Greek part of Illyricum, rising 
in M. Lacmon, and flowing into the Ionian 
sea near Apollonia. 

APAMEA or -IA (-ae). (1) A. Ad Oboktem 
a city of Syria, built by Seleucus Xicator on 
the site of the older city of Pella, in a very 
strong position on the river Orontes or Axius, 
and named in honour of his wife Apama. — (2) 
i A. Cibotes or Ad Maeaxdbem, a great city 
1 of Phrygia, on the Maeander, close above 
! its confluence with the Marsyas. It was 
built by Antiochus I. Soter, who named it in 
honour of his mother Apama. — (3) A. Mye- 
leoNj in Bithynia. [Myelea.] 

APELLES (-is), the most celebrated of Gre- 
cian painters, was born, most probably, at Co- 
lophon in Ionia, though some ancient writers 
call him a Coan and others an Ephesian. He 
was the contemporary of Alexander the Great 
(b.c 336 — 323), who entertained so high an 
opinion of him, that he was the only person 
whom Alexander would permit to take his 
portrait. \Ve are not told when or where he 
died. Throughout his life Apelles laboured 
to improve himself, especially in drawing, 
which he never spent a day without practis- 
ing. Hence the proverb NitUa dies sine line a. 
Of his portraits the most celebrated was that 
of Alexander wielding a thunderbolt ; but 
the most admired of all his pictures was 
the " Venus Anadyomene," or Venus rising 
out of the sea. The goddess was wringing 
her haii% and the falling drops of water 
formed a transparent silver veil around her 
form. 

APELEICOX, of Teos, a Peripatetic philo- 
sopher and great collector of books. His 
valuable library at Athens, containing the 
autographs of Aristotle's works, was carried 
to Rome by Sulla (b.c. 83) : Apellicon had 
died just before. 

APEXXIXUS (4) MOXS, (probably from 
the Celtic Pen " a height"), the Apennines, a 
chain of mountains running throughout Italy 
from X. to S., and forming the backbone of the 
peninsula. It is a continuation of the Mari- 
time Alps [Alpes], and begins near Genua. 
At the boundaries of Saninium, Apulia, 
and Lueania, it divides into two main 
branches, one of which runs E. through 
Apulia and Calabria, and terminates at the 
Salentine promontory, and the other W. 
through Bruttimn, tercninating apparently at 
Rhegium and the straits of Messina, but in 
reality continued throughout Sicily. 

APER (-ri), ARRIUS (4), praetorian pre- 
fect, and son-in-law of the emperor Xume- 
rian, whom he was said to have murdered : 
he was himself put to death by Diocletian on 
his accession in a.d. 284. 

APERAXTIA (-ae), a town and district 



APHACA. 



APHRODITE. 



of Aetolia near the Achelous, inhabited by 
the Aperantii. 

APHACA (-ae), a town of Coele-Syria, be- 
tween Heliopolis and Byblus, celebrated for 
the ■worship and oracle of Aphrodite ( Yenus) . 

APBAREUS (-ei), father of Idas and ' 
Lynceus, the Apharetidae (also Aphdrela 
proles), celebrated for their fight with Castor 
and Pollux. 

APHIDNA (-ae), an Attic dermis not far 
from Decelea, was originally one of the 12 
towns and districts into which Cecrops is said 
to have divided Attica. Here Theseus con- 
cealed Helen, but her brothers Castor and 
Pollux took the place and rescued their 
sister. 

APHODIRSIAS (-adis), the name of seve- 
ral places famous for the worship of Aphrodite 
(Yenus). — (1) A town in Caria on the site 
of an old town of the Leleges, named Ninoe : 



under the Romans a free city and asylum, 
and a flourishing school of art. — (2) Also 
called Veneris Oppidum, a town, harbour, 
and island on the coast of Cilicia, opposite to 
Cyprus. 

^APHRODITE (-es), called YEXUS (Ms), 
by the Romans, the goddess of love and beauty. 
In the Iliad she is represented as the daughter 
of Zeus and Dione ; but later poets frequently 
relate that she was sprung from the foam of 
the sea, whence they derive her name. She 
was the wife of Hephaestus (Yulcan) ; but 
she proved faithless to her husband, and 
was in love with Ares (Mars) , the god of war. 
She also loved the gods Dionysus (Bacchus), 
Hermes (Mercury), and Poseidon (Xeptune), 
and the mortals Axchises and Adonis. She 
surpassed all the other goddesses in beauty, 
and hence received the prize of beauty from 
Paris. [Paris.] She likewise had the power 




Aphrodite (Venus) and Eros (Cupid). (Causei, 
Museum Romanum, vol. \, tav. 40.) 



of granting beauty and invincible charms to | 
others, and whoever wore her magic girdle 
immediately became an object of love and de- 
sire. In the vegetable kingdom the myrtle, 
rose, apple, poppy, &c ; , were sacred to her. 
The animals sacred to her, which are often ! 
mentioned as drawing her chariot or serving i 
as her messengers, are the sparrow, the | 



dove, the swan, the swallow, and a bird 
called iynx. She is generally represented 
in works of art with her son Eros (Cupid) . 
The principal places of her worship in Greece 
were the islands of Cyprus and Cythera. 
Her worship was of Eastern origin, and pro- 
bably introduced by the Phoenicians to the 
islands of Cyprus and Cythera, from whence it 



APHTHOXIUS. 



42 



APOLLO. 



spread all over Greece. She appears to have 
been originally identical with Astarte, called 
by the Hebrews Ashtoreth. 

* APHTHONIUS (4), of Antioch, a Greek rhe- 
torician, lived about a.d. 315, and wrote the 
introduction to the study of rhetoric, entitled 
Progymnasmata. It was used as the common 
school-book in this branch of education for 
several centuries. 

APHYTIS (-is), a town in the peninsula 
Pallene in Macedonia, with a celebrated 
temple and oracle of Zeus (Jupiter) Amnion. 
APIA. [Apis.] 

APICIUS (-i), the name of three notorious 
gluttons. — (1) The first lived in the time of 
Sulla. — (2) The second and most renowned, 
31. Gabkis Apieius, flourished under Tiberius. 
Having squandered his fortune on the plea- 
sures of the table, he hanged himself. — (3) A 
contemporary of Trajan, sent to this emperor, 
when he was in Parthia, fresh oysters, pre- 
served by a skilful process of his own. — The 
work on Cookery ascribed to Apieius, was 
probably compiled at a late period by some 
one who prefixed the name of Apieius, in 
order to insure the circulation of his book. 

APIDANUS (-i), a river in Thessaly, flow- 
ing into the Enlpeus near Pharsalus. 

APIOLAE (-arum), a town of Latium, 
destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus. 

APION, a Greek grammarian, and a native 
of Oasis in Egypt, taught rhetoric at Rome 
in the reigns of Tiberius and Claudius. He 
wrote a work against the Jews, to which 
Josephus replied in his treatise Against Apion. 

APION, PTOLEMAEUS. [Ptolemaeus.] 

APIS (-is). (1) Son of Phoroneus and Lao- 
dice, king of Argos, from whom Peloponnesus, 
and more especially Argos, was called Apia. — 
(2) The sacred Bull of Memphis, worshipped 
as a god among the Egyptians. There were 
certain signs by which he was recognised to 
be the god. At Memphis, he had a splendid 
residence, containing extensive walks and 
courts for his amusement. His birthday, 
which was celebrated every year, was a day 
of rejoicing for all Egypt. His death was a 
season of public mourning, which continued 
till another sacred bull was discovered by the 
priests. 

APODOTI (-drum), a people in the S.E. of 
Aetolia, between the Evenus and Hylaethus. 

APOLLIXARIS, SIDONIUS. [Sidonius.] 

APOLLINIS PR. , a promontory in N. Africa, 
forming the ~W. point of the gulf of Carthage. 

APOLLO (-inis), one of the great divinities 
of the Greeks, son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leto 
(Latona) and twin brother of Artemis (Diana), 
was born in the island of Delos, whither Leto 
had fled from the jealous Hera (Juno). 
[Leto.] The powers ascribed to Apollo are 



apparently of different kinds, but all are con- 
nected with one another, as will be seen from 
the following classification. He is — 1. Hie 
god, wJw punishes, whence he is represented 
with a bow and arrows. All sudden deaths 
were believed to be the effect of his arrows ; 
and with them he sent the plague into the camp 
of the Greeks before Troy. — 2. Hie god who 
affords help and wards off evil. As he had the 
power of punishing men, so he was also able 
to deliver men, if duly propitiated. From his 
being the god who afforded help, he is the 
father of Aesculapius, the god of the healing 
art, and was also identified in later times 
with Paeeon, the god of the healing art in 
Homer. — 3. Hie god of prophecy. Apollo 
exercised this power in his numerous oracles, 
and especially in that of Delphi. Hence he 
is frequently called the Pythian Apollo, from 
Pytho, the ancient name of Delphi. He had the 
power of communicating the gift of prophecy 
both to gods and men, and all the ancient 
seers and prophets are placed in some rela- 
tionship to him. — 4. The god of song and 
■music. AYe find him in the Iliad delighting 
the immortal gods with his phorminx ; and 
the Homeric bards derived their art of song 
either from Apollo or the Muses. Hence 




Apollo Musagetes. (Osterley, Deiik. der alten 
Kunst, tav. 32.) 

he is placed in close connexion with the 
Muses, and is called Musagetes, as leader of the 
choir of the Muses. Later tradition ascribed 
to Apollo even the invention of the flute and 



APOLLO. 



43 



APOLLONIUS, 



lyre, while it is more commonly related that 
he received the lyre from Hermes (Mercury' . 
Respecting his musical contests, see Mar- 
syas, Midas. — 5. TJie god who protects the 
-flocks and cattle. There are in Homer 
only a few allusions to this feature in the 




Apollo, with Lyre and Bow. (Zoega, Bassirilievi, 
tav. 93.) 

character of Apollo, but in later writers it 
assumes a very prominent form, and in the 
story of Apollo tending the flocks of Admetus j 




The Pythian Apollo. (Audran, Proportion du Corps 
Humain, pi. IS.) 

at Pherae in Thessaly, the idea reaches its 
height. — 6. TJie god who delights in the foun- 
dation of towns and the establishment of civil 



constitutions. Hence a town or a colony was 
never founded by the Greeks without con- 
sulting an oracle of Apollo, so that in every 
case he became, as it were, their spiritual 
leader. — 7. Hie god of the Sun. In Homer, 
Apollo and Helios, or the Sun, are perfectly 
distinct, and his identification with the Sun, 
though almost universal among later writers, 
was the result of later speculations and of 
foreign, chiefly Egyptian, influence. — Apollo 
had more influence upon the Greeks than any 
other god. It may safely be asserted, that 
the Greeks would never have become what 
they were, without the worship of Apollo : in 
him the brightest side of the Grecian mind is 
reflected. In the religion of the early Romans 
there is no trace of the worship of Apollo. 
The Romans became acquainted with this 
divinity through the Greeks, and adopted all 
their notions about him froni the latter people. 
During the second Punic war, in 212, the 
ludi Apollinares were instituted in his honour. 
— The most beautiful among the extant 
representations of Apollo, is the Apollo Bel- 
vedere at Rome, in which he appears as the 
perfect ideal of youthful manliness. 

APOLLODORUS (-i; , of Athens, flourished 
about b.c. 140. His work, entitled Biblio- 
theca, contains a well arranged account of 
the Greek mythology. 

APOLLOXIA (-ae). (1) An important 
town in Iiiyria, not far from the mouth 
of the Aous, and 60 stadia from the sea. 
It was founded by the Corinthians and Cor- 
cyraeans, and was equally celebrated as a 
place of commerce and of learning. Many 
distinguished Romans, among others the 
young Octavius, afterwards the emperor 
Augustus, pursued their studies here. Per- 
sons travelling from Italy to Greece and the 
East, usually landed either at Apollonia or 
Dyrrhaciurn. — (2) A town in Macedonia, 
on the Via Egnatia, between Thessalonica 
and Amphipolis, and S. of the lake of 
Bolbe. — A town in Thrace on the Black 
Sea, a colony of Miletus, had a celebrated 
temple of Apollo, from which Lucullus 
carried away a colossus of this god, and 
erected it on the Capitol at Rome. — (4) A 
castle or fortified town of the Locri Ozolae, 
near Xaupactus. — (5) A town on the X. coast 
of Sicily. — (6) A town in Bithynia on the 
lake Apolloniatis, through which the river 
Rhyndacus flows. — (7) A town in Cyrenaica 
and the harbour of Cyrene, one of the 5 towns 
of the Pentapolis in Libya : it was the birth- 
place of Eratosthenes. 

APOLLOXIS (-is), a city in Lydia, between 
Pergamus and Sardis, named after Apollonis, 
the mother of king Eumenes. 

APOLLONIUS (-i). ft) Of Aiabanba in 



APONUS. 



44 



AQUAE. 



Carta, a rhetorician, taught rhetoric at 
Rhodes, about b.c. 100. — [2) Of Aiabakpa, 
surnamed Molo, likewise a rhetorician, 
taught rhetoric at Rhodes. In b.c. 81, Apol- 
lonius came to Rome as ambassador of the 
Rhodians, on which occasion Cicero heard 
him ; Cicero also received instruction from 
Apollonius at Rhodes a few years later. — 
(3) Peegaees, from Perga in Pamphylia, 
one of the greatest mathematicians of anti- 
quity, commonly called the Great Geometer," 
was educated at Alexandria under the suc- 
cessors of Euclid, and flourished about b.c. 
250 — 220. — (4) Rhodits, a poet and gram- 
marian, was born at Alexandria, and flourished 
in the reigns of Ptolemy Philopator and 
Ptolemy Epiphanes 'b.c 222 — 181). In his 
youth he was instructed by Callimachus ; but 
they afterwards became bitter enemies. Apol- 
lonius taught rhetoric at Rhodes with so 
much success, that the Rhodians honoured 
him with their franchise : hence he was 
called the " Rhodian." He afterwards re- 
turned to Alexandria, where he succeeded 
Eratosthenes as chief librarian at Alexandria. 
Bis poem, called the Argonautica, gives a 
description of the adventures of the Argonauts. 
— '5. Tyaxexsis or Ttaxaeus, i.e. of Tyana 
in Cappadocia, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
was born about 4 years before the Christian 
era. Apollonius obtained great influence by 
pretending to miraculous powers. His life 
is written by Philostratus. After travelling 
through the greater part of the then known 
world, he settled clown at Ephesus, where he 
is said to have proclaimed the death of the 
tyrant Domitian the instant it took place. 
* APONUS or APONI FONS, warm medicinal 
springs, near Patavium, hence called Aquae 
Patavinae, were much frequented by the sick. 

APPIA VIA (-ae), the most celebrated 
of the Roman roads, was commenced by Ap. 
Claudius Caecus, when censor, b.c 312, and 
was the great line of communication between 
Rome and southern Italy. It issued from the 
Porta Capena, and terminated at Capua, but 
was eventually extended to Brundusium. 

APPIANTTS (-i), the Roman historian, a 
native of Alexandria, lived at Rome during the 
reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus 
Pius. He wrote a Roman history in 24 books, 
of which only part has come down to us. His 
style is clear ; but he possesses few merits as 
an historian. 

APPIAS (-adis), a nymph of the Appian 
well, which was situated near the temple of 
Venus Genetrix in the forum of Julius Caesar. 
It was surrounded by statues of nymphs, 
called Appiades. 

APPII FORUM. [Forum Appei.] 

APPULEIUS or APULEIUS f-i). of Madura 



in Africa, bom about a.d. 130, received the 
first rudiments of education at Carthage, and 
afterwards studied the Platonic philosophy 
at Athens. He next travelled extensively, 
visiting Italy, Greece, and Asia. After his 
return to Africa he married a very rich widow. 
His most important work is the Golden Ass, 
which is a kind of romance. The well-known 
and beautiful tale of Cupid and Psyche forms 
an episode in this work. 

APPULEIUS SATUEVIVUS. [Sasosni- 

>TS. _ 

APPLES, a king of Egypt, the Pharaoh- 
Hophra of Scripture, succeeded his father 
Psanmris, and reigned b.c 595 — 570. He 
was dethroned and put to death by Amasis. 

APSUS -L, a river in IUyria, flowing into 
the Ionian sea. 

APSVRTUS. [AbsyPvTus. ] 

APUANI -orum . a Ligurian people on the 
Macra, subdued by the Romans after a long 
resistance and transplanted to Samnium, 
b.c 180. _ 

APULEIUS. [ApprxEirs.] 

APULIA (-ae), included, in its widest sig- 
nification, the whole of the S. E. of Italy from 
the river Erento to the promontory Iapygium. 
In its narrower sense it was the country E. 
of Samnium on both sides of the Auflclus. the 
Daunia and Peucetia of the Greeks : the S. E. 
part was called Calabria by the Romans. The 
Greeks gave the name of Daunia to the X. 
part of the country from the Erento to the 
Aufidus, of Peucetia to the country from the 
Aufidus to Tarentum and Brundusiuni, and of 
Iapygia or Messapia to the whole of the 
remaining S. part : though they sometimes 
included under Iapygia all Apulia in its 
widest meaning. The country was very fertile, 
especially in the neighbourhood of Tarentum, 
and the mountains afforded excellent pas- 
turage. The population was of a mixed 
nature : they were for the most part of LUy- 
rian origin, and are said to have settled in 
the country under the guidance of Iapyx, 
Daunius, and Peucetius, three sons of an 
Illyrian king, Lycaon. Subsequently many 
towns were founded by Greek colonists. The 
Apulians joined the Sanmites against the 
Romans, and became subject to the latter on 
the conquest of the Samnites. 

AQUAE (-arum;, the name given by the 
Romans to many medicinal springs and bath- 
ing places : — 1 Cetieeae, mineral springs in 
Samnium near the ancient town of Cutilia, 
which perished in early times, andE. of Reate. 
There was a celebrated lake in its neighbour- 
hood with a floating island, which was re- 
garded as the umbilicus or centre of Italy. 
Vespasian died at this place.— (2) Patavtxae. 
"Apoxi Ecxs." — (3) Sextiae [Aix , a Roman 



AQUILAEIA. 



45 



AEABIS. 



colony in Gallia Xarbonensis, founded by 
Sextius Calvinus, B.C. 122 ; its mineral waters 
were long celebrated. Near this place Marius 
defeated the Teutoni, b.c. 102. — (1) Stati- 
ellae, a town of the Statielli in Liguria, 
celebrated for its warm baths. 

AQUILAEIA (-ae), a town on the coast of 
Zengitana in Africa, on the W« side of Her- 
maeum Pr. (C. Bon). It was a good landing- 
place in summer. 

AQUILEIA (-ae) , a town in Gallia Trans* 
padana at the very top of the Adriatic, about 60 
stadia from the sea. It was founded by the 
Eomans in b.c. 182, as a bulwark against the 
northern barbarians, and was one of the 
strongest fortresses of the Eomans. It was 
also a flourishing place of commerce. It was 
taken and completely destroyed by Attila in 
a.d. 452 : its inhabitants escaped to the 
Lagoons, where Venice was afterwards built. 

AQUILLIA VIA (-ae), began at Capua, and 
ran S. through the very heart of Lucania and 
Bruttii to Rhegiuni. 

AQUILLIUS or AQUILIUS (-i). (1) 
Consul, b.c 129, finished the war against Aris- 
tonicus, son of Eumenes of Pergamus. — (2) 
Consul, b.c 101, finished the Servile war 
in Sicily. In 88 he was defeated by Mith- 
ridates, who put him to death by pouring 
molten gold down his throat, 

AQULLOXIA (-ae), a town of Samnium, 
E. of Bovianum, destroyed by the Eomans in 
the^ Samnite wars. 

AQUIXUM (-i), a town of the Tolscians 
in Latiuni ; a Eoman municipium and after- 
wards a colony ; the birth-place of Juvenal ; 
celebrated for its purple dye. 

AQFITAXIA (-ae). (1) The country of 
the Aquitani, extended from the Garumna 
(Garonne) to the Pyrenees. It was first con- 
quered by Caesar's legates. — (2) The Eoman 
province of Aquitania, formed in the reign of 
Augustus, extended from the Ligeris [Loire), 
to the Pyrenees, and was bounded on the E. 
by the Mons Cevenna, which separated it 
from Gallia Xarbonensis. The Aquitani were 
of Iberian or_ Spanish origin. 

ABA UBIOEOI, a place in the neighbour- 
hood of Bonn in Germany, perhaps Godesberg. 

ARABIA (-ae), a country at the S. \V. extre- 
mity of Asia, forming a large peninsula, of a 
sort of hatchet shape, bounded on the W. by the 
Arabicus Sinus [Red Sea), on the S. and S.E. 
by the Ervthraev:.! Mare {Gulf of Bab-el- 
Mandeb and Indian Ocean), and on the X.E. 
by the Persicus Sinus [Persian Gulf). On 
the X. or land side its boundaries were some- 
what indefinite, but it seems to have included 
the whole of the desert country between 
Egypt and Syria, on the one side, and the 
banks of the Euphrates on the other. It was | 



divided into 3 parts : (1) Arabia Pe- 
traea, including the triangular piece of 
land between the two heads of the Eed Sea 
(the peninsula of M. Sinai) and the country 
immediately to the X. and X.E. ; and called 
from its capital Petra, while the literal signi- 
fication of the name " Eocky Arabia," agrees 
also with the nature of the country : (2) 
Arabia Deserta, including the great 
Syrian Desert and a portion of the interior 
of the Arabian peninsula : (3) Arabia 
Felix, consisting of the whole country not 
included in the other two divisions. The 
ignorance of the ancients respecting the 
interior of the peninsula led them to class it 
with Arabia Felix, although it properly 
belongs to Arabia Deserta, for it consists of 
a sandy desert. There is only on the W« 
coast a belt of fertile land, which caused the 
ancients to apply the epithet of Felix to the 
whole peninsula. — The inhabitants of Arabia 
were of the race called Semitic or Aramaean, 
and closely related to the Israelites. The 
N.W. district (Arabia Petraea) was inhabited 
by the various tribes which constantly appear 
in Jewish history : the Amalekites, Midian- 
ites, Edomites, Moabites, Ammonites, kc. 
The Greeks and Eomans called the inhabi- 
tants by the name of Xabathaei, whose capital 
was Petra. The people of Arabia Deserta 
were called Arabes Scenitae, from their dwell- 
ing in tents, and Arabes Xomadae, from their 
mode of life. From the earliest known period 
a considerable traffic was carried on by the 
people in the X. (especially the Xabathaei) 
by means of caravans, and by those on the 
S. and E. coast by sea, in the productions of 
their own country (chiefly gums, spices, and 
precious stones), and in those of India and 
Arabia. The only part of Arabia ever con- 
quered was Arabia Petraea, which became 
under Trajan a Eoman province. Christianity 
was early introduced into Arabia, where it 
spread to a ' great extent, and continued to 
exist side by side with the old religion (which 
was Sabaeism, or the worship of heavenly 
bodies), and with some admixture of Judaism, 
until the total revolution produced by the rise 
of Mohammedanism in 622. 

AEABICUS SIXES (-i : Bed Sea), a long 
narrow gulf between Africa and Arabia, con- 
nected on the S. with the Indian Ocean by 
the Straits of Bab-el-JIandcb, and on the X. 
divided into two heads by the peninsula of 
Arabia Petraea (Pcnins. of Si?iai), the E. of 
which was called Sinus Aelanites or Aelani- 
ticus (Gulf of Akaba), and the W« Sinus 
Heroopolites or Heroopoliticus (Gulf of Suez). 
Eespecting its other name see Erythraeum 
Mare. 

AEABIS (-is), a river of Gedrosia, falling 



AHACHNE. 



46 



ARCADIA. 



into the Indian Ocean, W. of the mouth of 
the Indus, and dividing the Oritae on its W. 
from the Arabltae or Arbies on its E. 

ARACHNE (-es), a Lydian maiden, daughter 
of Idmon of Colophon, a famous dyer in purple. 
Arachne excelled in the art of weaving, and, 
proud of her talent, ventured to challenge 
Athena Minerva), to compete with her. The 
maiden produced a piece of cloth in which 
the amours of the gods were woven, and as 
the goddess could find no fault with it, she 
tore the work to pieces. Arachne in despair 
hung herself : Athena loosened the rope and 
saved her life, hut the rope was changed into 
a cobweb and Arachne herself into a spider 
(Arachne). This fable seems to suggest that 
man learnt the art of weaving from the spider, 
and that it was invented in Lydia. 

ARACHOSIA (-ae), one of the E. provinces 
of the Persian (and afterwards of the Parthian) 
Empire, bounded on the E. by the Indus, on 
the X. by the Paropamisadae, on the W. by 
Drangiana, and on the S. by Gedrosia. It 
was a fertile country. 

ARACHTHUS (4) or ARETHO (-onis), a 
river of Epirus, rising in M. Lacmon or the 
Tymphean mountains, and flowing into the 
Ambracian gulf. 

AE A C YNTHU S (-i), a mountain on the 
S. Y\ r . coast of Aetolia near Pleuron, some- 
times placed in Acarnania. Eater writers 
erroneously make it a mountain between 
Boeotia and Attica, and hence mention it in 
connection with Amphion, the Boeotian hero. 

ARADUS (4: in 0. T. Arvad), a small 
island off the coast of Phoenicia, with a 
flourishing city, said to have been founded by 
exiles from Sidon. It possessed a harbour on 
the mainland, called Antaradus. 

AEAE PHILAEXORUM. [Philaexi.] 

ABAR or ARARIS (4s : Sadne), a river of 
Gaul, rises in the Vosges, receives the Dubis 
[Doubs) from the E., after which it becomes 
navigable, and flows with a quiet stream into 
the Ehone at Lugdunum {Lyon), 

ABATES (4). (1) The celebrated general of 
the Achaeans, son of Clinias, was born at 
Sicyon, b.c. 271. His father was murdered 
when he was a child, and was brought up at 
Argos. At 20 years of age he delivered Sicyon 
from the rule of its tyrant and united the city 
to the Achaean league, which gained in con- 
sequence a great accession of power, b.c. 
251. [Achaei.] In 245 he was elected 
general of the league, which office he fre- 
quently held in subsequent years. But he 
excelled more in negotiation than in war ; 
and in his war with the Aetolians and Spartans 
he was often defeated. In order to resist 
these enemies he cultivated the friendship of 
Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia, and of 



his successor Philip : but as Philip was evi- 
dently anxious to make himself master of all 
Greece, dissensions arose between him and 
Aratus, and the latter was eventually poisoned 
in 213 by the king's order.— (2) Of Soli, 
afterwards Pompeiopolis, in Cilicia, flourished 
b.c 270, and spent the latter part of his life 
at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of 
Macedonia. He wrote two astronomical 
poems, entitled Phaenomena and Diosemeia y 
which were very popular in ancient times. 
They were translated into Latin by Cicero, by 
Caesar Germanicus, the grandson of Augustus, 
and by Eestus Avienus. 

ARAXES (4s), the name of several rivers. 
— (i) In Armenia, rising in M. Aba or Abus, 
joining the Cyrus, and falling with it 
into the Caspian sea. The Araxes was pro- 
verbial for the force of its current. — (2) In 
Mesopotamia. [Aborrhas.] — (3) In Persis, 
the river on which Persepolis stood, flowing 
into a salt lake not far below Persepolis. — 
(4) It is doubtful whether the Araxes of 
Herodotus is the same as the Oxrs, Jaxabtes, 
or Volga. 

ABBACES (-is), the founder of the Median 
empire, according to Ctesias, is said to have 
taken Nineveh in conjunction with Belesis, 
the Babylonian, and to have destroyed the 
old Assyrian empire under the reign of Sar- 
danapalus, b.c. 876. 

ARBELA (-ae), a city of Adiabene in 
Assyria, celebrated as the head-quarters of 
Darius Codomannus, before the last battle in 
which he was overthrown by Alexander (b.c. 
331), which is hence frequently called the 
battle of Arbela, though it was really fought 
near Gatjgamela, about 50 miles AY. of Arbela. 

ABBUSCULA (-ae), a celebrated female 
actor in pantomimes in the time of Cicero. 

AECA (-ae), or -AE (-arum), an ancient city 
in the X. of Phoenicia ; the birthplace of the 
emperor Alexander Severus. 

ABCADIA (-ae), a country in the middle of 
Peloponnesus, surrounded on all sides by 
mountains, the Switzerland of Greece. The 
Achelous, the greatest river of Peloponnesus, 
rises in Arcadia. The X. and E. parts of the 
country were barren and unproductive ; the Yv . 
and S. were more fertile, with numerous valleys 
where corn was grown. The Arcadians re- 
garded themselves as the most ancient people 
in Greece : the Greek writers call them 
indigenous and Pelasgians. They were chiefly 
employed in hunting and the tending of cattle, 
whence their worship of Pan, who was 
especially the god of Arcadia, and of Artemis. 
They were passionately fond of music, and 
cultivated it with success. The Arcadians ex- 
perienced fewer changes than any other people 
in Greece s and retained possession of their 



ARCADIUS. 



47 



ARCHILOCHUS 



country upon the conquest of the rest of 
Peloponnesus by the Dorians. After the 
second Messenian war, the different towns 
became independent republics, of which the 
most important were Mantinea, Tegea, 
Orchomexus, Psophis, and Phexeus. Like 
the Swiss, the Arcadians frequently served 
as mercenaries. The Lacedaemonians made 
many attempts to obtain possession of parts 
of Arcadia, but these attempts were finally 
frustrated by the battle of Leuctra (b. c. 371) ; 
and in order to resist all future aggresions on 
the part of Sparta, the Arcadians, upon the 
advice of Epaminondas, built the city of 
Megalopolis. They subsequently joined the 
Achaean League, and finally became subject 
to the Romans. 

ARCADIUS (-i), emperor of the East, elder 
son of Theodosius I., and brother of Hono- 
rius, reigned A. D. 395 — 408. 

ARCAS (-adis), king of the Arcadians, son 
of Zeus (Jupiter) and Callisto, from whom 
Arcadia was supposed to have derived its 
name. 

ARCESILAUS (-i). (1) A Greek philoso- 
pher, born at Pitane in Aeolis, succeeded 
Crates about b. c. 241 in the chair of the 
Academy at Athens, and became the founder 
of the second or middle Academy. He is said 
to have died in his 76th year from a fit of 
dunkenness. — (2) The name of four kings of 
Cyrene. [Battiadae.] 

ARCESIUS (-i), father of Laertes, and 
grand-father of Ulysses, who is hence called 
Arcesiades. 

ARCHELAUS (-i). (1) Son of Herod the 
Great, was appointed by his father as his 
successor, and received from Augustus Judaea, 
Samaria, and Idiunaea, with the title of 
ethnarch. In consequence of his tyrannical 
government, Augustus banished him in a.d. 7 
to Vienna in Gaul, where he died. — (2) King 
of Macedonia (b.c. 113—399), an illegiti- 
mate son of Perdiccas II., obtained the 
throne by the murder of his half-brother. 
He was a warm patron of art and literature. 
His palace was adorned with paintings by 
Zeuxis ; and Euripides, Agathon, and other 
men of eminence, were among his guests. — 
(3) A distinguished general of Mithridates, 
defeated by Sulla in Boeotia, b.c. 86. He 
deserted to the Romans, b.c 81. — (4) Son of 
the preceding, was raised by Pompey, in 
b.c 63, to the dignity of priest of the goddess 
at Comana in Pontus or Cappadocia. In 56 
or 55 Archelaus became king of Egypt by 
marrying Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy 
Auletes, who, after the expulsion of her father, 
had obtained the sovereignty of Egypt. But 
at the eud of 6 months he was defeated and 
slain in battle by Gabinius, who had marched ( 



with an army into Egypt in order to restore 
Ptolemy Auletes. — (5) Son of No. 4, and his 
successor in the office of high-priest of Co- 
mana, was deprived of his dignity by Julius 
Caesar in 47. — (6) Son of Xo. 5, received 
from Antony, in b.c 36, the kingdom of 
Cappadocia — a favour which he owed to the 
charms of his mother Glaphyra. He was 
deprived of his kingdom by Tiberius, a.d. 1 7 ; 
and Cappadocia was then made a Roman 
province. — (7) A philosopher of the Ionic 
school, born either at Athens or at Miletus. 
He flourished about b.c 450. 

ARCHIAS (-ae). (1) An Heraclid of Co- 
rinth, who founded Syracuse, b.c 7 34. — (2) 
A. Licinitjs Archias, a Greek poet, born at 
Antioch in Syria, about b.c. 120, came to 
Rome in 102, and was received in the most 
friendly way by the Luculli, from whom he 
obtained the gentile name of Licinius. He 
was enrolled as a citizen at Heraclea in 
Lucania ; and as this town was united with 
Rome by a foedus, he subsequently obtained 
the Roman franchise in accordance with the 
lex Plautia Papiria passed in b.c. 89. In 61 
he was accused of assuming the citizenship 
illegally. He was defended by his friend 
M. Cicero in the extant speech Pro Archia, 
in which the orator, after briefly discussing- 
the legal points of the case, rests the defence 
of his client upon his merits as a poet, which 
entitled him to the Roman citizenship. 

ARCHIDAMUS (-i), the name of 5 kings 
of Sparta. — (1) Son of Anaxidamus, contempo- 
rary with the Tegeatan .war, which followed 
soon after the second Messenian, b.c. 668. — 
(2) Son of Zeuxidamus, succeeded his grand- 
father Leotychides, andreignedB.c. 469 — 42 7. 
He opposed making war upon the Athenians ; 
but after the Peloponnesian war broke out 
(b.c 431), he invaded Attica, and held the 
supreme command of the Peloponnesian forces 
till his death in 429. — (3) Grandson of Xo. 2, 
and son of Agesilaus II., reigned b.c. 361 — 
338. In 338 he went to Italy to aid the 
Tarentines against the Lucanians, and there 
fell in battle. — (4) Grandson of Xo. 3, and 
son of Eudamidas I., was king in b.c. 296, 
when he was defeated by Demetrius Poli- 
orcetes. — (5) Son of Eudamidas II., and the 
brother of Agis IV. He was slain soon after 
his accession, b.c. 240. He was the last king* 
of the Eurypontid race. 

ARCHILOCHUS (-i), of Paros, was one of 
the earliest lyric poets, and the first who 
composed Iambic verses. He flourished about 
b.c 714 — 67 6. He went from Paros to 
Thasos with a colony, but afterwards returned 
to Paros, and fell in battle in a war against 
the Xaxians. His fame was chiefly founded 
on his satiric iambic poetry. He had been 



ARCHIMEDES. 



48 



ARES. 



a suitor to Neobule, one of the daughters of 
Lyeambes, who first promised and afterwards 
refused to give his daughter to the poet. 
Enraged at this treatment, Archilochus 
attacked the whole family in an iambic poem 
with such effect, that the daughters of Ly- 
eambes are said to have hung themselves 
through shame. While at Thasos, he in- 
curred the disgrace of losing his shield in an 
engagement with the Thracians of the oppo- 
site continent ; but, instead of being ashamed 
of the disaster, he recorded it in his verse. 

ARCHIMEDES, (-i and -is), of Syracuse, 
the most famous of ancient mathematicians, 
was born b.c. 287. He was a friend, if not a 
kinsman, of Hiero, for whom he constructed 
various engines of war, which, many years 
afterwards, were so far effectual in the defence 
of Syracuse against Marcellus, as to convert the 
siege into a blockade. The accounts of the 
performances of these engines are evidently 
exaggerated ; and the story of the burning of 
the R,oman ships by the reflected rays of the 
sun, is probably a fiction. "When Syracuse 
was taken (b.c. 212), Archimedes was killed 
by the Roman soldiers, being at the time 
intent upon a mathematical problem. Some 
of his works have come down to us. 

ARCHYTAS (-ae), of Tarentum, a distin- 
guished philosopher, mathematician, general, 
and statesman, lived about b. c. 400, and 
onwards. He was contemporary with Plato, 
whose life he is said to have saved by his in- 
fluence with the tyrant Dionysius. He was 
drowned while upon a voyage on the Adriatic. 
As a philosopher, he belonged to the Pytha- 
gorean school. 

ARCONNESUS (-i). (1) An island off the 
coast of Ionia, near Lebedus, also called Aspis 
and Maoris. — (2) An island off the coast of 
Caria, opposite Halicarnassus, of which it 
formed the harbour. 

ARCTINUS (-i), of Miletus, the most dis- 
tinguished among the cyclic poets, probably 
lived about b.c 776. 

ARCTOPHYLAX. [Arctos.] 

ARCTOS (-i), "the Bear," two constella- 
tions near the N. Pole. — (1) The Great Bear 
[Ursa Major), also called the Waggon 
[plaustrum) . The ancient Italian name of 
this constellation was Septem Triones, that is, 
the Seven Ploughing Oxen, also Septentrio, 
and with the epithet Major to distinguish it 
from the Septentrio Minor, or Lesser Bear.— 
(2) The Lesser or Little Bear ( Ursa Minor),. 
likewise called the Waggon, and Cynosura, 
dog's tail, from the resemblance of the con- 
stellation to the upturned curl of a dog's tail. 
The constellation before the Great Bear was 
called Bootes, Arctophylax, or Arcturus. At 
a later time Arctophylax became the general 



name of the constellation, and the word Arc- 
turus was confined to the chief star in it. 
All these constellations are connected in 
mythology with the Arcadian nymph Callisto, 
the daughter of Lycaon. Metamorphosed by 
Zeus (Jupiter) upon the earth into a she- 
bear, Callisto was pursued by her son Areas 
in the chase, and when he was on the point 
of killing her, Zeus placed them both among 
the stars, Callisto becoming the Great Bear 
and Areas the Little Bear or Bootes. In the 
poets the epithets of these stars have constant 
reference to the family and country of Callisto : 
thus we find them called Lycaonis Arctos: 
Maenalia Arctos and Maenalis Ursa (from 
M. Maenalus in Arcadia) : Erymanthis Ursa 
(from M. Erymanthus in Arcadia) : Parrha- 
sides stellae (from the Arcadian town Parr- 
hasia). — Though most traditions identified 
Bootes with Areas, others pronounced him to 
be Icarus or his daughter Erigone. Hence 
the Septentriones are called Boves Icarii. 

ARCTURUS. [Arctos.] 

ARDEA (-ae), the chief town of the Rutuli 
in Latium, situated about 3 miles from the 
sea, one of the most ancient places in 
Italy, and the capital of Turnus. It was con- 
quered and colonised by the Romans, b.c. 
442. 

ARDUENNA SILVA (-ae), the Ardennes, 
a vast forest, in the N.W. of Gaul, extending 
from the Rhine and the Treviri to the Nervii 
and Remi, and N. as far as the Scheldt. 

ARDYS, son of Gyges, king of Lydia, 
reigned b.c_678 — 629. 

w ARELATE (-es), ARELAS (-atis), or 
ARELATUM (-i) [Aries), a town in Gallia 
Narbonensis, at the head of the delta of the 
Rhone on the left bank, and a Roman colony. 
The Roman remains at Aries attest the 
greatness of the ancient city : there are still 
the ruins of an aqueduct, theatre, amphi- 
theatre, &c. 

AREOPAGUS. [Athenae.] 

ARES (-is), called MARS (-rtis), by the 
Romans, the Greek god of war, and one of 
the great Olympian gods, is called the son of 
Zeus (Jupiter) and Hera (Juno). He is repre- 
sented as delighting in the din and roar of 
battles, in the slaughter of men, and in the 
destruction of towns. His savage and san- 
guinary character makes him hated by the 
other gods and by his own parents. He was 
wounded by Diomedes, who was assisted by 
Athena (Minerva), and in his fall he roared 
like ten thousand warriors. The gigantic 
Aloldae had likewise conquered him, and 
kept him a prisoner for 13 months, until he 
was delivered by Hermes (Mercury). He 
was also conquered by Hercules, with whom 
he fought on account of his son Cycnus, and 



ARESTOR. 



49 



ARGONAUT AE. 



was obliged to return to Olympus. This 
fierce and gigantic, but withal handsome god, 
loved and was beloved by Aphrodite (Venus). 
[Aphrodite.] According to a late tradition, 
Ares slew Halirrhothius, the son of Poseidon 
(Neptune), when he was offering violence to 
Alcippe, the daughter of Ares. Hereupon 
Poseidon accused Ares in the Areopagus, 
where the Olympian gods were assembled in 




Ares friars). (Ludo\isi Statue in Eome). 



court. Ares was acquitted, and this event 
was believed to have given rise to the name 
Areopagus. In Greece the worship of Ares 
was not very general, and it was probably 
introduced from Thrace. Respecting the 
Roman god of war, see Mars. 

ARESTOR (-oris), father of Argus, the 
guardian of lo, who is therefore called Ares- 
torides. 

ARETAS, the name of several kings of 
Arabia Petraea. — (1) A contemporary of 
Pompey, invaded Judaea in 65, in order 
to place Hyrcanus on the throne, but was 
driven back by the Romans, who espoused 
the cause of Aristobulus. His dominions 
were subsequently invaded by Scaurus, the 
lieutenant of Pompey. — (2) The father-in-law 
of Herod Antipas, invaded Judaea, because 
Herod had dismissed the daughter of Aretas 
in consequence of his connection with 
Herodias. This Aretas seems to have been 
the same who had possession of Damascus at 



the time of the conversion of the Apostle 
Paul, a.d. 31. 

ARETHUSA (-ae), one of the Nereids, 
and the nymph of the famous fountain of 
Arethusa in the island of Ortygia near Syra- 
cuse. _ For details see Alpheus. 

ARETIUM. [Arretium.] 

AREUS (-i), king of Sparta, succeeded 
his grandfather, Cleomenes II., and reigned 
b.c. 309 — 265. He fell in battle against the 
Macedonians. 

AREYACAE (-arum), or AREVACI 
(-orum), the most powerful tribe of the Cel- 
tiberians in Spain, near the sources of the 
Tagus, derived their name from the river 
Areva, a tributary of the Durius. 

ARGENTORATUM (-i), or -TUS (-i), 
(Strassburg), an important town on the 
Rhine in Gallia Belgica, and a Roman muni- 
cipium. 

ARGES. [Cyclopes.] 

ARGI. [Argos.] 

ARGIA (-ae), daughter of Adrastus and 
Amphithea, and wife of Polynlces. 

ARGILETUM (-i), a district in Rome, 
extending from the S. of the Quirinal to the 
Capitoline and the Eorum. It was chiefly 
inhabited by mechanics and booksellers. 

ARGILUS (-i), a town in Macedonia be- 
tween Amphipolis and Bromiscus, a colony 
of Andros._ 

ARGINUSAE (-arum), 3 small islands off 
the coast of Aeolis, opposite Mytilene in 
Lesbos, celebrated for the naval victory of 
the Athenians over the Lacedaemonians under 
Callicratidas, b.c. 406. 

ARGIPHONTES (-is), " the slayer of Ar- 
gus," a surname of Hermes (Mercury). 

ARGIPPAEI (-orum), a Scythian tribe in 
Sarmatia Asiatica, who appear to have been 
of the Calniuck race. 

ARGITHEA (-ae), the chief town of Atha- 
mania in Epirus. 

ARGIVA (-ae), a surname of Hera or 
Juno from Argos, where she was especially 
honoured. [Argos. ] 

ARGIYT. [Argos.] 

ARGO. [ Argon autae.] 

ARGOLIS. [Argos.] 

ARGONALTAE (-arum), the Argonauts, 
"the sailors of the Argo," were the heroes 
who sailed to Aea (afterwards called Colchis) 
for the purpose of fetching the golden fleece. 
In order to get rid of Jason [Jason], Pelias, 
king of Iolcus in Thessaly, persuaded him to 
fetch the golden fleece, which was suspended 
on an oak tree in the grove of Ares (Mars) in 
Colchis, and was guarded day and night by a 
dragon. Jason undertook the enterprize, and 
commanded Argus, the son of Phrixus, to 
build a ship with 50 oars, which was called 



ARGOS. 



50 



ARGOS. 



Argo after the name of the builder. The 
goddess Athena (Minerva) is represented in 
works of art superintending the building of 
the ship. Jason was accompanied by all the 
great heroes of the age, such as Hercules, 
Castor and Pollux, Theseus, &c. : their num- 
ber is said to have been 50. After meeting 
with many adventures, they at length arrived 
at the mouth of the river Phasis. The Col- 
chian king Aeetes promised to give up the 
golden fleece, if Jason would yoke to a 
plough two fire-breathing oxen with brazen 
feet, and sow the teeth of the dragon which 
had not been used by Cadmus at Thebes. 
Medea, the daughter of Aeetes fell in love 



with Jason, and on his promising to marry 
her, she furnished him with the means of 
resisting fire and steel, and sent to sleep the 
dragon who guarded the golden fleece. After 
Jason had taken the treasure, he and his 
Argonauts embarked by night, along with 
Medea, and sailed away. On their return 
they w>3re driven by a storm to the W. of 
Italy ; and after wandering about the western 
coasts of the Mediterranean, they at length 
arrived at Iolcus. [Medea; Jason.] The 
tale of the Argonauts may have arisen from 
the commercial enterprises which the wealthy 
Minyans, who lived in the neighbourhood of 
Iolcus, made to the coasts of the Euxine. 




Athena (Minerva) superintending the Building of the Argo. (Zoega, Bassi rilievi, tav. 45.) 



ARGOS is said to have signified a plain in 
the language of the Macedonians and Thessa- 
iians, and it may therefore contain the same 
root as the Latin word ager. In Homer we 
find mention of the Pelasgic Argos, that is, a 
town or district of Thessaly, and of the 
Achaean Argos, by which he means some- 
times the whole Peloponnesus, sometimes 
Agamemnon's kingdom of Argos of which 
Mycenae was the capital, and sometimes the 
town of Argos. As Argos frequently signifies 
the whole Peloponnesus, the most important 
part of Greece, so the 'A^yuot often occur in 
Homer as a name of the whole body of the 
Greeks, in which sense the Roman poets also 
use Argivi. — (1) Argos, a district of Pelo- 
ponnesus, also called by Greek writers, Argla 
or Argotice or Argolis. Under the Romans 



Argolis became the usual name of the country, 
while the word Argos or Argi was confined to 
the town. The Roman Argolis was bounded 
on the N. by the Corinthian territory, on the 
W. by Arcadia, on the S. by Laconia, and 
included towards the E, the whole peninsula 
between the Saronic and Argolic gulfs : but 
during the time of Grecian independence 
Argolis or Argos was only the country lying 
round the Argolic gulf, bounded on the W. by 
the Arcadian mountains, and separated on 
the N. by a range of mountains from Corinth, 
Cleonae, and Phlius. The country was divided 
into the districts of Argia or Argos proper, 
Epidatjria, Teoezenia, and Hermionis. The 
main part of the population consisted of 
Pelasgi and Achaei, to whom Dorians were 
added after the conquest of Peloponnesus by 



ARGUS. 



51 



ARIABATHES. 



the Dorians. . See below, No. 2. — (2) Argos, 
or Argi, -osnr, in the Latin writers, the 
capital of Argolis, and, next to Sparta, 
the most important town in Peloponnesus, 
situated in a level plain a little to the W. 
of the Inachus. It had an ancient Pelasgic 
citadel, called Larissa, and another built sub- 
sequently on another height. It was particu- 
larly celebrated for the worship of Hera 
(Juno), whose great temple, Eeraeum, lay 
between Argos and Mycenae. The city is 
said to have been built by Inachus or his 
son Phoroxeus, or grandson Argus. The 
descendants of Inachus were deprived of 
the sovereignty by Danat/s, who is said to 
have come from Egypt. The descendants of 
Danaus were in their turn obliged to submit 
to the Achaean race of the Pelopidae. Under 
the rule of the Pelopidae Mycenae became the 
capital of the kingdom, and Argos was a 
dependent state. Thus Mycenae was the 
royal residence of Atreus and of his son Aga- 
memnon ; but under Orestes Argos again 
recovered its supremacy. Upon the conquest 
of Peloponnesus by the Dorians Argos fell to 
the share of Temenus, whose descendants 
ruled over the country. All these events 
belong to mythology ; and Argos first appears 
in history about b.c. 750, as the chief state 
of Peloponnesus, under its ruler Phidox. 
After the time of Phidon its influence de- 
clined ; and its power was greatly weakened by 
its wars with Sparta. In consequence of its 
jealousy of Sparta, Argos took no part in the 
Persian war. In the Peloponnesian war it 
sided with Athens against Sparta. At this 
time its government was a democracy, but at 
a later period it fell under the power of 
tyrants. In 243 it joined the Achaean 
League, and on the conquest of the latter by 
the Romans, 146, it became a part of the 
Roman province of Achaia. 

ARGUS (-i). (1) Son of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and Xiobe, 3rd king of Argos. — (2) Surnamed 
Paxoptes, " the all-seeing," because he had a 
hundred eyes, son of Agenor, or Arestor, or 
Inachus. Hera (Juno) appointed him guar- 
dian of the cow into which Io had been 
metamorphosed; but Hermes (Mercury), at 
the command of Zeus, sent him to sleep by 
the sweet notes of his flute, and then cut off 
his head. Hera transplanted his eyes to the 
tail of the peacock, her favourite bird. — (3) 
The builder of the Argo, son of Phrixus. 

ARGYRIPA. [Arfi.] 

ARIA or -I A (-ae), the most important of 
the eastern provinces of the ancient Persian 
Empire, was bounded on the E. by the Paro- 
pamisadae, on the N. by Margiana and 
1 "yrcania, on the W. by Parthia, and on the 
■ by the desert of Carmania. Erom Aria 



was derived the name under which all the 
eastern provinces were included. [Ariasa.] 

ARIADNE (-es), or ARIADNA (-ae), 
daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, fell in 
love with Theseus, when he was sent by 
his father to convey the tribute of the Athe- 
nians to the Minotaur, and gave him the clue 
of thread by means of which he found his 
way out of the Labyrinth. Theseus in 
return promised to marry her, and she 
accordingly left Crete with him ; but on their 
arrival in the island of Dia (Naxos), she was 




Ariadne. (From a painting found at Pompeii.) 



killed by Artemis (Diana). This is the 
Homeric account ; but the more common tra- 
dition related that Theseus deserted Ariadne 
in Naxos, where she was found by Dionysus, 
who made her his wife, and placed among 
the stars the crown which he gave her at 
their marriage. 

ARIAEUS (-i), the friend of Cyrus, com- 
manded the left wing of the army at the 
battle of Cunaxa, b.c. 401. After the death 
of Cyrus, he purchased his pardon from 
Artaxerxes by deserting the Greeks. 

ARIANA (-ae), derived from Aria, from 
the specific sense of which it must be care- 
fully distinguished, was the general name of 
the eastern provinces of the Persian Empire, 
including Parthia, Aria, the Paropamisadae, 
Arachosia, Drangiana,. Gedrosia, and Car- 
mania. 

ARL1RATHES (4), the name of several 
kings of Cappadocia.— (1) Son of Ariamnes I., 
defeated by Perdiccas, and crucified, b.c 322. 
Eumenes then obtained possession of Cappa- 
docia. — (2) Son of Holophernes, and nephew 



ARXASPAE. 



52 



AEIOVISTUS. 



of Ariarathes I., recovered Cappadocia after 
the death of Eunienes, 315. He was sue- I 
ceeded by Ariainnes II. — (3) Son of Ariam- J 
nes II., and grandson of No. 2, married | 
StratonTce, daughter of Antiochus II., king of ! 
Syria. — (4) Son of No. 3, reigned 220 — 162. 
He married Antiochis, the daughter of Antio- j 
chns the Great, and assisted Antiochus in his j 
war against the Eomans. After the defeat of 
Antiochus. Ariarath.es sued for peace in 188, 
■which he obtained on favourable terms. — 
(5) Son of No. 4, surnamed Phiiopator, 
reigned 163 — 130. He assisted the Eomans 
in their war against Aristonicus of Per- 
gamus, and fell in this war, 130. — (6) 
Son of No. 5, reigned 130 — 96. He 
married Laodice, sister of Mithridates VI., 
king of Pontus, and was put to death by 
Mithridates. — [7) Son of No. 6, also murdered 
by Mithridates, who now took possession of 
Ms kingdom. The Cappadocians rebelled 
against Mithridates, and placed upon the 
throne, — (8) Second son of No. 6 ; but he 
was speedily driven out of the kingdom by 
Mithridates, and shortly afterwards died. 
— (9.i Son of Ariobarzanes II., reigned 12 — 
36. He was deposed and put to death by 
Antony, who appointed Archelaus as his suc- 
cessor. 

ABIASPAE or AGEIASPAE (-arum}, a 
people in the S. part of the Persian pro- 
vince of Drangiana, on the borders of Ge- 
drosia. 

ABICIA (-ae), an ancient town of Latium 
at the foot of the Aiban Mount, on the 
Appian Way, 16 miles from Eome. It was 
subdued by the Eomans, with the other Latin 
towns, in b.c. 338, and received the Eoman 
franchise. In its neighbourhood was the 
celebrated grove and temple of Diana Ariclna, 
on the borders of the Lacus Nemorensis. 
Diana was worshipped here with barbarous 
customs : her priest, called rex nemorensis, 
was always a run-away slave, who obtained 
his office by killing his predecessor in single 
combat. 

ABIMASPI ( -oruni), a people in the N. of 
Scythia, represented as men with only one eye, 
who fought with the griffins for the posses- 
sion of the gold in their neighbourhood. The 
germ of the fable is perhaps to be recognised 
in the fact that the Ural Mountains abound in 
gold. 

AEIMI (-orum), and AEIMA (-oruni}, the 
names of a mythical people, district, and 
range of mountains in Asia Minor, which the 
old Greek poets made the scene of the punish- 
ment _of the monster Typhoeus. 

ABIMINOI '-i : Rimini), a town in 
Umbria, at the mouth of the little river Arimi- 
nus. It was originally inhabited byLnibrians 



and Pelasgians. was afterwards in the posses- 
sion of the Senones. and was colonised by the 
Eomans in b.c. 268, from which time it 
appears as a flourishing place. After leaving 
Cisalpine Gaul, it was the first town on the 
eastern coast of Italy which a person arrived 
at in Italia proper. 

AEIOBAEZANES (-is) . I. Kings or Satraps 
of Pontus. — (1) Betrayed by his son Mithri- 
dates to the Persian king, about b.c 400. — (2) 
Son of Mithridates I., reigned 363 — 337. He 
revolted from Artaxerxes in 362, and may be 
regarded as the founder of the kingdom of 
Pontus. — [3] Son of Mithridates III., reigned 
266 — 240, and was succeeded by Mithridates 
IT. — EL Kings of Cappadocia. — (1} Surnamed 
Phelobomaees, reigned b.c. 93 — 63, and was 
elected king by the Cappadocians, under the 
direction of the Eomans. He was several 
times expelled from his kingdom by Mithri- 
dates, but was finally restored by Pompey in 
63, shortly before his death. — [2) Surnamed 
PniLOPATOR, succeeded his father in 63. — (3) 
Surnamed Eeseees and Phelobomaees, son 
of No. 2, whom he succeeded about 51. He 
assisted Pompey against Caesar, who not 
only pardoned him, but even enlarged his 
territories. He was slain in 42 by Cas- 
sius. 

ARION (-onis). (1) Of Methymna in Les- 
bos, a celebrated lyric poet and player on 
I the cithara, and the inventor of dithyram- 
bic poetry. He lived about b.c. 625, and 
spent a great part of his life at the court of 
Periander, tyrant of Corinth. On one occa- 
sion, we are told, Arion went to Sicily to 
take part in some musical contest. He won 
the prize, and, laden with presents, he em- 
barked in a Corinthian ship to return to his 
I Mend Periander. The rude sailors coveted 
his treasures, and meditated his murder. 
I After trying in vain to save his life, he at 
J length obtained permission once more to play 
on the cithara, and as soon as he had invoked 
the gods in inspired strains, he threw himself 
into the sea. But many song-loving dolphins 
had assembled round the vessel, and one of 
them now took the bard on its back and 
carried hrm to Taenams, from whence he 
returned to Corinth in safety, and related his 
adventure to Periander. Lpon the arrival of 
I the Corinthian vessel, Periander inquired of 
! the sailors after Arion, who replied that he 
had remained behind at Tarentum ; but when 
Arion, at the bidding of Periander, came 
forward, the sailors owned their guilt, and 
were punished according to their desert. — 
(2) A fabulous horse, which is said to have 
been begotten by Poseidon (Neptune). 

AEIOVISTUS [-4), a German chief, who 
had conquered a great part of Gaul, but was 



ABISTAEUS. 



53 



ARISTIPPUS, 



defeated by Caesar, and driven across the 
Rhine, b.c. 58. Ariovistus escaped across 
the^ river in a small boat. 

ARISTAEUS (-i), son of Apollo and Cyrene, 
"was born in Libya. He afterwards went to 
Thrace, where he fell in love with Eurydice, 
the wife of Orpheus. The latter, while fleeing 
from him, perished by the bite of a serpent ; 
whereupon the Nymphs, in anger, destroyed 
the bees of Aristaeus. The way in which he 
recovered his bees is related in the fourth 
Georgic of Virgil. After his death he was 
worshipped as a god on account of the benefits 
he had conferred upon mankind. He was 
regarded as the protector of flocks and 
shepherds, of vine and olive plantations : 
he taught men to keep bees, and averted from 
the fields the burning heat of the sun and 
other causes of destruction. 

ARISTAGORAS (-ae), of Miletus, brother- 
in-law of Histiaeus, was left by the latter dur- 
ing his stay at the Persian court, in charge of 
the government of Miletus. Having failed in 
an attempt upon Naxos (b.c 501), which he 
had promised to subdue for the Persians, and 
fearing the consequences of his failure, he 
induced the Ionian cities to revolt from Persia. 
He applied for assistance to the Spartans 
and Athenians : the former refused, but the 
latter sent him 20 ships and some troops. 
In 499 his army captured and burnt Sardis, 
but was finally chased back to the coast. The 
Athenians now departed ; the Persians 
conquered most of the Ionian cities ; and 
Aristagoras in despair fled to Thrace, where 
he was slain by the Edonians in 497. 

ARISTARCHUS (-i). (1) Of Samos, an 
eminent mathematician and astronomer at 
Alexandria, flourished between b.c. 280 and 
264. — (2) Of Samothrace, the celebrated 
grammarian, flourished b.c. 156. He was a 
pupil of Aristophanes, and founded at Alexan- 
dria a grammatical and critical school. At 
an advanced age he went to Cyprus, where he 
died at the age of 72, of voluntary starvation, 
because he was suffering from incurable 
dropsy. Aristarchus was the greatest critic 
of antiquity. His labours were chiefly 
devoted to the Homeric poems, of which he 
published an edition which has been the 
basis of the text from his time to the present 
day. He divided the Iliad and Odyssey into 
24 books each. 

ARISTEAS, of Proconnesus, an epic poet 
of whose life we have only fabulous accounts. 
His date is quite uncertain. He is represented 
as a magician, whose soul could leave and 
re-enter its body according to its pleasure. 
He was connected with the worship of Apollo, 
which he was said to have introduced at 
Metapontum. 



ARISTIDES (-is). (1) An Athenian, son of 
Lysimachus, surnamed the "Just," was of 
an ancient and noble family. He fought at 
the commander of his tribe at the battle of 
Marathon, b.c 490 ; and next year, 489, he 
was archon. He was the great rival of 
Themistocles, and it was through the influence 
of the latter with the people, that he 
suffered ostracism in 483 or 482. He was 
still in exile in 480 at the battle of Salamis, 
where he did good service by dislodging the 
enemy, with a band raised and armed by 
himself, from the islet of Psyttalea. He was 
recalled from banishment after the battle, 
was appointed general in the following year 
(479), and commanded the Athenians at the 
battle of Plataea. In 47 7, when the allies 
had become disgusted with the conduct of 
Pausanias and the Spartans, he and his 
colleague Chnon had the glory of obtaining for 
Athens the command of the maritime con- 
federacy : and to Aristides was by general 
consent entrusted the task of drawing up its 
laws and fixing its assessments. This first 
tribute of 460 talents, paid into a common 
treasury at Delos, bore his name, and was 
regarded by the allies in after times, as 
marking their Saturnian age. This is his 
last recorded act. He probably died in 468. 
He died so poor that he did not leave enough 
to pay for his funeral : his daughters were 
portioned by the state, and his son Lysima- 
chus received a grant of land and of money. 
— (2) The author of a licentious romance, 
in prose, entitled Itilesiaca, having Miletus for 
its scene. It was translated into Latin byL. 
Cornelius Sisenna, a contemporary of Sulla, 
and became popular with the Romans. The 
title of his work gave rise to the term Milesian, 
as applied to works of fiction. — (3 1 Of Thebes, 
a celebrated Greek painter, flourished about 
b.c 360 — 330. His pictures were so much 
valued that long after his death Attalus, king 
of Pergamus, offered 600,000 sesterces for 
one of them. — (4) P. Aeltus Aristides, sur- 
named Theodoexs, a celebrated Greek rhe- 
torician, was born at Adriani in Mysia, in 

a. d. 117. After travelling through various 
countries, he settled at Smyrna, where he 
died about a.d. 180. Several of his works 
have come down to us. 

ARISTIOX, a philosopher, who made him- 
self tyrant of Athens through the influence 
of Mithridates. He was put to death by 
Sulla, on the capture of Athens by the latter, 

b. c. 87. 

ARISTIPPUS (-i), a native of Cyrene, and 
founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy, 
flourished about b.c 370. The fame of 
Socrates brought him to Athens, and he 
| remained with the latter almost up to the 



AB.ISTOBULUS. 



5' 



4 



ABISTOPHANES. 



time of his execution, b.c. 399. Though a 
disciple of Socrates, he was luxurious in his 
mode of living ; and he took money for his 
teaching. He passed part of his life at the 
court of Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse ; hut 
he appears at last to have returned to Cyrene, 
and there to have spent his old age. He 
imparted his doctrine to his daughter Arete, 
by whom it "was communicated to her son, 
the younger Aristippus. 

ARISTOBULUS (-i). (1) The name of 
several princes of Judaea. Of these the best 
known in history is the brother of Hyrcanus. 
of whom an account is given under Hyrcaxi s. 
— (2) Of Cassandrea, served under Alexander 
the Great in Asia, and wrote a history of 
Alexander, which was one of the chief sources 
used by Arrian in the composition of his 
work. 

ABISTODEMUS (-i). (1) A descendant of 
Hercules, son of Aristomachus, brother of 
Temenus and Cresphontes, and father of 
Eurysthenes and Procles. He was killed at 
Naupactus by a flash of lightning, just as he 
was setting out on the expedition into Pelo- 
ponnesus, and his two sons obtained Sparta, 
which would have fallen to him. — (2) A 
Messenian, the chief hero in the first Messe- 
nian war. He sacrificed his own daughter 
to save his country. He was afterwards 
elected king in place of Euphaes ; and con- 
tinued the war against the Spartans, till at 
length, finding resistance hopeless, he put an 
end to his life on the tomb of his daughter, 
about b.c. 7 23. 

ABISTOGITOX. [Haumodits.] 

ARISTOMACHUS (-i), son of Cleodemus or 
Cleodaeus, grandson of Hyllus, great-grandson 
of Hercules, and father of Temenus, Cres- 
phontes, and Aristodemus. He fell in battle 
when he invaded Peloponnesus ; but his 3 
sons were more successful and conquered 
Peloponnesus. 

ARISTOMENES (-is), the Messenian, the 
hero of the second war with Sparta, belongs 
more to legend than to history. He was a 
native of Andania, and was sprung from the 
royal line of Aepytus. Tired of the yoke of 
Sparta, he began the war in b.c. 685. After 
the defeat of the Messenians in the third year 
of the war, Aiistomenes retreated to the moun- 
tain fortress of Ira, and there maintained the 
war for 11 years, constantly ravaging the 
land of Laconia. In one of his incursions 
the Spartans overpowered him with superior . 
numbers, and carrying him with 50 of his 
comrades to Sparta, cast them into the pit 
where condemned criminals were thrown. 
The rest perished ; not so Aristomenes, the 
favourite of the gods ; for legends told how 
an eagle bore him up on its wings as he fell, 



and a fox guided him on the third day from 
the cavern. But the city of Ira, which he 
had so long successfully defended, fell into 
the hands of the Spartans, who again became 
masters of Messenia, b.c 668. Aristomenes 
settled at Ialysus in Bhodes, where he mar- 
ried his daughter to Damagetus, king of 
Ialysus. 

ABISTON. (1) Of Chios, a Stoic philo- 
sopher, and a disciple of Zeno, flourished 
about b.c 260. — (2) A Peripatetic philoso- 
pher of Iulis in the island of Ceos, succeeded 
Lycon as head of the Peripatetic school, about 
b.c. 230. 

ARISTQNICUS (-i), a natural son of Bu- 
rn en es II., of Pergamus. Upon the death of 
his brother Attalus III., b.c. 133, who left his 
kingdom to the Romans, Aristonicus laid 
claim to the crown. He defeated in 131 the 
consul P. Licinius Crassus ; but in 130 he 
was defeated and taken prisoner by M. Per- 
perna, was carried to Kome by M\ Aquillus 
in 129, and was there put to death. 

AKISTOPHAXES (-is). (1) The celebrated 
comic poet, was born about b.c. 444, and pro- 
bably at Athens. His father Philippus had 
possessions in Aegina, and may originally 
have come from that island, whence a ques- 
tion arose whether Aristophanes was a genuine 
Athenian citizen : his enemy Cleon brought 
against him more than one accusation to 
deprive him of his civic rights, but without 
success. He had three sons, Philippus, 
Araros, and Xicostratus, but of his private 
history we know nothing. He died about 
b.c 380. The comedies of Aristophanes are 
of the highest historical interest, containing 
as they do an admirable series of caricatures 
on the leading men of the day. The first 
great evil of his own time against which he 
inveighs, is the Peloponnesian war, to which 
he ascribes the influence of demagogues like 
Cleon at Athens. His play, called the 
Knights, was especially directed against Cleon. 
Another great object of his indignation was 
the system of education ^vhich had been intro- 
duced by the Sophists, and which he attacks 
in the Clouds, making Socrates the repre- 
sentative of the Sophists. Another feature of 
the times was the excessive love for litigation 
at Athens, which he ridicules in the Wasjjs. 
Eleven of the plays of Aristophanes have 
come down to us. As a poet he possessed 
merits of the highest order. He was a com- 
plete master of the Attic dialect, which 
appears in his works in its greatest perfection. 
■ — (2) Of Byzantium, an eminent Greek 
grammarian, was a pupil of Zenodotus and 
Eratosthenes, and teacher of the celebrated 
Aristarchus. He lived about b.c. 264, and 
had the management of the library at Alex- 



ARISTOTELES, 



ARMINIUS. 



andria. He was the first ■who introduced the 
use of accents in the Greek language. 

ARISTOTELES (-is), the philosopher, was 
born at Staglra, a town in Chalcidice in 
Macedonia, b.c. 384. His father, Nicoma- 
chus, was physician in ordinary to Amyntas 
II,, king of Macedonia ; his mother's name 
was Phaestis or Phaestias. In 367, he went 
to Athens to pursue his studies, and there 
became a pupil of Plato, who named him 
the " intellect of his school," and his house, 
the house of the "reader." He lived at 
Athens for 20 years, but quitted the city 
upon the death of Plato (347) and repaired 
to his friend Hermias at Atarneus, where he 
married Pythias, the adoptive daughter of the 
prince. On the death of Hermias, who was 
killed by the Persians (344), Aristotle fled 
from Atarneus to Mytilene. Two years after- 
wards (342) he accepted an invitation from 
Philip of Macedonia, to undertake the instruc- 
tion of his son Alexander, then 13 years of age. 
Here Aristotle was treated with the most 
marked respect. His native city, Staglra, 
which had been destroyed by Philip, was 
rebuilt at his request. Aristotle spent 7 years 
in Macedonia. On Alexander's accession to 
the throne in 335, Aristotle returned to 
Athens. Here he had the Lyceum, a gym- 
nasium sacred to Apollo Lyceus, assigned to 
him by the state. He assembled round him 
a large number of scholars, to whom he deli- 
vered lectures on philosophy in the shady 
walks (srsf/jj-atTw) which surrounded the Ly- 
ceum, while walking up and down ( 
and not sitting, which was the general prac- 
tice of the philosophers. From one or other 
of these circumstances the name Peripatetic 
is derived, which was afterwards given to his 
school. He gave two different courses of 
lectures every day. Those which he delivered 
in the morning (called esoteric) to a narrower 
circle of hearers, embraced subjects connected 
with the more abstruse philosophy, physics, 
and dialectics. Those which he delivered in 
the afternoon to a more promiscuous circle 
(called exoteric), extended to rhetoric, 
sophistics, and politics. He presided over 
his school for 13 years (335 — 323). During 
this time he also composed the greater part 
of his works. In these labours he was 
assisted by the kingly liberality of his former 
pupil, who caused large collections of natural 
curiosities to be made for him, to which 
posterity is indebted for one of his most ex- 
cellent works, the History of Animals. After 
the death of Alexander (323), Aristotle was 
looked upon with suspicion at Athens as a 
friend of Macedonia ; but as it was not easy 
to bring any political accusation against him, 
he was accused of impiety. He withdrew 



from Athens before his trial, and escaped in 
the beginning of 322 to Chalcis in Euboea, 
where he died in the course of the same year, 
in the G3rd year of his age. He bequeathed 
to Theophrastus his well-stored library and 
the originals of his writings. He is described 
as having been of weak health, which, con- 
sidering the astonishing extent of his studies, 
shows all the more the energy of his mind. 
His works, which treated of almost all the 
subjects of human knowledge cultivated in 
his time, have exercised a powerful influence 

! upon the human mind ; and his treatises on 

' philosophy and logic still claim the attention 
of every student of those sciences. 

ABISTOXENUS (-i), of Tarentum, a Peri- 

! patetic philosopher and a musician, flourished 
about e.c. 318. He wrote numerous works, 
of which one on music is still extant. 

ARIUSIA (-ae), a district on the N. coast 

! of Chios, where the best wine in the island 
was grown 

ARMEXE (-es), a town on the coast of 
Paphlagorjia, a little to the W. of Sinope. 

ARMENIA (-ae), a country of Asia, lying 
between Asia Minor and the Caspian, is a lofty 
table-land, backed by the chain of the Cau- 
casus, watered by the rivers Cyrus and 
Araxes, and containing the sources of the 
Tigris and of the Euphrates, the latter of 
which divides the country into 2 unequal 
parts, which were called Major and Minor. — ■ 
The people of Armenia were one of the 
most ancient families of that branch of the 
human race which is called Caucasian. 
They were conquered by the Assyrians and 
Persians, and were at a later time subject to 
the Greek kings of Syria. "When Antiochus 
the Great was defeated by the Romans (b.c. 
190), the country regained its independence, 
and was at this period divided into the two 
kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor. 
Ultimately, Armenia Minor was made a 
Roman province by Trajan ; and Armenia 
Major, after being a perpetual object of con- 
tention between the Romans and the Par- 
thians, was subjected to the revived Persian 
empire by its first king Artaxerxes in a.d. 
226. 

ARMIXIUS (-i : the Latinised form of Her- 
mann, "the chieftain "), son of Sigimer, and 
chief of the tribe of the Cherusci, who in- 
habited the country to the X. of the Hartz 
mountains, now forming the S. of Hanover 
and Brunswick. He was born in b.c. 18 ; 
and in his youth, he led the Cherusci as aux- 
iliaries of the Roman legions in Germany, 
where he learnt the Roman language, was 
admitted to the freedom of the city, and 
enrolled amongst the equites. In a.d. 9, 
Arm in ins persuaded his countrymen to rise 



AEMOEICA. 



56 



AESACES. 



against tlie Eomans who were now masters 
of this part of Germany. His attempt was 
crowned with success. Quintilius Yarns, 
who was stationed in the country with 3 
legions, was destroyed with almost all his 
troops [Yabes] ; and the Eomans had to 
relinquish all their possessions "beyond the 
Ehine. In 14, Arminius had to defend his 
country against Germanicus. At first he 
was successful ; hut Germanicus made good 
his retreat to the Ehine. It was in the 
course of this campaign that Thusnelda, the 
wife of Arminius, fell into the hands of the 
Eomans. In 16, Arminius was defeated 
by Germanicus, and his country was probably 
only saved from subjection by the jealousy of 
Tiberius, who recalled Germanicus in the 
following year. At length Arminius aimed 
at absolute power, and • was in consequence 
cut off by his own relations in the 37th year 
of his age, a.d. 19. 

AEMOEICA or ABEMOBICA (-ae), the 
name of the N.W. coast of Gaul from the 
Ligeris [Loire) to the Sequana [Seine), derived 
from the Celtic ar, air, "upon," muir, mor, 
" the sea." 

AEXA (-ae), a town in Umbria near 
Perusia. 

ABXAE (-arum), a town in Chalcidice in 
Macedonia, S. of Aulon and Bromiscus. 

ABXISSA (-ae), a town in Eordaea in 
Macedonia, 

AEXUS (-i: Arno y , the chief river of 
Etruria, rising in the Apennines, flowing by 
Pisae,_and falling into the Tyrrhenian sea, 

AEOMATA f-oiiim), the E.-most pro- 
montory of Africa, at the S. extremity of the 
Arabian Gulf. 

AEPI (-drum), an inland town in the 
Daunian Apulia, founded, according to tradi- 
tion, by Diomedes, who called it Argos Hip- 
pium, from which its later names of Argp- 
rippa, or Argyr\pa and Arpi are said to have 
arisen. It revolted to Hannibal after the 
battle of Cannae, b.c. 216, but was retaken by 
the Eomans in 213. 

ABPIXUM (-i), a town of Eatium on the 
small river Fibrenus, originally belonging to 
the Yolscians and afterwards to the Samnites, 
was a Eoman municipium, and received the 
jus snffragii, or right of voting in the Eoman I 
eomitia, b.c. 188. It was the birthplace of! 
Marius and Cicero. 

AEEETIUM or AEETIUM (-i : Arezzo), 
one of the most important of the 12 cities of 
Etruria, was situated in the N.E. of the 
country at the foot of the Apennines, and 
possessed a fertile territory near the sources 
c-f the Arnus and the Tiber, producing good 
wine and corn. It was particularly celebrated 
for its pottery, which was of red ware. The 



Cilnii, from whom Maecenas was descended, 
were a noble family of Arretimn. 

AEEHIDAEUS or ABIDAEES (-£), son of 
Philip and a female dancer, Philinna of La- 
rissa, was of imbecile understanding. On 
the death of Alexander, b.c 323, he was 
elected king under the name of Philip, and 
in 322, he married Eurydice. On then 
return to Macedonia, he and his wife were 
made prisoners, and put to death by order oi 
Olympias, 317. 

AEEIAXUS (-i), a Greek historian and phi- 
losopher, was born at Xicoinedia in Bithynia, 
about a.d. 90. He was a pupil and friend of 
Epictetus, whose lectures he published at 
Athens. In 124, he received from Hadrian 
the Eoman citizenship, and from this time 
assumed the name of Flavius. In 136, he 
was appointed praefect of Cappadocia, which 
vas invaded in the year after by the Aland or 
Massagetae, whom he defeated. Under Anto- 
ninus Pius, in 146, he was consul; and he 
died at an advanced age in the reign of 
M. Aurelius. Arrian was one of the best 
writers of his time. He -^as a close imitator 
of Xenophon both in the subjects of his 
works and in the style in which they were 
written. The most important of them is his 
History of the expedition of Alexander the 
Great, in 7 books, which was based upon the 
most trustworthy histories written by the 
contemporaries of Alexander. 

AESACES (-is), the name of the founder of 
the Parthian empire, which was also borne by 
all his successors, who were hence called the 
Arsacldae. — (1) He was of obscure origin, 
but he induced the Parthians to revolt from 
Antiochus IE, king of Syria, and became the 
first monarch of the Parthians, about b.c. 250. 
The events which immediately followed, are 
stated very differently by different historians. 
He reigned only 2 years, and was succeeded 
by his brother Tiridates. — (2) Tibidates, 
reigned 37 years, b.c 248 — 211, and defeated 
Seleucus Caliinicus, the successor of Antio- 
chus EI. ■ — (3) Abtabanes I., son of the 
preceding, was attacked by Antiochus III. 
(the Great), who, however, at length recog- 
nised him as king, about 210. — 4) Peiapa- 
Tirs, son of the preceding, reigned 15 years, 
and left 3 sons, Phraates, Mithriclates, and 
Artabanus. — (5) Pheaates I., was suc- 
ceeded by his brother. — (6) Mitheidates I., 
who greatly enlarged the Parthian empire by 
his conquests. He defeated Demetrius Xica- 
tor, king of Syria, and took him prisoner in 
138. He died during the captivity of Deme- 
trius, between 138 and 130. — (7) Pheaates 
II., son of the preceding, defeated and slew 
in battle Antiochus YII. Sidetes, b.c 128. 
Phraates himself was shortly after killed by 



ARSACES. 



57 



ARSACES, 



the Scythians. — (8) Artabanus II., youngest 
son of No. 4, fell in battle against the Thogarii 
or Tocharii, apparently after a short reign. — 
(9) Mithridates II., son of the preceding, 
added many nations to the Parthian empire, 
whence he obtained the surname of Great. 
He sent an ambassador to Sulla, b.c. 92. 
■ — (10) Mnascires (?), the successor of the 
preceding, of whom nothing is known. — (11) 
Sanatroces, reigned 7 years, and died 
about b.c. 70. — (12) Phraates III., son of 
the preceding, lived at the time of the war 
between the Romans and Mithridates of 
Pontus, by both of whom he was courted. 
He was murdered by his 2 sons, Mithridates 
and Orodes. — (13) Mithridates III., son 
of the preceding, was expelled from the 
throne on account of his cruelty, and was 
succeeded by his brother Orodes.— (14) Oro- 
des I., brother of the preceding, was the 
Parthian king, whose general Surenas de- 
feated Crassus and the Romans, b.c. 53. 
[Crassus.] After the death of Crassus, 
Orodes gave the command of the army to his 
son Pacorus, who invaded Syria both in 51 
and 50, but was in each year driven back by 
Cassius. In 40, the Parthians again invaded 
Syria, under the command of Pacorus and 
Labienus, but were defeated in 39 by Yen- 
tidius Bassus, one of Antony's legates. In 
38, Pacorus once more invaded Syria, but 
was completely defeated and fell in the battle. 
This defeat was a severe blow to the aged 
king Orodes, who shortly afterwards surren- 
dered the crown to his son, Phraates, during 
his life-time. — (15) Phraates IT., was 
a cruel tyrant. In 36, Antony invaded 
Parthia, but was obliged to retreat after 
losing a great part of his army, A few 
years afterwards Phraates was driven out of 
the country by his subjects, and Tiridates 
proclaimed king in his stead. Phraates, 
however, was soon restored by the Scythians, 
and Tiridates fled to Augustus, carrying with 
him the youngest son of Phraates. Augustus 
restored his son to Phraates, on condition of 
his surrendering the Roman standards and 
prisoners taken in the war with Crassus and 
Antony. They were given up in 20, and 
their restoration was celebrated not only by 
the poets, but by festivals and commemo- 
rative monuments. Phraates also sent to 
Augustus as hostages his 4 sons. In a.d. 2, 
Phraates was poisoned by his wife Ther- 
musa, and her son Phraataces. — (16) 
Phraataces, reigned only a short time, 
as he was expelled by his subjects on 
account of his crimes. The Parthian no- 
bles then elected as king Orodes, who was 
of the family of the Arsacidae. — (17) Oro- 
des IT., also reigned only a short time, as j 



he was killed by the Parthians on account of 
his cruelty. Upon his death the Parthians 
applied to the Romans for Yonones, one of 
the sons of Phraates IY., who was accord- 
ingly granted to them. — (18) Yonones I., 
son of Phraates IV., was also disliked by his 
subjects, who therefore invited Artabanus, 
king of Media, to take possession of the 
kingdom. Artabanus drove Yonones out of 
Parthia, who resided first in Armenia, next 
in Syria, and subsequently in Cilicia. He 
was put to death in a.d. 19. — 19) Arta 
banus III., obtained the Parthian kingdom 
soon after the expulsion of Yonones, about 
a.d. 16. Artabanus was involved in hostilities 
with the Romans, and was expelled more than 
once by his subjects. — (20) Gotarzes, suc- 
ceeded his father, Artabanus III., but was 
defeated by his brother Bardanes and retired 
into Hyrcania. — (21) Bardaxes, brother 
of the preceding, was put to death by his 
subjects in 47, whereupon Gotarzes again 
obtained the crown. — (22) Yoxoxes II., 
succeeded Gotarzes about 50. His reign was 
short. — (23) Yologeses I., son of Yonones 
II. or Artabanus III. Soon after his acces- 
sion, he conquered Armenia, which he gave 
to his brother Tiridates. He carried on war 
with the Romans, but was defeated by Domi- 
tius Corbulo, and at length made peace with 
the Romans on; condition that Tiridates 
should receive Armenia as a gift from the 
Roman emperor. Accordingly Tiridates came 
to Rome in 63, and obtained from ZSero the 
Armenian crown. — (24) PACORrs, succeeded 
his father Yologeses I., and was a contempo- 
rary of Domitian and Trajan. — (25) Chos- 
roes or Osroes, succeeded his brother 
Pacorus during the reign of Trajan. His 
conquest of Armenia occasioned the invasion 
of Parthia by Trajan, who stripped it of 
many of its provinces, and made the Parthians 
for a time subject to Rome. [Trajanus.] 
Upon the death of Trajan in a.d. 117, Hadrian 
relinquished the conquests of Trajan, and 
made the Euphrates, as before, the eastern 
boundary of the Roman empire. — 26) Yo- 
logeses II., succeeded his father Chosroes, 
and reigned from about a.d. 122 to 149. — 
(27) Yologeses III., was defeated by the 
generals of the emperor Yerus, and purchased 
peace by ceding Mesopotamia to the Romans. 
From this time to the downfall of the Par- 
thian empire, there is great confusion in the 
list of kings. The last king of Parthia was 
Artabanus IY., in whose reign the Persians 
recovered their long-lost independence. They 
were led by Artaxerxes, the son of Sassan, 
and defeated the Parthians in three great 
battles, in the last of which Artabanus was 
taken prisoner and killed, a.d. 226. Thus 



ABSACIA. 



55 



ABTAYASDES, 



ended the Parthian empire of the Arsacidae, 
after it had existed 47 6 years. The Parthians 
were now obliged to submit to Artaxerxes, 
the founder of the dynasty of the Sassanidae, 
which continued to reign till a.d. 651. 

ABSACIA. [Khagae.] 

AESACIDAE~ ;-arum), the name of a 
dynasty of Parthian kings. "Aesaces." It 
was also the name of a dynasty of Armenian 
kings, who reigned in Armenia from b.c. 149 
to a.d. 42 S. This dynasty was founded by 
Ap.taxias I., who was related to the Parthian 
Arsacidae. 

AESAMOSATA, a town and strong for- 
tress in Armenia Major, between the Euphrates 
and the sources of the Tigris. 

ABSAXIAS [-ae] , -PUS or -US ,'-i.\ the name 
of two rivers of Great Armenia. — J) The S. 
arm of the Euphrates, [Euphrates.] — (2) 
A small stream flowing W. into the Euphrates 
near MeEtene. 

ABSES, N ARSES, or OABSES, youngest 
son of king Artaxerxes III. Ochus, was raised 
to the Persian throne by the eunuch Bagoas 
after he had poisoned Artaxerxes, b. c. 339, 
but he was murdered by Bagoas in the 3rd 
year of his reign. After the death of Arses, 
Bagoasjnrade Darius III. king. 

AESIA -ae' , a river in Istria, forming the 
boundary between Epper Italy and Illyricuni, 
with a town of the same name upon it. 

. AESIA SILYA, a wood in Etruria cele- 
brated for the battle between the Tarquins 
and the Eomans. 

ABSIXOE l-es). (V Mother of Ptolemy I., 
was a concubine of Philip, father of Alexander 
the Great, and married Lagus, while she was 
pregnant with Ptolemy. — (2) Daughter of 
Ptolemy I. and Berenice, married first Lysi- 
machus, king of Thrace, in b.c. 300 ; 
2ndly, her half-brother, Ptolemy Ceraunus, 
who murdered her children by Lysimachus ; 
and, 3rdly, her own brother Ptolemy IE 
Philadelphus in 279. Though Arsinoebore 
Ptolemy no children, she was exceedingly 
beloved by him ; he gave her name to several 
cities, called a district of Egypt Arsinoi'tes 
after her, and honoured her memory in 
various ways. — (3) Daughter of Lysimachus, 
married Ptolemy II. Philadelphus soon after 
his accession, e.c. 2 So. In consequence of 
her plotting against her namesake [No. 2], 
when Ptolemy feU in love with her, she was 
banished to Coptos in Upper Egypt. She had 
by Ptolemy three children, Ptolemy III, 
Evergetes, Lysimachus, and Berenice. — (4) 
Also called Eerydice and Cleopatra, daughter 
of Ptolemy III. Evergetes, wife of her brother 
Ptolemy IV. Philopator, and mother of 
Ptolemy V. Epiphanes. She was kiUed by 
order of her husband. — (5) Daughter of 



Ptolemy XI. Auletes. was carried to Eome by 
' Caesar after the capture of Alexandria, and 
led in triumph by him in 46. She afterwards 
■ returned to Alexandria ; but her s-ister 
Cleopatra persuaded Antony to have her put 
to death in 41. 

ABSIXOE v-^ 5 }? tEe name of several cities, 
; each caUed after one or other of the 
: persons mentioned above. Of these the 
most important were : — (1) In the Xonios 
Heroopolites in Lower Egypt, near or upon 
the head of the Sinus Heroopolites or W. 
branch of the Eed sea [Gulf of Suez). It 
was afterwards caUed Cleopatra. — \2) The 
chief city of the Xoinos Arsinoltes in Middle 
Egypt : formerly called CrocrodllopoEs, from 
its being the chief seat of the Egyptian 
worship of the crocodile. 

ARTABANTJS [-ij . 1) Son of Hystaspes and 
: brother of Darius, is frequently mentioned in 
: the reign of his nephew Xerxes, as a wise 
and frank counsellor. — (2) An Hyrcanian, 
, commander of the body-guard of Xerxes, 
| assassinated this king in b. c. 465, but was 
i shortly afterwards killed by Artaxerxes. — (3) 
: Kings of Parthia. [Absaces.] 
| AETABAZES [-i] . [1 A Persian general in 
I the army of Xerxes, served under Mardonius 
I in b.c 479, and after the defeat of the 
j Persians at Plataea, he fled with 40,000 men 
! and reached Asia in safety.. — (2) A Persian 
; general, fought under Artaxerxes IE, and 
I Artaxerxes III., and Darius III. Codomannus. 
| One of his daughters, Barsine, became by 
I Alexander the mother of Hercules. 

ABTABBI (-onim), a Celtic people in the 
N.W, of Spain, near the Promontory Xeriuni 
i or Celticum, also called Artabruni after 
I them [C. Funster re). 

\ AETACE (-es)^ a sea-port town of the 
j peninsula of Cyzicus, in the Propontis : also 
j a mountain in the same peninsula. 

AETACIE (-es), a fountain in the country 
; of the Laestrygones. 

AETAEI -orum . was. according to Hero- 
! dotus, the old native name of the Persians. 
; It signifies noble, and appears, in the form 
! Aria, as the first part of a large number of 

Persian proper names. 

ABTAPHEBXES (4s), (1; Son of Hystaspes 
j and brother of Darius. He was satrap of 
- Sarclis at the time of the Ionian revolt, b. c. 

500, See Aristagoras. — (2) Son of the former, 
; commanded, along with Datis, the Persian 

army of Darius, which was defeated at the 

battie of Marathon, b.c 490. He commanded 
I the Lydians and Mysians in the invasion of 

Greece bv Xerxes in 480. 

ABTAYASDES or AETABAZES [-is), fit) 
: King of the Greater Armenia, succeeded his 

father Tigranes. He betrayed Antony in his 



ARTAXATA. 



59 



ARTEMIS. 



campaign against the Parthians in B.C. 36. 
Antony accordingly invaded Armenia in 34, 
took Artavasdes prisoner, and carried him to 
Alexandria. He was killed after the tattle 
of Actiuni by order of Cleopatra. — (2) King 
of Armenia, probably a grandson of Xo. I, 
was placed upon the throne by Augustus, but 
was deposed by the Armenians. — (3) King of 
Media Atropatene, and an enemy of Arta- 
vasdes I., king of Armenia. He died shortly 
before b.c 20. 

ARTAXATA (-orum), or -A (-ae), the later 
capital of Great Armenia, built by Artaxias, 
under the advice of Hannibal, on a peninsula, 
surrounded by the river Araxes. After being 
burnt by the Romans under Corbulo (b.c 
58), it was restored by Tiridates, and called 
Xeroniana. 

ARTAXERXES (-is), the name of 4 Persian 
kings. — (1) Surnamed Longfmantjs, from his 
right hand being longer than his left, suc- 
ceeded his father Xerxes I. and reigned b.c. 
464 — 425. He carried on vrar against the 
Epyptians who "were assisted in their revolt 
by the Athenians. He was succeeded by 
his son Xerxes II. — (2) Surnamed Mnemon, 
from his good memory, succeeded his father, 
Darius II., and reigned b.c 405 — 359. 
Respecting the war between him and his 
brother Cyrus, see Gyres. Tissaphernes was 
appointed satrap of W* Asia in the place of 
Cyrus, and was actively engaged in wars with 
the Greeks. [Agesilaes,] Artaxerxes had 
to carry on frequent wars with tributary 
princes and satraps, who endeavoured to make 
themselves independent. Thus he maintained 
a long struggle against Evagoras of Cyprus, 
from 385 to 376 ; and his attempts to recover 
Egypt were unsuccessful. Towards the end 
of his reign he put to death his eldest son 
Darius, who had formed a plot to assassinate 
him. His last days were still further embit- 
tered by the unnatural conduct of his son 
Ochus, who caused the destruction of two of 
his brothers, in order to secure the succession 
for himself. Artaxerxes was succeeded by 
Ochus, who ascended the throne under the 
name of Artaxerxes III. — (3) Also called 
Ochus, reigned b.c 359 — 338. By the 
aid of his Greek generals and mercenaries, 
he reconquered Phoenicia and Egypt. The 
reins of government were entirely in the 
hands of the eunuch Bagoas, and of Mentor 
the Rhodian. At last he was poisoned by 
Bagoas, and was succeeded by his youngest 
son, Arses. — (4) The founder of the dynasty 
of the Sassaxedae. 

ARTAXIAS (-ae), or ARTAXES (-is), the 
name of 3 kings of Armenia. — (1) The founder 
of the Armenian kingdom, was one of the 
generals of Antiochus the Great, but revolted 



I from him about b.c 188, and became an in- 
dependent sovereign. Hannibal took refuge 
at the court of Artaxias, and he superintended 
the building of Artaxata, the capital of 
I Armenia. Artaxias was conquered and taken 
prisoner by Antiochus IV. Epiphanes, about 
i 165. — (2) Son of Artavasdes, was put to death 
I by his own subjects in b.c 20, and Augustus 
| placed Tigranes on the throne. — (3) Son of 
j Polemon, king of Pontus, was proclaimed 
king of Armenia by Germanicus, in a.d. 18. 
He died about 35. 

ARTEMIDORUS (-i). (1) A native of 
Ephesus, but called Daldianus, from Daldis in 
! Lydia, his mother's birth-place, to distinguish 
! him from the geographer Artemidorus. He 
lived at Rome in the reigns of Antoninus Pius 
and M. Aurelius (a.d. 138 — 180), and wrote a 
I work on the interpretation of dreams, in 5 
books, which is still extant. — (2) Also of 
Ephesus, a Greek geographer, lived about 
; b.c 100. An abridgment of his work was 
' made by Marcianus, of which part is still 
I extant. 

ARTEMIS (-is), called DIANA (-ae) by the 
j Romans, one of the great divinities of the 
! Greeks. According to the most ancient ac- 
! count, she was daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
I Leto (Latona), and the twin-sister of Apollo, 
j born with him in the island of Delos. (1) 
Artemis as the sister of Apollo, is a kind of 
I female Apollo, that is, she as a female divinity 
! represented the same idea that Apollo did as a 
j male divinity. As sister of Apollo, Artemis 
i is like her brother armed with a bow, quiver, 
. and arrows, and sends plagues and death 
among men and animals. Sudden deaths, 
but more especially those of women, are 
! described as the effect of her arrows. As 
■ Apollo was not only a destructive god, but 
also averted evils, so Artemis likewise cured 
j and alleviated the sufferings of mortals. In 
! the Trojan war she sided, like Apollo, with 
the Trojans. She was more especially the 
protectress of the young ; and from her 
: watching over the young of females, she 
came to be regarded as the goddess of the 
i flocks and the chase. In this manner she 
also became the huntress among the im- 
mortals. Artemis, like Apollo, is unmarried ; 
she is a maiden-divinity never conquered by 
love. She slew Orion with her arrows be- 
cause he made an attempt upon her chastity ; 
and she changed Actaeox into a stag, simply 
because he had seen her bathing. With her 
brother Apollo, she slew the children of 
Xiobe, who had deemed herself superior to 
Leto. ^Yhen Apollo was regarded as iden- 
tical with the Sim or Helios, his sister was 
looked upon as Selene or the Moon. Hence 
she is represented as in love with the fair 



ARTEMIS. 



60 



ARTEMIS. 




youth Endymion, whom she kissed in his | sleep ; but this leg-end properly relates to Se- 
lene or the Moon, and is foreign 
to the character of Artemis, 
who, as we have observed, was 
a goddess unmoved by love. 
■ — (2) The Arcadian Artemis 
is a goddess of the nymphs, 
and was worshipped as such 
in Arcadia in very early times, 
She hunted with her nymphs 
on the Arcadian mountains, 
and her chariot was drawn by 
4 stags with golden antlers. 
There was no connection be- 
tween the Arcadian Artemis 
and Apollo. — (3) TJie Tau- 
rian Artemis. There was in 
Tauris a goddess, whom the 
Greeks identified with their 
own Artemis, and to whom 
all strangers thrown on the 
coast of Tauris were sacri- 
ficed. Iphigenla and Orestes 
brought her image from thence, 
and landed at Brauron in Attica 
whence the goddess derived 
the name of Brauronia. The 
Brauronian Artemis was wor- 
shipped at Athens and Sparta, 
and in the latter place the 
bovs were scoursred at her 
(Mu S eumCapitolmum,vol.4,tav.37.) altar m % ^ ^spriiikled 

with their blood. — (4) Hie 
Ephesicui Artemis, was a di- 
vinity totally distinct from the 
Greek goddess of the same 
name. She was an ancient 
Asiatic divinity whose wor- 
ship the Greeks found esta- 
blished in Ionia, when they 
settled there, and to whom 
they gave the name of Arte- 
mis. Her image in the mag- 
nificent temple of Ephesus was 
represented with many breasts, 
— The representations of the 
Greek Artemis in works of art 
are different according as she 
is represented either as a 
huntress, or as the goddess 
of the moon. As the huntress, 
her breast is covered, and the 
legs up to the knees are naked, 
the rest being covered by the 
chiamys. Her attributes are 
the bow, quiver, and arrows, 
or a spear, stags, and dogs. 
As the goddess of the moon, 

. she wears a long robe 
(Diana), goddess of the Moon. (Gorii, Mus.Flor., vol. 2, tav. S3.) ^ hpr 

veil covers her head, and above her forehead rises the crescent of the moon. 



Artemis (Diana), the Huntress. 




Artemis 
feet, a 



ARTEMISIA. 



61 



ASELLIO. 



In her hand she often appears holding a 
torch. 

ARTEMISIA (-ae). (1) Daughter of Lyg- 
damis, and queen of Halicamassus in Caria, 
accompanied Xerxes in his invasion of Greece, 
and in the battle of Salamis (b.c. 480) greatly 
distinguished herself by her prudence and 
courage, for which she was afterwards highly ! 
honoured by the Persian king. — (2) Daughter 
of Hecatomnus, and sister, wife, and sue- 1 
cessor of the Carian prince Mausolus, reigned j 
b.c. 352 — 350. She is renowned in history 
for her extraordinary grief at the death of j 
her husband Mausolus. She is said to have | 
mixed his ashes in her daily drink ; and to 
perpetuate his memory she built at Halicar- j 
nassus the celebrated monument, JIausuIeum, 
which was regarded as one of the 7 wonders 
of the world, and whose name subsequently 
became the generic term for any splendid 
sepulchral monument. 

ARTEMISIUM (-i), a tract of country on 
the X. coast of Euboea, opposite Magnesia, so 
called from the temple of Artemis (Diana), 
belonging to the town of Hestiaea : off this 
coast the Greeks defeated the fleet of Xerxes, 
B.c. 480. 

ARYERXI (-oruni), a Gallic people in 
Aquitania. in the modern Aurergne. In early 
times they were the most powerful people in 
the S. of Gaul : they were defeated by 
Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus 
in b.c 121. but still possessed considerable 
power in the time of Caesar (58). Their 
capital vras Xemossus, also named Augus- 
tonemetum or Arverni on the Elaver [Allier), 
with a citadel, called in the middle ages 
Clarus Mons, whence the name of the modern 
town, Clermont. 

AREXS (-untis), an Etruscan word, was 
regarded by the Romans as a proper name, 
but perhaps signified a younger son in gene- 
ral. — (1) Younger brother of Eucumo, i. e. 
E. Tarquinius Priscus. — f 2) Younger bro- 
ther of L. Tarquinius Superbus, was mur- 
dered by his wife. — (3) Younger son of Tar- 
quinius Superbus, fell in combat with 
Brutus. 

ARZAXEXE (-es), a district of Armenia 
Major, bounded on the S. by the Tigris, 
formed part of Gordyexe. 

ASAXDER (-dri). (1) Son of Philotas, 
brother of Parmenion, and one of the gene- 
rals of Alexander the Great. After the death 
of Alexander 'b.c. 323) he obtained Caria for 
his satrapy. — (2) A general of Pharnaces II., 
king of Bosporus, whom he put to death in 
47, in hopes of obtaining the kingdom. He 
was confirmed in the sovereignty by Augustus. , 

ASBYSTAE (-arum), a Libyan people, in 
the X. of Cyrenaica. 



ASCALAPHES (-i). (1) Son of Ares (Mars) 
and Astyoche, led, with his brother Ialmenus, 
the Minyans of Orchomenus against Troy, 
and was slain by Dei'phobus. — [2) Son of 
Acheron and Gorgyra or Orphne. When 
Pluto gave Persephone (Proserpina) permis- 
sion to return to the upper world, provided 
she had eaten nothing, Ascalaphus declared 
that she had eaten part of a pomegranate. 
Persephone, in revenge, changed him into an 
owl, by sprinkling him with water from the 
river Phlegethon. 

ASCALOX (-onis), one of the chief cities 
of the Philistines, on the coast of Palestine, 
between Azotus and Gaza. 

ASCAXIA (-ae). (1) In Bithynia, a great 
fresh-water lake, at the E. end of which stood 
the city of Xicaea. — (2) A salt-water lake on 
the borders of Phrygia and Pisidia. 
I ASCAXIUS (-i), son of Aeneas by Creusa, 
! accompanied his father to Italy. Other tra- 
ditions gaA-e the name of Ascanius to the son 
j of Aeneas and Lavinia. He founded Alba 
I Eonga, and was succeeded on the throne by 
his son Silvius. Some writers relate that 
Ascanius was also called Ilus or Julus. The 
gens Julia at Rome traced its origin from 
Julus or Ascanius. 

ASCIBUHGITJM (-i : Asburg, near Mors), 
an ancient place on the left bank of the 
j Rhine. 

! ASCLEPIADES (-is), the name of several 
| physicians, which they derived from the god 
Asclepius. [Aescelapies.] The most cele- 
brated was a native of Rithynia, who came to 
Rome in the middle of the first century b.c, 
where he acquired a great reputation by his 
successful cures. 

ASCLEPIUS. [Aescetapies.1 

ASCOXIUS PEDIAXES Q. (-i), a Roman 
grammarian, born at Patavium (Padua), 
about b.c. 2, and died in his 85th year in the 
reign of Domitian. He wrote a valuable 
Commentary on the speeches of Cicero, of 
which we still possess considerable fragments. 

ASCRA (-ae), a town in Boeotia on Mt. 
Helicon, where Hesiod resided, who had 
removed thither with his father from Cyme 
in Aeolis, and who is therefore caUed As- 
crams. 

ASCTLUM (-i). (1) picexem, the chief 
town of Picenum, and a Roman municipium, 
was destroyed by the Romans in the Social 
War (b.c. 89), but was afterwards rebuilt. 
— (2) apelem, a town of Apulia in Daunia on 
the confines of Samnium, near which the 
Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus, b.c 729. 

ASDREBAL. [Hasdrebal.] 

ASELLIO (-onis), P. SEMPROXIUS (-i), 
tribune of the soldiers under P. Scipio Afri- 
canus at Xumantia, b.c 133, wiote a Roman 



ASIA. 



62 



ASPASIA. 



history from the Punic wars inclusive to the 
times of the Gracchi. 

ASIA (-ae), daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, wife of Iapetus, and mother of Atlas, 
Prometheus, and Epimetheus. According to 
some traditions, the continent of Asia derived j 
its name from her. 

ASIA (-ae), in the poets ASIS (-idis), one I 
of the 3 great divisions which the ancients : 
made of the known world. It was first used j 
by the Greeks for the western part of Asia 
Minor, especially the plains watered by the 
river Cayster, where the Ionian colonists first 
settled; and thence, as their geographical 
knowledge advanced, they extended it to the 
whole country. The southern part of the con- 
tinent was supposed to extend much further 
to the E. than it really, does, while to the N. 
and X.E. parts, which were quite unknown, 
much too small an extent was assigned. The 
different opinions about the boundaries of 
Asia on the side of Africa are mentioned 
under Africa : on the side of Europe the 
boundary was formed by the river Tanais 
{Bon), the Paulus Maeotis {Sea of Azof), 
Pontus Euxinus {Black Sea), Propontis {Sea 
of Marmora), and the Aegean {Archipelago) . 
■ — The most general division of Asia was into 
2 parts, which were different at different 
times, and known by different names. To 
the earliest Greek colonists the river Halys, 
the eastern boundary of the Lydian kingdom, 
formed a natural division between Upper and 
Lower Asia ; and afterwards the Euphrates 
was adopted as a more natural boundary. 
Another division was made by the Taurus into 
A. intra Taurum, i. e. the part of Asia N. ! 
and N.W. of the Taurus, and A. extra 
Taurum, all the rest of the continent. The 
division ultimately adopted, but apparently 
not till the 4th century of our era, was that 
of A. Major and A. Minor. — (1) Asia 
Major was the part of the continent E. of 
the Tanais, the Euxine, an imaginary line 
drawn from the Euxine at Trapezus {Trebi- 
zond) to the Gulf of Issus, and the Mediter- 
ranean : thus it included the countries of 
Sarmatica Asiatica with all the Scythian 
tribes to the E., Colchis, Iberia, Albania, 
Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Babylonia, Mesopo- 
tamia, Assyria, Media, Susiana, Persis, 
Ariana, Hyrcania, Margiana, Bactriana, 
Sogdiana, India, the land of the Sinae and 
Serica ; respecting which, see the several 
articles. — (2) Asia Mixor {Anatolia), was 
the peninsula on the extreme W. of Asia, 
bounded by the Euxine, Aegean, and Medi- 
terranean on the N., W., and S. ; and on the 
E. by the mountains on the W. of the upper 
course of the Euphrates. It was divided into 
Mysia, Lydia, and Caria, on the W., Lycia, | 



Pamphylia, and Cilicia, on the S. ; Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia, and Pontus, on the E. ; and 
Phrygia, Pisidia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, in 
the centre. — (3) Asia Propria, or simply 
Asia, the Roman province, formed out of the 
kingdom of Pergamus, which was bequeathed 
to the Romans by Attalus EH. (b.c. 130), 
and the Greek cities on the W. coast, and the 
adjacent islands, with Rhodes. It included 
the districts of Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and 
Phrygia ; and was governed at first by pro- 
praetors, afterwards by proconsuls. 

ASIXARUS (-i), a river on the E. side of 
Sicily on which the Athenians were defeated 
by the Syracusans, b. c. 413. 

ASIXE (-es). (1) A town in Laconia on 
the coast between Taenarum and Gythium. — 
(2) A town in Argolis, W. of Hermione, was 
built by the Dryopes, who were driven out of 
the town by the Argives after the first Mes- 
senian war, and built No. 3. — (3) An 
important town in Messenia, near the Pro- 
montory Acritas, on the 3Iessenian gulf, 
which was hence also called the Asinaean s'ulf, 

ASIXirS GALLrS. [GalIiUS.] 

ASIXIUS POLLIO. [Pollio.] 

ASOPTJS (-i) . (DA river flowing through 
the Sicyonian territory into the Corinthian 
gulf. The god of this river, was son of 
Oceanus and Tethys, and father of Evadne, 
Euboea, and Aegina, each of whom was 
therefore called Asopis. Aeacus, the son of 
Aegina, is called Asopiades. — (2) A river in 
Boeotia, flowing near Plataeae, and falling 
into the Euboean sea. — (3) A river in Thes- 
saly, rising in M. Oeta, and flowing into the 
Maliac gulf near Thermypolae. 

ASPARAGIUM (4), a town in the territory 
of Dvrrhachium in Illvria. 

ASPASIA (-ae). (1) The elder, of Miletus, 
daughter of Axiochus, the most celebrated of 
the Greek Hetaerae. She came to Athens, 
where she gained the affections of Pericles, 
not more by her beauty than by her high 
mental accomplishments. Having parted with 
his wife, Pericles lived with Aspasia, during 
the rest of his life. His enemies accused 
Aspasia of impiety, and it required all his 
personal influence to procure her acquittal. 
The house of Aspasia was the centre of the 
best literary and philosophical society of 
Athens, and was frequented even by Socrates. 
On the death of Pericles (b. c. 429), Aspasia 
is said to have attached herself to one Lysicles, 
a dealer in cattle, and to have made him by 
her instructions a first-rate orator. — (2) The 
Younger, a Phocaean, daughter of Hermo- 
timus, the favourite concubine of Cyrus the 
Younger, and subsequently of his brother 
Artaxerxes. Cyrus called her Aspasia after 
the mistress of Pericles, her previous name 



ASPENDUS. 



C3 



ASTRAEUS. 



Having been Milto. Darius, son of Arta- 
xerxes, having fallen in love with her, Arta- 
ierxes made her priestess of a temple at 
Ecbatana, where strict celibacy "was requi- 
site. 

ASPEXDES C-i), a nourishing: city of 
Pamphylia, on the river Eurymedon, 60 
stadia from its mouth : said to have been a 
colony of Ar gives. 

ASPHALT ITES LACUS or MARE MOR- 
TUTJM, the great salt lake in the S. E. of 
Palestine, which receives the water of the 
Jordan. 

ASPIS (-Idis), or Clypea (-ae), a city on_a 
promontory of the same name, near the X. E. 
point of the Carthaginian territory, founded 
by Agathocles, and taken in the first Punic 
War by the Eomans. 

ASPLEDOX or SPLEDOX, a town of the 
Minyae in Boeotia on the river Melas, near 
Orchomenus. 

ASSA (-ae), a town in Chalcidice in Mace- 
donia, on_the Singitic gulf. 

ASSACEXI (-orum), an Indian tribe, in 
the district of the Paropamisadae, between 
the rivers Cophen (Cabool), and Indus. 

ASSABACUS (4), king of Troy, son of 
Tros, father of Capys, grandfather of An- 
chises, and great-grandfather of Aeneas. 
Hence the Romans, as descendants of Aeneas, 
are called domus Assaraci. 

ASSESUS (-i), a town of Ionia near Miletus, 
with a temple of Athena surnamed Assesia. 

ASSOPvUS (-i), a small town in Sicily 
between Enna and Agyriimi. 

ASSUS (-i), a city 'in the Troad, on the 
Adramyttian Gulf, opposite to Lesbos : after- 
wards-called Apollonia : the birthplace of 
Cleanthesjthe Stoic. 

ASSYRIA (-ae). (l) The country properly 
so called, in the narrowest sense, was a district 
of Asia, extending along the E. side of the 
Tigris, which divided it on the W. and X. AY. 
from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and bounded 
on the N. and E. by M. Xiphates and M. 
Zagrus, which separated it from Armenia and 
Media, and on the S. E. by Susiana. It was 
watered by several streams, flowing into the 
Tigris from the E. ; two of which, the Lycus 
or Zabatus {Great Zab), and the Caprus or 
Zabas or Anzabas (Little Zab), divided the 
country into three parts : that between the 
Upper Tigris and the Lycus was called Aturia 
(a mere dialectic variety of Assyria), was 
probably the most ancient seat of the mon- 
archy, and contained- the capital, Xineveh or 
Nnnis : that between the Lycus and the 
Caprus was called Adiabene : and the part S. 
E. of the Caprus contained the districts of 
Apolloniatis and Sittacene. — (2) In a wider 
sense the name was applied to the whole 



country watered by the Euphrates and the 
Tigris, so as to include Mesopotamia and 
Babylonia. — (3) By a further extension the 
word is used to designate the Assyrian Empire 
in its widest sense. It was one of the first 
great states of which we have any record. Its 
reputed founder was Xinus, the builder of the 
capital city ; and in its widest extent it in- 
cluded the countries just mentioned, with 
Media, Persis, Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, 
and Palestine, except the kingdom of Judah. 
The fruitless expedition of Sennacherib against 
Egypt, and the miraculous destruction of his 
army before Jerusalem (b. c. 714), so weak- 
ened the empire, that the Medes revolted and 
formed a separate kingdom. In b. c. 606, 
Xineveh was taken, and the Assyrian em- 
pire destroyed by Cyaxares, the king of 
Media. 

ASTA (-ae). (1) (Asti in Piedmont), an 
inland town of Liguria on the Tanarus, a 
Eoman colony. — (2) A town in Hispania 
Baetica, near Gades, a Bonian colony. 

ASTABOBAS (-ae), andASTAPUS (-i), two 
rivers of Aethiopia, having their sources in 
the highlands of Abyssin ia and uniting to form 
the Nile. The land enclosed by them was the 
island of Meboe. 

ASTACLS (-i), a celebrated city of Bithynia, 
on the Sin us Astacenus, a bay of the Propontis, 
was a colony from Megara, but afterwards 
received fresh colonists from Athens, who 
called the place Olbia. It was destroyed by 
Lysimachus, but was rebuilt on a neighbour- 
ing site, by Xicomedes I.', who named his new 
city Xico^eedia. 

ASTAPA (-ae), a town in Hispania Baetica. 

ASTAPUS. [Astabobas.] 

ASTABTE. [Aphrodite and Sybia Dea.] 

ASTEBIA (-ae), or ASTEBIE (-es), daugh- 
ter of the Titan Coeus and Phoebe, sister of 
Leto (Latona), wife of Perses, and mother of 
Hecate. In order to escape the embraces of 
Zeus, she is said to have taken the form of a 
quail (ortyx), and to have thrown herself 
down from heaven into the sea, where she 
was metamorphosed into the island Asteria 
(the island which had fallen from heaven 
like a star), or Ortygia, afterwards called 
Delos. 

ASTEBIS (-idis), or ASTEBIA (-ae), a 
small island between Ithaca and Cephallenia. 

ASTBAEA (-ae), daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and Themis, and goddess of justice, lived 
during the golden age among men ; but when 
the wickedness of men increased, she with- 
drew to heaven and was placed among the 
stars, under the name of Virgo. Her sister 
Pudicitia left the earth along with her, 

ASTBAEUS (-i), a Titan, husband of Eos 
(Aurora), and father of the winds and the 



ASTERA. 



64 



ATHAMAS. 



stars. Ovid calls the winds Astraei (adj.) 
fratres^ the " Astraean brothers." 

ASTER A (-ae), a river in Latium, flowing 
between Antium and Circeii into the Tyrrhe- | 
nian sea. At its mouth it formed a small 
island with a town upon it, also called Astura, 
where Cicero had an estate. 

ASTERES (-mil), a warlike people in the 
N.W. of Spain, bounded on the E. by the 
Cantabri and Yaccaei, on the W. by the Gal- 
laeci, on the N. by the Ocean, and on the 
S. by the Tettones. Their chief town was 
Asturica^ Augusta (Astorga) . 

ASTYAGES (-is), son of Cyaxares, last king 
of Media, reigned b.c. 594 — 559. He was 
deposed and deprived of his dominions by his 
grandson Cyrus. Eor details see Cvnrs. 

ASTYAXAX (-actis), son of Hector and 
Andromache. After the capture of Troy the 
Greeks hurled him down from the walls, that 
he might not restore the kingdom of Troy. 

ASTYPAEAEA (-ae), one of the Sporades 
in the S. part of the Grecian archipelago, 
with a town of the same name, founded by 
the Megarians. 

ASTYRA (-ae), a town of Mysia, X. AY. of 
Adramyttium. 

ATABEEES (-i), the name in Apulia of 
the parching S.E. wind, the Sirocco, which is 
at present called Altino in Apulia. 

AT AB YE IS or ATABYRIEM (4), the 
highest mountain in Rhodes on the S.AY. of 
that island, on which was a celebrated temple 
of Zeus Atabyrius. 

ATAGIS. - [Athesis.] 

ATALAXTA (-ae), or ATALAXTE (-es). 
(1) The Arcadian Atalanta, was a daughter 
of Iasus (lasion or Iasius) and Clymene. 
She was exposed by her father in her 
infancy, and was suckled by a she-bear, 
the symbol of Artemis (Diana). After she 
had grown up she lived in pure maiden- 
hood, slew the centaurs who pursued her, 
and took part in the Calydonian hunt. Her 
father subsequently recognised her as his 
daughter ; and when he desired her to marry, 
she required every suitor to contend with her 
in the foot-race, because she was the most 
swift-footed of mortals. If he conquered her, 
he was to be rewarded with her hand ; if he 
was conquered, he was to be put to death. She 
conquered many suitors, but was at length 
overcome by Mllamon with the assistance of 
Aphrodite (Yenus}. The goddess had given 
him 3 golden apples, and during the race he 
dropped them one after the other : their 
beauty charmed Atalanta so much, that she 
could not abstain from gathering them, and 
Mllanion thus gained the goal before her. 
She accordingly became his wife. They were 
subsequently both metamorphosed into lions, j 



because they had profaned by their embraces 
the sacred grove of Zeus (Jupiter). — (2) The 
j Boeotian Atalanta. The same stories are 
I related of her as of the Arcadian Atalanta, 
except that her parentage and the localities 
are described differently. Thus she is said 
to have been a daughter of Schoenus, and to 
have been married to Hippomenes. Her foot- 
race is transferred to the Boeotian Onchestus, 
and the sanctuary profaned was a temple of 
Cybele, who metamorphosed them into lions, 
and yoked them to her chariot. 

ATALAXTE (-es), a town of Macedonia 
on the Axius. 

AT AE ANTES (-urn), a people in the E. of 
Libya, between the Garamantes and Atlantes. 

ATARXEE'S, a city on the coast of Mysia, 
opposite to Lesbos : a colony of the Chians : 
the residence of the tyrant Hermias, with 
whom Aristotle resided some time. 

AT AX (-acis : Aude), originally call \ 
Narbo, a river in Gallia Xarbonensis, risj ig 
in the Pyrenees, and flowing by Xarbo Ms - 
tius into the Lacus Rubresus or Rubrensis, 
which is connected with the sea. 

ATE (-es), daughter of Eris or Zeus (Ju- 
piter), was an ancient Greek divinity, who 
led both gods and men into rash and incon- 
siderate actions. 

ATEIUS CAFITO. [Capito.] 
ATELEA (-ae : Atoersa), a town in Cam- 
pania between Capua and Xeapolis, originally 
inhabited by the Oscans, afterwards a Roman 
municipium and a colony. Atella owes its 
celebrity to the AteUanae Tabulae or Oscan 
farces, which took their name from this town. 

ATERXE~M (4: Pescara*), a town in 
central Italy on the Adriatic, at the mouth 
of the river Aternus, was the common harbour 
of the Yestini, Marrucini, and Peligni. 
ATERXES. [Ateknxjm.] 
ATESTE (-es : Este), a Roman colony in 
the country of the Yeneti in Upper Italy. 

ATHACE'S (-i), a town in Lyncestis in 
Macedonia._ 

ATHAMAXIA (-ae), a mountainous country 
in the S. of Epirus, on the AY. side of Pindus, 
of which Argithea was the chief town. The 
Athamanes were a Thessalian people, who 
had been driven out of Thessaly by the 
Lapithae. 

ATHAMAS (-antis), son of Aeolus and 
Enarete, and king of Orchomenus in Boeotia. 
At the command of Hera (Juno), Athamas 
married Xephele, by whom he became the 
father of Phrixus and Helle. [Phrixus.] 
But he was secretly in love with the mortal 
Ino, the daughter of Cadmus, by whom he 
begot Learchus and Melicertes. Having thus 
incurred the anger both of Hera and of Xephele, 
Athamas was seized with madness, and in 



ATHANAGIA. 



05 



ATHENA. 



this state killed his own son, Learchus. Ino 
threw herself with Melicertes into the sea, 
and both were changed into marine deities, 
Ino becoming Leucothea, and Melicertes 
Palaemon. Athamas, as the murderer of 
his son, was obliged to flee from Boeotia, 
and settled in Thessaly. — Hence we have 
Athamantiades <-ae), son of Athamas, i. e. 
Palaemon; nn&Athamantis {-tdis), daughter of 
Athamas, i. e. Helle. 

ATHANAGIA (-ae;, the chief town of the 
Ilergetes in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

ATHENA ( >), or ATHENE (-es), called 
MINERVA by tj 3 Romans, was one of the great 
divinities of i . 3 Greeks. She is frequently 
called Pallas Athena, or simply Pallas. She 
was the daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Metis. 
Before her birth Zeus swallowed her mother ; 
and Athena afterwards sprung forth from the 
head of Zeus with a mighty war-shout and in 
complete armour. As her father was the most 
powerful and her mother the wisest among 
the gods, so Athena was a combination of the 
two, a goddess in whom power and wisdom 
were harmoniously blended. She appears as 
the preserver of the state and of everything 
which gives to the state strength and pros- 



tree (see below), inventing the plough and 




Athena (Minerv 



(Aegina Marbles.) 




perity. — As the protectress of agriculture, 
Athena is represented as creating the olive 



Athena [Minerva). (From a Statue in the 
possession of Mr. Hope.) 

rake, 6rc. She was the patroness of both the 
useful and elegant arts, such as weaving. 
[See Abachne.] Later writers make her the 
goddess of all wisdom and knowledge. As 
the patron divinity of the state, she main- 
tained the authority of law and order in the 
courts and the assembly of the people. She 
was believed to have instituted the ancient 
court of the Areopagus at Athens. She 
also protected the state from outward enemies, 
and thus assumes the character of a warlike 
divinity. Ln the war of Zeus against the 
giants, she buried Enceladus under the island 
of Sicily, and slew Pallas. In the Trojan 
war she sided with the Greeks. As a goddess 
of war she usually appears in armour, with 
the aegis and a golden staff. In the centre 
of her breast-plate or shield, appears the head 
of Medusa, the Gorgon. She is represented 
as a virgin divinity, whose heart is inacces- 
sible to the passion of love. Tiresias was de- 



; prived of sight for having seen her in the 
I bath j and Hephaestus (Vulcan), who had 



ATHEXAE. 







ATHEXAE. 



made an attempt upon her chastity, was obliged 
to take to flight. Athena was worshipped in 
all parts of Greece. She was especially the 
protecting deity of Athens and Attica. The 
tale ran that in the reign of Cecrops both Po- 
seidon (Xeptune) and Athena contended for 
the possession of Athens. The gods resolved 
that whichever of them produced a gift most 
useful to mortals should have possession of the 
land. Poseidon struck the ground with his 
trident and straightway a horse appeared. 



Athena then planted the olive. The gods 
thereupon decreed that the olive was more 
useful to man than the horse, and gave the 
city to the goddess, from whom it was called 
Athenae. At Athens the magnificent festival 
of the Panathenaea was celebrated in honour 
of the goddess. At this festival took place the 
grand procession, which was represented on 
the frieze of the Parthenon. Respecting her 
worship in Italy, see Minerva. The owl, ser- 
pent, cock, and olive-tree, were sacred to her. 




Atliena (Minerva). (Bartoli, Aclmiranda, pL 41.) 



ATHEXAE (-arum : Athens), the capital of 
Attica, about 4 miles from the sea, between 
the small rivers Cephissus on the W. and 
Tlissus on the E., the latter of which flowed 
through the town, The most ancient part of it, 
the Acrojjolis, is said to have been built hy the 
mythical Cecrops, but the city itself is said to 
have owed its origin to Theseus, who united 
the 12 independent states or townships of 
Attica into one state, and made Athens their 
capital. The city was burnt by Xerxes in 
b.c. 480, but was soon rebuilt under the 
administration of Themistocles, and was 
adorned with public buildings by Cimon, and 
especially by Pericles, in whose time (b.c. 
460 — 429) it reached its greatest splendour. 
Its beauty was chiefly owing to its public 
buildings, for the private houses were mostly 
insignificant, and its streets badly laid out. 
Towards the end of the Peloponnesian war, 
it contained 10,000 houses, which at the rate 
of 12 inhabitants to a house, would give a 
population of 120,000, though some writers 
make the inhabitants as many as 180,000. | 
Under the Etonians Athens continued to be a 
great and flourishing city, and retained many ! 
privileges and immunities when the south of \ 
Greece was formed into the Roman province of [ 
Achaia. It suffered greatly on its capture by 
Sulla, b.c. 86, and was deprived of many of 
its privileges. It was at that time, and also 
during; the early centuries of the Christian j 



aera, one of the chief seats of learning ; and 
the Romans were accustomed to send their 
sons to Athens, as to an University, for the 
completion of their education. Hadrian, 
who was very partial to Athens, and fre-. 
quently resided in the city (a.d. 122 — 128), 
adorned it with many new buildings, and his 
example was followed by Herodes Atticus, 
who spent large sums of money upon beauti- 
fying the city in the reign of M. Aurelius. — 
Athens consisted of two distinct parts : I. 
The City, properly so called, divided into, 
1. The Upper City or Acropolis, and, 2. The 
Lower City, surrounded with walls by The- 
mistocles. II. The 3 harbour-towns of 
Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum, also sur- 
rounded with walls by Themistocles, and 
connected with the city by means of the long 
walls, built under the administration of 
Pericles. The long walls consisted of the 
wall to Phalerum on the E., 35 stadia long 
(about 4 miles), and of the wall to Piraeus on 
the W., 40 stadia long (about 41 miles) \ be- 
tween these two, at a short distance from the 
latter and parallel to it, another wall' was 
erected, thus making 2 walls leading to the 
Piraeus, with a narrow passage between them. 
The entire circuit of the walls was stadia 
(nearly 22 miles), of which 43 stadia (nearly 
5§ miles) belonged to the city, 75 stadia 
(9^ miles) to the long walls, and 56|- 
(7 miles), to Piraeus, Munychia, and Phale- 



ATHENAEUM. 



67 



ATLAS. 



rum. — The Acropolis, also called Cecropia 
from its reputed founder, was a steep rock in 
the middle of the city, about 150 feet high, 
1150 feet long, and 500 broad. On the W. 
end of the Acropolis, where access is alone 
practicable, were the magnificent Propylaea, 
or " the Entrances," built by Pericles. The 
summit of the Acropolis was covered with 
temples, statues of bronze and marble, and 
various other works of art. Of the temples, 
the grandest was the Parthenon, sacred to the 
"Virgin" goddess Athena; and N. of the 
Parthenon was the magnificent Erechtheum, 
containing 3 separate temples, one of Athena 
Polias, or the " Protectress of the State," the 
Erechtheum proper, or sanctuary of Erech- 
theus, and the Pandrosium, or sanctuary of 
Pandrosos, the daughter of Cecrops. Between 
the Parthenon and Erechtheum was the 
colossal statue of Athena Promachos, or the 
" Fighter in the Front," whose helmet and 
spear was the first object on the Acropolis 
visible from the sea. The lower city was 
built in the plain round the Acropolis, but 
this plain also contained several hills, espe- 
cially in the S.W. part. 

ATHENAEUM, (-i) in general a temple or 
place sacred to Athena (Minerva). The name 
was specially given to a school founded by 
the emperor Hadrian at Rome about a. d. 133, 
for the promotion of literary and scientific 
studies. 

ATHENAEUS (4), a learned Greek gram- 
marian, of Naucratis in Egypt, lived about 
a.d. 230, first at Alexandria and afterwards 
at Rome. His extant work is entitled the Deip- 
?wsophistae, i. e. the Banquet of the Learned, 
consisting of an immense mass of anecdotes, 
of extracts from the ancient writers, and of 
discussions on almost every conceivable sub- 
ject, especially on Gastronomy. Athenaeus 
represents himself as describing to his friend 
Timocrates, a full account of the conversation 
at a banquet at Rome, at which Galen, the 
physician, and Ulpian, the jurist, were among 
the guests. 

ATHENODORUS (-i). (1) Of Tarsus, a 
Stoic philosopher surnamed Cohdylio, was the 
keeper of the library at Pergamus, and after- 
wards removed to Rome, where he lived with 
M. Cato, at whose house he died. (2) Of 
Tarsus, a Stoic philosopher, surnamed Cana- 
nites, from Cana in Cilicia, the birthplace of 
his father. He taught at Apollonia in Epirus, 
where the young Octavius (subsequently the 
emperor Augustus) was one of his disciples. 
He accompanied the latter to Rome, and 
became one of his intimate friends. 

ATHESIS (-is: Adige or Etsch), rises in 
the Rhaetian Alps, receives the ATAGIS 
(Eisach), flows through Upper Italy past 



Verona, and falls into the Adriatic by many 
mouths. 

ATHOS {Bat. atho : Ace. athon and atho : 
Abl. atho), the mountainous peninsula, also 
called Acte, which projects from Chalcidlce in 
Macedonia. At its extremity it rises to the 
height of 6349 feet ; the voyage round it was 
so dreaded by mariners, that Xerxes had a 
canal cut through the isthmus, which connects 
the peninsula with the mainland, to afford a 
passage to his fleet. The isthmus is about 
\\ mile across ; and there are distinct traces 
of the canal to be seen in the present day. 
The peninsula contained several flourishing 
cities in antiquity, and is now studded with 
numerous monasteries, cloisters, and chapels. 
In these monasteries some valuable MSS. of 
ancient authors have been discovered. 

ATIA, mother of Augustus. 

ATILlUS REGULUS. [Regulus.] 

ATINA (~ae : Atina), a town of the Volsci 
in Latium, afterwards a Roman colony. 

ATINTANES (-urn), an Epirot people in 
Illyria, on the borders of Macedonia. 

ATLANTICUM MARE. [Oceanus.] 

ATLANTIS (-idis), according to an ancient 
tradition, a great island W, of the Pillars of 
Hercules in the Ocean, opposite Mount Atlas : 
it possessed a numerous population, and was 
adorned with every beauty ; its powerful 
princes invaded Africa and Europe, but were 
defeated by the Athenians and their allies : 
its inhabitants afterwards became wicked and 
impious, and the island was in consequence 
swallowed up in the ocean in a day and a 
night. This legend is given by Plato in the 
Timaens, and is said to have been related to 
Solon by the Egyptian priests. The Canary 
Islands, or the Azores, which perhaps were 
visited by the Phoenicians, may have given 
rise to the legend .; but some modern writers 
regard it as indicative of a vague belief in 
antiquity in the existence of the W, hemi- 
sphere, 

ATLAS (-antis) , son of Iapetus and Clymene, 
and brother of Prometheus and Epimetheus. 
He made war with the other Titans upon Zeus 
(Jupiter), and being conquered, was con- 
demned to bear heaven on his head and hands. 
The myth seems to have arisen from the idea 
that lofty mountains supported the heaven. 
Another tradition relates that Perseus came 
to Atlas and asked for shelter, which was re- 
fused, whereupon Perseus, by means of the 
head of Medusa, changed him into M. Atlas, on 
which rested heaven with all its stars. Atlas 
was the father of the Pleiades by Pleione or by 
Hesperis ; of the Hyades and Hesperides by 
Aethra ; and of Oenomaus and Maia by 
Sterope. Dione and Calypso, Hyas and 
Hesperus, are likewise called his children. — 

r 2 



ATLAS MONS. 



6S 



ATTA. 



Atlantiddes, a descendant of Atlas, especially 
Mercury, his grandson by Maia, and Her- 




Atlas. (From the Farnese collection now 
at Naples.) 



maphroditus, son of Mercury. — Atlantias and 
Atlantis, a female descendant of Atlas, espe- 
cially one of the Pleiads and Brads. 

ATLAS MONS was the general name of 
the great mountain range which covers the 
surface of N. Africa between the Mediter- 
ranean and Great Desert (Sahara), on the N. 
and S., and the Atlantic and the Lesser Syrtis 
on the W. and E. 

ATOSSA (-ae), daughter of Cyrus, and wife 
successively of her brother Cambyses, of 
Smerdis the Magian, and of Darius Hystaspis, 
by whom she became the mother of Xerxes. 

ATRAE (-arum), or HATE, A (-ae), a strongly 
fortified city on a high mountain in Meso- 
potamia, inhabited by people of the Arab race. 

ATBAX (-acis), a town in Pelasgiotis in 
Thessaly, inhabited by the Perrhaebi, so called 
from the mythical Atrax, son of Peneus and 
Bura, and father of Caeneus and Hippodamala. 
Hence Caeneus is called Atracides and 
HippodamTa Atr acis. 

ATREBATES (-urn), a people in Gallia 
Belgica, in the modern Artois, which is a cor- 
ruption of their name. Their capital was 
Nemetocenna or Xemetacum, subsequently 



Atrebati, now Arras. Part of them crossed 
over to Britain, where they dwelt in the upper 
valley of the Thames, in Oxfordshire and 
Berkshire. 

ATREUS (-eos, el or el), son of Pelops and 
HippodamTa, grandson of Tantalus, and 
brother of Thyestes and Nicippe. [Pelops.] 
He was first married to Cleola, by whom he 
became the father of Plisthenes; then to 
Aerope, the widow of his son Plisthenes, who 
was the mother of Agamemnon, Menelaus, 
and Anaxibia, either by Plisthenes or by 
Atreus [Agamemnon] ; and lastly to Pelopia, 
the daughter of his brother Thyestes. The 
tragic fate of the house of Pelops afforded 
materials to the tragic poets of Greece. In 
consequence of the murder of their half- 
brother Chrysippus, Atreus and Thyestes were 
obliged to take to flight ; they were hospitably 
received at Mycenae ; and, after the death of 
Eurystheus, Atreus became king of Mycenae. 
Thyestes seduced Aerope, the wife of Atreus, 
and was in consequence banished by his 
brother : from his place of exile he sent 
Plisthenes, the son of Atreus, whom he had 
brought up as his own child, in order to slay 
Atreus, but Plisthenes fell by the hands of 
Atreus, who did not know that he was his 
own son. In order to take revenge, Atreus, 
pretending to be reconciled to Thyestes, re- 
called him to Mycenae, killed his two sons, 
and placed their flesh before their father at a 
banquet, who unwittingly partook of the 
horrid meal. Thyestes fled with horror, and. 
the gods cursed Atreus and his house. The 
kingdom of Atreus was now visited by famine, 
and the oracle advised Atreus to call back 
Thyestes. Atreus, who went out in search 
of him, came to king Thesprotus, where he 
married his third wife, Pelopia, the daughter 
of Thyestes, whom Atreus believed to be a 
daughter of Thesprotus . Pelopia was at the 
time with child by her own father, This 
child, Aegisthus, afterwards slew Atreus 
because the latter had commanded him to 
slay his own father Thyestes. [Aegisthus.] 
ATRIA. [Adria.] 

ATRIDES or ATRLDA (-ae), a descendant 
of Atreus, especially Agamemnon and Mene- 
laus. 

ATROPATENE (-es), or Media Atropatia, 
the N. W. part of Media, adjacent to Armenia, 
named after Atropates, a native of the country, 
who,, having been made its governor by Alex- 
ander, founded there a kingdom, which long 
remained independent. 

ATROPOS. [Moirae.] 

ATTA (-ae), T. QUINTIUS (-i), a Roman 
comic poet, died b.c. 78. His surname Atta 
was given him from a defect in his feet. His 
plays were acted even in the time of Augustus. 



ATTALIA. 



09 



ATTILA. 



ATTALIA (-ae). (1) A city of Lydia, 
formerly called Agroira. — (2) A city on the 
coast of Pamphylia, founded by Attalus II. 
Philadelphia, and subdued by the Romans 
under P. Servilius Isauricus. 

ATTALUS (-i), king of Pergamus. (1) Son 
of Attalus, a brother of Philetaerus, succeeded 
his cousin, Eumenes I., and reigned b.c. 241 
— 197. He took part with the Romans 
against Philip and the Achaeans. He was a 
wise and just prince, and was distinguished 
by his patronage of literature. — (2) Surnamed 
Philadelphia, 2nd son of Attalus, succeeded 
his brother Eumenes II., and reigned 159 — 
138. Like his father he was an ally of the 
Romans, and he also encouraged the arts and 
sciences. — (3) Surnamed Philometoe, son of 
Eumenes II. and Stratonice, succeeded his 
uncle Attalus II., and reigned 1 3 8 — 1 33. In 
his will, he made the Romans his heirs ; but 
his kingdom was claimed by Aristonicus. 
[Aristosicus.] 

ATTHIS or ATTIS. [Attica.] 

ATTICA (-ae), a clivision of Greece, has the 
form of a triangle, two sides of which are 
washed by the Aegaean sea, while the third is 
separated from Boeotia on the X. by the moun- 
tains Cithaeron and Parnes. Megaris, which 
bounds it on the X. TV. was formerly a part 
of Attica. In ancient times it was called Acte 
and Act ice, or the " eoastland'-" [Acte], from 
which the later form Attica is said to have 
been derived. According to tradition it 
derived its name from Atthis, the daughter of 
the mythical king Cranaus ; and it is not 
impossible that Att-ica may contain the root 
Att or Ath, which we find in Atthis and 
Athena* Attica is divided by many ancient 
writers into 3 districts. 1. Tlie Highlands, 
the X.E. of the country. 2. The Plain, the 
N.W. of the country, including both the plain 
round Athens and the plain round Eleusis, 
and extending S. to the promontory Zoster. 3. 
The Sea-coast District, the S. part of the 
country, terminating in the promontory 
Sunium. Besides these 3 divisions we also 
read of a 4th, TJie Midland District, still 
called 3Iesogiu, an undulating plain in the 
middle of the country. The soil of Attica is 
not very fertile : the greater part of it is not 
adapted for growing corn ; but it produces 
olives, figs, and grapes, especially the 2 former 
in great perfection. The country is dry ; the 
chief river is the Cephissus, rising in Parnes 
and fiowing through the Athenian plain. The j 
abundance of wild flowers in the country j 
made the honey of M. Hymettus very cele- 
brated in antiquity. Excellent marble was 
obtained from the quarries of Pentelicus, X.E. ' 
of Athens, and a considerable supply of silver ' 
from the mines of Laurium near Sunium. The ' 



area of Attica, including the island of Salamis, 
which belonged to it, contained between 700 
and 800 square miles; and its population in 
its flourishing period was probably about 
500,000, of which nearly 4-5ths were slaves. 
Attica is said to have been originally inhabited 
by Pelasgians. Its most ancient political 
division was into 12 independent states, 
attributed to Cechops, who according to some 
legends came from Egypt. Subsequently Ion, 
the grandson of Hellen, divided the people 
into 4 tribes, Geleontes, ITopletes, ArgarJcs 
and Aegicores ; and Theseus, who united the 
12 independent states of Attica into one 
political body, and made Athens the capital, 
again divided the nation into 3 classes, the 
Dupatridae, Geomori, and Demiurgi. Clis- 
thenes (b.c 510) abolished the old tribes and 
created 10 new ones, according to a geogra- 
phical division : these tribes were subdivided 
into 174 demi or townships. 

^ATTICUS HERODES, TIBERIUS CLAU- 
DIUS, a celebrated Greek rhetorician, born 
about a.d. 104, at Marathon in Attica. He 
taught rhetoric both at Athens and at . Rome. 
The future emperors M. Aurelius and L. Terus 
were among his pupils, and Antoninus Pius 
raised him to the consulship in 143. He 
possessed immense wealth, a great part of 
which he spent in embellishing Athens. He 
died at the age of 76, in 180. 

ATTICUS,^ POMPOXIUS (-i), a Roman 
eques, born at Rome, b.c. 109. His proper 
name after his adoption by Q. Caecilius, the 
brother of his mother, was Q. Caecilius Pom- 
ponianus Atticus. His surname, Atticus, was 
given him on account of his long residence in 
Athens and his intimate acquaintance with 
the Greek language and literature. He kept 
aloof from all political affairs, and thus lived 
on intimate terms with the most distinguished 
men of all parties. His chief friend was 
Cicero, whose correspondence with him, 
beginning in 6S and continued down to 
Cicero's death, is one of the most valuable 
remains of antiquity. He purchased an estate 
at Buthrotum in Epirus, in which place, as 
well as at Athens and Rome, he spent the 
greater part of his time, engaged in literary 
pursuits and commercial undertakings. He 
died in b.c 32, at the age of 7 7, of voluntary 
starvation, when he found that he was 
attacked by an incurable illness. His wife 
Pilia, bore him only one child, a daughter, 
Pomponia or Caecilia, who was married to M. 
Vipsanius Agrippa. The sister of Atticus, 
Pomponia, was married to Q. Cicero, the 
brother of the orator. In philosophy Atticus 
belonged to the Epicurean sect. 

ATTILA (-ae), a king of the Huns, reigned 
a.d. 434 — 453. Such terror did he inspire in 



ATTIUS. 



70 



AUGUSTUS. 



the ancient world, that he was called "the 
Scourge of God." His career divides itself 
into two parts. The first (a. d. 445 — 150) 
consists of the ravage of the Eastern empire 
between the Euxine and the Adriatic, and 
the second of his invasion of the Western 
empire (450 — 452). He took Aquileia in 
452, after a siege of 3 months, hut he did not 
attack Rome, in consequence, it is said, of his 
interview with Pope Leo the Great. He died 
in 453, on the night of his marriage with a 
beautiful girl, by the bursting of a blood- 
vessel. 

ATTIUS. [Accrus.] 

ATTIUS or ATTUS XAYIUS. [Xavits.] 

ATURUS (-i : Adour), a river in Aquitania 
rising in the Pyrenees and flowing through 
the territory of the Tarbelli into the ocean. 

ATYS or ATTYS (-yos). (1) A beautiful 
shepherd of Phrygia, beloved by Cybele. 
Having proved unfaithful to the goddess, he 
was thrown by her into a state of madness, 
and was changed into a fir-tree. (2) A Latin 
chief, from whom the Atia Gens derived its 
origin, and from whom Augustus was believed 
to be descended on his mother's side, 

AUFIDENA (-ae), a town in Samnium on 
the river Sagrus. 

AUFIDUS (-i), the principal river of Apu- 
lia, flowing with a rapid current into the 
Adriati c . Yenusia, the birth-place of Horace, 
was on the Aufidus. 

AUGE (-es), or AUGIA (-ae), daughter of 
Aleus and Xeaera, was a priestess of Athena, 
and mother by Hercules of Telephus. [Tele- 
phus.] She afterwards married Teuthras, 
king of the Mysians. _ 

AUGEAS or AUGIAS. [Herctiees.] 

AUGILA (-orum), an oasis in the Great 
Desert of Africa, 10 days' journey Yv r . of 
the Oasis of Amnion, abounding in date 
palms. 

AUGUSTA (-ae), the name of several towns 
founded or colonised by Augustus. Of these 
one of the most important was Atjgusta 
Praetoria ( Aosta), a town of the Salassi in 
Upper Italy, at the foot of the Graian and 
Pennine Alps. The modern town still 
contains many Roman remains : the most 
important of which are the town gates and a 
triumphal arch. 

AUGUSTOBOXA. [Tricasses.] 
AUGUSTODUXUM. [Bibracte.] 
AUGUSTOXEMETUM. TARVERyi.] 
AUGUSTULUS, ROMULUS (-i), last 
B,oman emperor of the West, was deposed by 
Odoacer, a. d. 476. 

AUGUSTUS (-i), the first Roman emperor, ! 
was born on the 2 3rd of September, b.c. 63, and i 
was the son of C. Octavius by Atia, a daughter 
of Julia, the sister of C. Julius Caesar. His | 



original name was C. Octavius, and, after his 
adoption by his great-uncle, C. Julius Caesar 
Octarianus. Augustus was only a title given 
him by the senate and the people in b. c. 27, 
to express their veneration for him. He was 
pursuing his studies at Apollonia, when the 
news reached him of his uncle's murder at 
Rome in March 44. He forthwith set out 
for Italy, and upon landing, was received with 
enthusiasm by the troops. He first joined 
the republican party in order to crush Antony, 
against whom he fought at Mutina in con- 
junction with the 2 consuls, C. Yibius Pansa 
and A. Hirtius. Antony was defeated and 
obliged to fly across the Alps ; and the death 
of the 2 consuls gave Augustus the command 
of all their troops. He now returned to Rome, 
and compelled the senate to elect him consul, 
and shortly afterwards he became reconciled 
to Antony. It was agreed, that the Roman 
world should be divided between Augustus, 
Antony, and Lepidus, under the title of 
triumviri rei jniblicae constituendae, and that 
this arrangement should last for the next 5 
years. They published a proscriptio or list of 
all their enemies, whose lives were to be 
sacrificed and their property confiscated : 
upwards of 2000 equites and 300 senators 
were put to death, among whom was Cicero, 
Soon afterwards Augustus and Antony crossed 
over to Greece, and defeated Brutus and 
Cassius at the decisive battle of Philippi in 
42, by which the hopes of the republican 
party were ruined. Augustus returned to 
Italy, where a new war awaited him (41), 
excited by Fulvia, the wife of Antony. She 
was supported by L. Antonius, the consul and 
brother of the triumvir, who threw himself 
into the fortified town of Perusia, which 
Augustus succeeded in taking in 40. Antony 
now made preparations for war, but the death 
of Fulvia led to a reconciliation between the 
triumvirs, who concluded a peace at Brun- 
dusium, A new division of the provinces 
was again made : Augustus obtained all the 
parts of the empire W. of the town of Scodra 
in Hlyricum, Antony the E. provinces, and 
Lepidus Africa. Antony married Octavia, 
the sister of Augustus, in order to cement 
their alliance. In 36 Augustus conquered 
Sex. Pompey, who had held possession of 
Sicily for many years with a powerful fleet. 
Lepidus, who had landed in Sicily to support 
Augustus, was also subdued by Augustus, 
stripped of his power, and sent to Rome, 
where he resided for the remainder of his life, 
being allowed to retain the dignity of pontifex 
maximus. Meantime, Antony had repudiated 
Octavia, on account of his love for Cleopatra, 
and had alienated the minds of the Roman 
people by his arbitrary conduct. The senate- 



AULERCI. 



71 



AURELIUS. 



declared war against Cleopatra ; and in Sep- 
tember b.c. 31, the fleet of Augustus gained 
a brilliant victory over Antony's near Actium 
in Acarnania. In the following year (30) 
Augustus sailed to Egypt. Antony and 
Cleopatra, who had escaped in safety from 
Actium, put an end to their lives. Augustus 
thus became the undisputed master of the 
Roman world, but he declined all honours 
and distinctions which were calculated to 
remind the Romans of kingly power. On the 
death of Lepidus in 12 he became pontifex 
maximus. On state matters, which he did 
not choose to be discussed in public, he con- 
sulted his personal friends, Maecenas, M. 
Agrippa, M. Valerius Messalla Corvinus, and 
Asinius Pollio. The wars of Augustus were 
chiefly undertaken to protect the frontiers of 
the Roman dominions. Most of them were 
carried on by his relations and friends, but he 
conducted a few of them in person. Thus, 
in 27, he attacked the warlike Cantabri and 
Astures in Spain. In 20 he went to Syria, 
where he received from Phraates, the Parthian 
monarch, the standards and prisoners which 
had been taken from Crassus and Antony. 
He died at Nola, on the 29th of August, a.d. 
14, at the age of 76. His last wife was 
Livia, who had been previously the wife of 
Tiberius Nero. He had no children by Livia, 
and only a daughter Julia by his former 
wife Scribonia. Julia was married to Agrippa, 
and her 2 sons, Caius and Lucius Caesar, were 
destined by Augustus as his successors. On 
the death of these two youths, Augustus was 
persuaded to adopt Tiberius, the son of Livia 
by her former husband, and to make him his 
colleague and successor. [Tiberius.] 

AULERCI (-orum), a powerful Gallic people 
dwelling between the Sequana [Seine] and 
the Liger (Loire), and divided into 3 tribes. 
(1) A. EburoyIces, near the coast on the 
left bank of the Seine in the modern Normandy : 
their capital was Mediolanum, afterwards 
called Eburovices (JSvreux). — (2) A. Ceno- 
ma.ni, S. W. of the preceding near the Liger : 
their capital was Subdinnum (le Mans). At an 
early period some of the Cenomani crossed the 
Alps and settled in Upper Italy. — (3) A. 
Brannovices, E. of the Cenomani near the 
Aedui, whase clients they were. 

AULIS (-is or -idis), a harbour inEuboea 
on the Euripus, where the Greek fleet as- 
sembled before sailing against Troy. 

AULON (-onis). (1) A district and town 
on the borders of Elis and Messenia, with a 
temple of Aesculapius — (2) A town in Chal- 
cidice in Macedonia, on the Strymonic gulf. — 
(3) A fertile valley near Tarentum celebrated 
for its wine. 

AURELIANI. [Genabxjm.] 



AURELIANUS (-i), Roman emperor, a.d. 
270 — 275, born at Sirmium in Pannonia, 
and successor of Claudius II. He defeated 
the Goths and Vandals, who had crossed the 
Danube, and the Germans, who had invaded 
Italy. He next turned his arms against 
Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, whom he de- 
feated, took prisoner, and carried with him 
to Rome. [Zenobia.] He then recovered 
Gaul, Britain, and Spain, which were in the 
hands cf the usurper Tetricus. On his return 
to Rome, he surrounded the city with a new 
line of walls. He abandoned Dacia, which 
had been first conquered by Trajan, and made 
the S. bank of the Danube, as in the time of 
Augustus, the boundary of the empire. He was 
killed by some of his officers, while preparing 
to march against the Persians._ 

M. AURELIUS ANTONINUS usually 
called M. AURELIUS (-i), Roman em- 
peror, a.d. 161 — 180, commonly called "the 
philosopher," was born at Rome a.d. 121. He 
was adopted by Antoninus Pius, when the latter 
was adopted by Hadrian, and married Faustina, 
the daughter of Pius (138). On the death of 
Antoninus in 161, he succeeded to the throne, 
but he admitted to an equal share of the 
sovereign power L. Aurelius Verus, who had 
been adopted by Pius at the same time as 
Marcus himself. Soon after their accession 
Verus was despatched to the East, and for 4 
years (a.d. 162 — 165) carried on war with 
great success against Vologeses III., king of 
Parthia, over whom his lieutenants, especially 
Avidius Cassius, gained many victories. 
He subsequently prosecuted a war for many 
years with the Marcomanni, Quadi, and the 
other barbarians dwelling along the northern 
limits of the empire, from the sources of the 
Danube to the Illyrian border. Verus died in 
169. In 174 Aurelius gained a decisive 
victory over the Quadi, mainly through a 
violent storm, which threw the barbarians 
into confusion. This storm is said to have 
been owing to the prayers of a legion chiefly 
composed of Christians. It has given rise to 
a famous controversy among the historians of 
Christianity upon what is commonly termed 
the Miracle of the Thundering Legion. In 
17 5, Aurelius set out for the East, where 
Avidius Cassius, urged on by Faustina, the 
unworthy wife of Aurelius, had risen in 
rebellion and proclaimed himself emperor. 
But before Aurelius reached the East, Cassius 
had been slain by his own officers. During 
this expedition Faustina died, according to 
some, by her own hands. Aurelius died in 
180, in Pannonia, while prosecuting the war 
against the Marcomanni. — The leading feature 
in the character of M. Aurelius was his devo- 
tion to the Stoic philosophy. We still 



AURELIUS. 



72 



AZOTUS. 



possess a work by him written in the Greek 
language, and entitled Meditations. No 
remains of antiquity present a nobler vievc 
of philosophical heathenism. The chief and 
perhaps the only stain upon the memory of 
Aurelius is his persecutions of the Christians. 
« — Aurelius was succeeded by his son Corn- 
modus. 

AURELIUS YICTOE. [Victor.] 

AURORA. [Eos.] 

AURUXCI. [Italia.] 

AUSCI or AUSCH (-oruni), a powerful 
people in Aquitania, whose capital was Clim- 
berrum or Elimberrum, also Augusta and 
Ausci (Auch). 

AUSETANI '-orum), a Spanish people in the 
modern Catalonia ; their capital was Ansa 
(Tique). 

AUSONES, AUSONIA. [Italia.] 

AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS (-i), a 
Roman poet, born at Burdigala {Bordeaux), 
about A.i). 310, taught grammar and rhetoric 
with such reputation at his native town, that 
he was appointed tutor of Gratian, son of the 
emperor Valentinian, and was afterwards 
raised to the highest honours of the state. 
Many of his poems are extant. 

AUSTER (-tri), called Notus by the Greeks, 
the S. wind or strictly the S. W. wind. It 
frequently brought with it fogs and rain ; but 
at certain seasons of the year it was a dry 
sultry wind, injurious both to man and to 
vegetation, the Sirocco of the modern Italians. 

AUTARLlTAE (-arum}, an Ulyrian people 
in the Dalmatian mountains. 

AUTOCHTHONES. [Aborigines.] 

AUTOLOLES (-urn), or -AE (-arum), a 
Ga etrurian tribe on the W. coast of Africa, S. 
of the Atlas mountains. 

AUTOLYCUS (-i), son of Hermes (Mercury} 
and Chione, and father of Anticlea, who was 
the mother of Ulysses. He lived on mount 
Parnassus, and was renowned for his cunning 
and robberies. 

ATJTOMEDON (-ontis), son of Diores, the 
charioteer and companion of Achilles, and, 
after the death of the latter, the companion 
of his son Pyrrhus. Hence Automedon is 
used as the name of any skilful charioteer. 

ATJTONOE (-es), daughter of Cadmus and 
Harnionia, wife of Aristaeus, and mother of 
Actaeon, who is therefore called Autonoeius 
heros. AVith her sister Agave, she tore 
Pentheus^to pieces. [Pestheis.] 

AUTRIGONES (-urn), a people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis between the Ocean and the 
Iberus. 



AUXIMUM (-i : Osimo), an important town 
of PicenumJLn Italy, and a Roman colony. 

AUXUME (-es),orAX- {Axwn), the capital 
of a powerful kingdom in Ethiopia, to the S. E. 
j of Meroe, which became known to the Greeks 
and Romans in the early part of the 2nd 
century of our aera. 

AVARICUM. [BiTmiGES.] 

AVELLA. [Abella.1 

AVEXIO (-5nis : Avignon), a town of the 
Cavares in Gallia Xarbonensis on the left 
' bank of the Rhone. 

AVEXTICUM (-i: Avenches), the chief 
town of the Helvetii, and subsequently a 
! Roman colony, of which ruins are still to be 
: seen. 

AVEXTIXUS MOXS. [Roma.] 
AVERXUS LACUS (-i), a lake close to 
the promontory between Cumae and Puteoli, 
, filling the crater of an extinct volcano. It is 
surrounded by high banks, which in antiquity 
I were covered by a gloomy forest sacred to 
' Hecate. Eroni its waters mephitic vapours 
arose, which are said to have killed the birds 
that attempted to fly over it, from which cir- 
! cumstance its Greek name was supposed to 
' be derived. (Aomos, from k priv. and o§wff, 
a bird.) The lake was celebrated in mytho- 
logy on account of its connection with the 
lower world. Xear it Avas the cave of the 
Cumaean Sibyl, through which Aeneas cle- 
I scended to the lower world. Agrippa, in the 
' time of Augustus, connected this lake with 
the Lucrine lake ; he also caused a tunnel to 
be made from the lake to Cumae, of which 
a considerable part remains and is known 
under the name of Grotto di Silylla. The 
Lucrine lake was filled up by an eruption 
in 15 30, so that Avernus is again a separate 
lake. 

AVIAXUS, ELAVIL'S (-i), the author of 
42 fables in Latin elegiac verse, probably lived 
in the 3rd or 4th century of the Christian 
aera. 

AVIEXUS, RUTUS FESTUS [-i) 3 a Latin 
poet towards the end of the 4th century of 
the -Christian aera. His poems are chiefly 
descriptive. 

AXEXUS. [Erxixrs Pontes.] 

AXIA (-ae), a fortress in the territory of 
Tarquinii in Etruria. 

AXIUS (-i), the chief river in Macedonia, 
rising in Mt. Scardus, and flowing S. E. 
through Macedonia into the Thermaic gulf. 

AZOTUS (-i : Ashdod or Ashdoud), a city 
of Palestine, near the sea-coast. 



BABBITTS. 



73 



BACCIIAE. 



T) ABBIUS (-i), a Greek poet, probably in the 
time of Augustus, turned the fables of 
Aesop into verse. 

BABYLON (-onis). (1) (Babel in O.T. : 
Bu. at and around Hitfah) , one of the oldest 
cities of the ancient world, built on both banks 
of the river Euphrates. In Scripture its foun- 
dation is ascribed to Niinrod. Secular history 
ascribes its origin to Belus (i. e. the god Baal), 
and its enlargement and decoration to Ninus 
or his wife Semiramis, the Assyrian monarchs 
of Nineveh. Babylon was for a long time 
subject to the Assyrian empire. Its greatness 
as an independent empire begins with Nabo- 
polassar, the father of Nebuchadnezzar, who, 
with the aid of the Median king Cyaxares, 
overthrew the Assyrian monarchy, and de- 
stroyed Nineveh (b.c. 606). Under his son 
and successor, Nebuchadnezzar (b.c. 604 — 
562), the Babylonian empire reached its 
height, and extended from the Euphrates to 
Egypt, and from the mountains of Armenia 
to the deserts of Arabia. After his death it 
again declined, until it was overthrown by 
the capture of Babylon by the Medes and 
Persians under Cyrus (b.c. 538), who made 



straight, intersecting one another at right 
angles. The buildings were almost universally 
constructed of bricks, some burnt and some only 
sun-dried, cemented together with hot bitumen 
and in some cases with mortar. The ruling class 
at Babylon, to which the kings and priests and 
the men of learning belonged, were the Chal- 
daeans, who probably descended at an ancient 
period from the mountains on the borders of Ar- 
menia, and conquered the Babylonians. The 
religion of the Chaldaeans was Sabaeism, or the 
worship of the heavenly bodies. The priests 
formed a caste, and cultivated science, especi- 
ally astronomy. They were the authors of the 
systems of weights and measures used by the 
Greeks and Bomans. The district around the 
city, bounded by the Tigris on the E., Mesopo- 
tamia on the N., the Arabian Desert on the W., 
and extending to the head of the Persian Gulf 
on the S., was known in later times by the name 
of Babylonia, sometimes also called Chaldaea. 
[Chaldaea.] This district was a plain, sub- 
ject to continual inundations from the Tigris 
and Euphrates, which were- regulated by 
canals. The country was fertile, but deficient 
in trees. — (2) A fortress in Lower Egypt, 
on the right bank of the Nile, exactly opposite 



the city one of the capitals of the Persian i to the pyramids. Its origin was ascribed 
empire, the others being Susa and Ecbatana. j by tradition to a body of Babylonian deserters 
Under his successors the city rapidly sank. " BABYLONIA. [Babylon.] 
Darius L dismantled its fortifications, in BACCHAE (-arum), also called JIaenades 
consequence of a revolt of its inhabitants. 
After the death of Alexander, Babylon became 
a part of the Syrian kingdom of Seleucus 
Nicator, who contributed to its de- 
cline by the foundation of Seleecia 
on the Tigris, which soon eclipsed 
it. At the present day all its visible 
remains consist of mounds of earth, 
ruined masses of brick walls, and a 
few scattered fragments. The city 
of Babylon formed a square, each 
side of which was 120 stadia (12 geog. 
miles) in length. The walls, of burnt 
brick, were 200 cubits high and 50 
thick ; and they were surrounded by 
a deep ditch. The Euphrates, which 
divided the city into 2 equal parts, 
. was embanked with walls of brick, 
the openings of which at the ends of 
the transverse streets were closed by 
gates of bronze. Of the two public 
buildings of the greatest celebrity, 
the one was the temple of Belus, rising to a 
great height, and consisting of 8 stories, gra- 
dually diminishing in width, and ascended by a 
flight of steps, which wound round the whole j Bacchante, w ith Snake-bound Hair. (Thiersch, iiber 
building on the outside. The other was the _ die hellenischen bernalten Yasen.) 

"hanging gardens" of Nebuchadnezzar, laid 

out upon terraces which were raised above one and Thyiades. (1) The female companions 
another on arches. The streets of the city were of Dionysus or Bacchus in his wanderings 




BACCHUS. 



74 



BARCINO* 



through the East, are represented as crowned 
with vine-leaves, clothed with fawn-skins, 
and carrying in their hands the thyrsus. — 
(2) Priestesses of Dionysus, who by wine 
and other exciting causes worked them- 
selves up to frenzy at the Dionysiac festi- 
vals. For details, see Dionysus. 

BACCHUS. [Dionysus.] 

BACCHYLIDES, one of the great lyric 
poets of Greece, born at Iulis in Ceos, and 
nephew of Simonides. He nourished about 
b.c. 470, and lived a long time at the court of 
Hieron in Syracuse } together with Simonides 
and Pindar. 

BACEXIS SILYA, a forest which separated 
the Suevi from the Cherusci, probably the 
W. part of the Thuringian Forest. 

B ACTS. A or ZABJASPA (-ae : Balkh), the 
capital of Bactria, stood at the N. foot of 
the M. Paropanrisus (the Hindoo Koosh) on 
the river Bactrus, about .25 miles S. of its 
junction with the Oxus. 

BACTRIA or -IANA (-ae : Bokhara), a 
province of the Persian empire, bounded on the 
S. by M. Paropamisus, which separated it 
from Ariana, on the E. by the X. branch of the 
same range, which divided it from the Sacae, 
on the N.E. by the Oxus, which separated it 
from Sogdiana, and on the W. by Margiana. 
It was included in the conquests of Alex- 
ander, and formed a part of the kingdom of 
the Seleucidae, until b.c. 255, when Theo- 
dotus, its governor, revolted from Antiochus 

II. j and founded the Greek kingdom of 
Bactria, which lasted till b.c. 134 or 125, 
when it was overthrown by the Parthians. 

BAECULA (-ae), a town in Hispania Tarra- 
eonensis, W. of Castulo, in the neighbourhood 
of silver mines. 

BAETEKRAE (-arum : Beziers), a town in 
Gallia Xarbonensis on the Obris, not far from 
Narbo. 

BAETICA. [Hispania.] 

BAETIS (-is : Guadalquirer), a river in S. 
Spain, formerly called Tastesstjs, rising in the 
territory of the Oretani, flowing S.YV. through 
Baetica, to which it gave its name, and fall- 
ing into_the Atlantic Ocean by 2 mouths. 

B AGO AS (-ae) or BAGOUS (4), an eunuch, 
highly trusted and favoured by Artaxerxes 

III. (Ochus), whom he poisoned, b.c. 338. He 
was put to death by Darius III. Codomannus, 
whom he had attempted likewise to poison, 
336. The name Bagoas frequently occurs 
in Persian history, and is sometimes used 
by Latin writers as synonymous with an 
eunuch. 

BAGRADA (-ae), a river of N. Africa, 
falling into the Gulf of Carthage near 
Utica, 

BAIAE (-arum), a town in Campania, on a 



small bay W. of Xaples, and opposite Puteoli, 
was situated in a beautiful country, which 
abounded in warm mineral springs. The 
baths of Baiae were the most celebrated in 
Italy, and the town itself was the favourite 
| watering-place of the Romans. The whole 
| country was studded with the palaces of the 
| Roman nobles and emperors, which covered 
; the coast from Baiae to Puteoli. The site of 
• ancient Baiae is now for the most part covered 
by the sea. 

'BALBUS, L. CORXELIUS, of Gades, 
served under Pompey against Sertorius in 
Spain, and received from Pompey the Soman 
citizenship. He returned with Pompey to 
i Borne, where he lived on intimate terms with 
Caesar as well as Pompey. In b.c 56 he 
; was accused of having illegally assumed the 
Boman citizenship ; he was defended by 
Cicero, whose speech has come down to us, 
and was acquitted. In the civil war, Balbus 
had the management of Caesar's affairs at 
Borne. After the death of Caesar he gained 
j the favour of Octavian, who raised him to the 
consulship in 40. 

^BALEARES (-ium), also called GYMXE- 
SIAE, by the Greeks, 2 islands in the Mediter- 
ranean, off the coast of Spain, distinguished by 
the epithets Major and Minor, whence their 
modern names Majorca and Minorca. Their 
inhabitants, also called BaJeares, were cele- 
brated as slingers. They were subdued b.c. 
123, by Q. Metellus, who assumed accordingly 
the surname Balearicus. 

BAXDUSIAE FOXS (Samhuco), a fountain 
in Apulia, 6 miles from Yenusia. 

BAXTIA (-ae : Banzi or Vanzi), a town 
in Apulia, near Yenusia, in a woody district. 

BARBARI, the name given by the Greeks 
to all foreigners, whose language was not 
Greek, and who were therefore regarded by 
the Greeks as an inferior race, The Romans 
applied the name to all people, who spoke 
neither Greek nor Latin. 
BARCA. [Hamilcab.] 
BARCA (-ae) or -E (-es : Merjeh), the second 
city of Cyrenaica, in X. Africa, 100 stadia from 
the sea, appears to have been at first a settle- 
ment of a Libyan tribe, the Barcaei, but about 
e.c. 560 was colonised by the Greek seceders 
from Cyrene, and became so powerful as to 
make the W. part of Cyrenaica virtually inde- 
pendent of the mother city. In b.c. 510 it 
: was taken by the Persians, who remoTed 
■ most of its inhabitants to Bactria. and under 
] the Ptolemies its ruin was completed by the 
1 erection of its port into a new city, which 
was named Ptolemais. 

BARCIXO {Barcelona), a town of the 
! Laeetani in Hispania Tarraconensis, with an 
' excellent harbour. 



BARGUSII. 



75 



BEL1SARIUS. 



BARGUSil (-orum), a people in the N.E. 
of Spain, between the Pyrenees and the 
Iberus.^ 

BARIUM (Bari), a town in Apulia, on the 
Adriatic, a mmiicipinni, and celebrated for its 
fisheries. _ 

BAB-SINE (-es). (1) Daughter of Artabazus, 
and "wife of Memnon the Rhodian, subse- | 
quently married Alexander the Great, to 
whom she bore a son, Hercules. She and 
her son were put to death by Polysperchon 
in 309. — (2) Also called STATIRA, elder 
daughter of Darius III., whom Alexander 
married at Susa, b.c. 324. Shortly after 
Alexander's death she was murdered by 
Roxana.^ 

BASSAREUS (-eos or el), a surname of Dio- 
nysus, probably derived from bassaris, a fox- 
skin, worn by the god himself and the Mae- 
nads in Thrace. Hence Bassaris (-idis), was 
the name of a female Bacchante. 

BASTARNAE or BASTERNAE (-arum), a 
warlike German people, partly settled between 
the Tyras (Dniester) and Borysthenes (Dnie- 
per), and partly at the mouth of the Danube, 
under the name of Peucini, from their inha- 
biting the island of Peuce, at the mouth of 
this river. 

BATAVI or BATAVI (-orum) , a Celtic people, 
inhabiting the island formed by the Rhine, the 
Waal, and the Maas, called after them Insula 
Batavorum. They were for along time allies 
of the Romans, but they revolted under 
Claudius Civilis, in a.d. 69, and were with 
great difficulty subdued. Their chief town 
was Lugdunum (Ley den), between the Maas 
and the Waal. The Caninef cites or Cannine- 
fates were a branch of the Batavi, and dwelt 
in the W. of the island. 

BATHYLLUS (-i). (1) Of Samos, a beautiful 
youth beloved by Anacreon. — (2) Of Alexan- 
dria, the freedman and favourite of Maecenas, 
brought to perfection, together with Pylades 
of Cilicia, the imitative dance or ballet called 
Pantomimus. Bathyllus excelled in comic, 
and Pylades in tragic personifications. 

BATNAE (-arum). (1) (Saruj), a city of 
Osroene in Mesopotamia, founded by the 
Macedonians. — (2) (Dahab), a city of Cyr- 
rhestice, in Syria. 

BATO (-onis), the name of 2 leaders of the 
Pannonians and Dalmatians in their insur- 
rection in the reign of Augustus, a.d. 6. 

BATTIADAE (-arum), kings of Cyrene 
during 8 generations. (1) Batttjs I., of 
Thera, led a colony to Africa at the command 
of the Delphic oracle, and founded Cyrene 
about b.c. 631. — (2) Arcesilals I., son of 
No. 1, reigned b.c. 599 — 533. — (3) Batttjs 
II., surnamed "the Happy," son of No. 2, 
reigned 583 — 560 ] — (4) Arcesilals II., son j 



of No. 3, surnamed "the Oppressive," reigned 
about 560 — 550. His brothers withdrew 
from Cyrene, and founded Barca. — (5) Bat- 
ttjs III., or " the Lame, " son of No. 4, 
reigned about 550 — 530 ; gave a new consti- 
tution to the city, whereby the royal power 
was reduced within very narrow limits. — ■ 
(6) Arcesilals III., son of No. 5, reigned 
about 530 — 514. — (7) Battus IV., of whose 
life we have no accounts. — (8) Arcesilaus 
IV., at whose death, about 450, a popular 
government was established. 

BATTUS (-i), a shepherd whom Hermes 
turned into a stone, because he broke a pro- 
mise which he made to the god. 

BAUCIS. [Philemon.] 

BAULI (-orum), a collection of villas rather 
than a town, between Misenum and Baiae in 
Campania. 

BAVIUS (-i) and MAEVIUS (-i), 2 male- 
volent poetasters, who attacked the poetry of 
Virgil and Horace. 

BEBRYCES and BEBRYCES (-urn). (1) 
A mythical people in Bithynia, said to be of 
Thracian origin, whose king, Amycus, slew 
Pollux. — (2) An ancient Iberian people on 
the coast of the Mediterranean, N. and S. of 
the Pyrenees. 

BEDRIACUM (-i), a small place in Cisal- 
pine Gaul between Cremona and Verona, ce- 
lebrated for the defeat both of Otho and of 
the Vitellian troops, a.d. 69. 

BELESIS or BELESYS, a Chaldaean priest 
at Babylon, who is said, in conjunction with 
Arbaces, the Mede, to have overthrown the old 
Assyrian empire. Belesis afterwards received 
the satrapy of Babylon from Arbaces. 

BELGAE (-arum), a people of German 
origin, inhabiting the N. E. of Gaul, were 
bounded on the N. by the Rhine, on the W. 
by the ocean, on the S. by the Sequana (Seine) 
and Matrona (ITarne), and on the E. by the 
territory of the Treviri. They were the bravest 
of the inhabitants of GauL and were subdued 
by Caesar after a courageous resistance. 
* BELGICA. [Gallia.] 

BELGIUM (-i), the name generally ap- 
plied to the territory of the Bellovaci, and 
of the tribes dependant upon the latter, 
namely, the Atrebates, Ambiani, Velliocasses, 
Aulerci, and Caleti. Belgium did not include 
the whole country inhabited by the Belgae, 
for we find the Nervii, Renii, &c, expressly 
excluded from it. 

BELIDES^ [Bells.] 

BELISARIUS, the greatest general of Jus- 
tinian, overthrew the Vandal kingdom in 
Africa, and the Gothic kingdom in Italy. In 
a.d, 563 he was accused of a conspiracy against 
the life of Justinian ; according to a popular 
tradition, he was deprived of his property, his 



BELISABIUS. 



76 



BELLEBOPHOX. 



eyes were put out, and he "wandered as a palace, and then restored to his honours, 
beggar through Constantinople ; but accord- He died in 565. 

ing to the more authentic account, he was BELLEBOPHOX (-ontis), or BELLEBO- 
nierely imprisoned for a year in his own J PHOXTES (-ae), son of the Corinthian king 




Bellerophon taking leave of Proetus. (Tischbein, Hamilton Yases, vol. 3, pi. 3S.) 



Glaucus and Eurymede, and grandson of 1 and received the name Bellerophon from 
Sisyphus, was originally called Rij^onous, 1 slaying the Corinthian Belerus. To be puri- 




Eellerophon, Pegasus, and Chimaera. (Tischbein, Hamilton Yases, vol. 1, pi. 1.) 



ned from the murder he fled to Proetus, king I the young hero ; but as her offers were 
of Argos, whose wife Antea fell in love with I rejected by him, she accused him to her 



BELLONA. 



77 



BERENICE. 



husband of having made improper proposals 
to her. Proetus, unwilling- to kill him with 
his own hands, sent him to his father-in-law, 
Iobates, king; of Lycia, with a letter, in which 
the latter was requested to put the young 
man to death. Iobates accordingly sent him 
to kill the monster Chimaera, thinking that he 
was sure to perish in the contest. [Chimaera.] 
After obtaining possession of the winged horse, 
Pegasus, Bellerophon rose with him into the 
air, and slew the Chimaera with his arrows. 
[Pegasus.] Iobates, thus disappointed, sent 
Bellerophon against the Solymi and next 
against the Amazons. In these contests he was 
also victorious ; and on his return to Lyca, 
being attacked by the bravest Lycians, whom 
Iobates had placed in ambush for the purpose, 
Bellerophon slew them all. Iobates, now see- 
ing that it was hopeless to kill the hero, 
gave him his daughter (Philonoe, Anticlea, 
or Cassandra) in marriage, and made him 
his successor on the throne. At last Belle- 
rophon drew upon himself the hatred of the 
gods, and consumed by grief, wandered 
lonely through the Aleian field, avoiding the 
paths of men. This is all that Homer says 
respecting Bellerophon's later fate : some 
traditions related that he attempted to fly to 
heaven upon Pegasus, but that Zeus sent a 
gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw off 
the rider upon the earth, who became lame 
or blind in consequence. 

BELLONA (-a), the Roman goddess of war, 
represented as the sister or wife of Mars. 
Her priests, called Bellonarii, wounded their 
own arms or legs when they offered sacrifices 
to her. 

BELLOVACI (-orum), the most powerful 
of the Belgae, dwelt in the modern Beauvais, 
between the Seine, Oise, Somme, and Bresle. 

BELUS. (1) Son of Poseidon (Neptune) 
and Libya or Eurynome, twin-brother of 
Agenor, and father of Aegyptus and Danaus. 
He was believed to be the founder of Babylon. 
The patronymic Belides is given to Aegyptus 
and Danaus, to Lynceus, son of Aegyptus, 
and to Palamedes. The Danaides, daughters 
of Danaus, are also called Belides. — (2) 
{]S r aJir Naman), a river of Phoenicia, falling 
into the sea close to the S. of Ptolemais [Acre) 
celebrated for the tradition that its fine sand 
first led the Phoenicians to the invention of 
glass. 

BENACUS (-i) LACUS {Lago di Garda), a 
lake in the N. of Italy, out of which the 
Mincius flows. 

BEN EVEN TUM (-i : Benevcnto), a town 
in Samnium on the Appia Via, formerly 
called MaJeventum, on account, it is said, of 
its bad air. It was one of the most ancient 
towns in Italy, having been founded, accord- 



ing to tradition, by Diomedes. In the Samnite 
wars it was subdued by the Romans, who 
sent a colony thither in b.c. 268, and changed 
its name Maleventum into Beneventum. The 
modern town has several Roman remains, 
among others a triumphal arch of Trajan. 

BERECYNTIA (-ae), a surname of Cybele, 
which she derived from Mt. Berecyntus in 
Phrygia, where she was worshipped. 

BERENICE (-es), a Macedonic form of 
Pheremce, i. e. "Bringing Victory." — (1) 
Wife of Ptolemy I. Soter, and the mother of 
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. — (2) Daughter of 
Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and wife of Antio- 
chus Theos, king of Syria, who divorced Lao- 
dice in order to marry her, b.c. 249. On the 
death of Ptolemy, 247, Antiochus recalled La- 
odice, who notwithstanding caused him to be 
poisoned, and murdered Berenice and her 
son. — (3) Daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, 
and wife of Ptolemy III. Euergetes. She 
was put to death by her son, Ptolemy IV. 
Philopator on his accession to the throne, 
221. The famous hair of Berenice, which 
she dedicated for her husband's safe return 
from his Syrian expedition, was said to have 
become a constellation. — (4) Otherwise called 
Cleopatra, daughter of Ptolemy VIII. La- 
thyrus, succeeded her father on the throne, 
b. c. 81, and married Ptolemy X. (Alexander 
II.), but was murdered by her husband 19 
days after her marriage. — -(5) Daughter of 
Ptolemy XI. Auletes, and eldest sister of the 
famous Cleopatra, was placed on the throne 
by the Alexandrines when they drove out her 
father, 58. She next married Archelaus, but 
was put to death with her husband, when 
Gabinius restored Auletes, 55. — (6) Sister of 
Herod the Great, married Aristobulus, who 
was put to death b.c. 6. She was the 
mother of Agrippa I. — (7) Daughter of 
Agrippa I., married her uncle Herod, king 
of Chalcis, by whom she had two sons. After 
the death of- Herod, a.d. 48, Berenice, then 
20 years old, lived with her brother, Agrippa 
II., not without suspicion of an incestuous 
commerce with him. She gained the love of 
Titus, who was only withheld from making 
her his wife by fear of offending the Romans 
by such a step. 

BERENICE (-es), the name of several 
cities of the period of the Ptolemies. Of 
these the most important were : — (1) For- 
merly Eziongeber (Ru. nr. Akabah), in Ara- 
bia, at the head of the Sinus Aelanites, or E. 
branch of the Red Sea. — (2) In Upper Egypt, 
on the coast of the Red Sea, on a gulf called 
Sinus Immundus, now {Foul Bay), where its 
l ruins are still visible. It was named after 
the mother of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, who 
• built it, and made a road hence to Coptos, so 



BEB.GOMUM. 



73 



BITHYNIA. 



that it became a chief emporium for the 
commerce of Egypt with Arabia and India. 
(3) — {Ben Ghazi, Bu.), in Cyrenaica, for- 
merly Hespeeis, the fabled site of the 
Gardens of the Hesperides. It took its latter 
name from the wife of Ptolemy III. Euver- 
getes. 

BEBGOMUM (-i : Bergamo), a town of 
the Orobii in Gallia Cisalpina, between Comum 
and Brixia, afterwards a municipium. 

BEBOEA (-ae). (1) [Verria), one of the 
most ancient towns of Macedonia, S.W. of 
Pella, and about 20 miles from the sea.' — (2) 
{Aleppo or Haleb), a town in Syria, near Anti- 
och, enlarged by Seleucus Nicator, who gave it 
the Macedonian name of Beroea. It is called 
Helbon or Chelbon in Ezekiel (xxvii. 18), a 
name still retained in the modern Haleb, for 
which Europeans have substituted Aleppo. 

BEBOSUS (4), a priest of Belus at Baby- 
lon, lived in the reign of Antiochus II. 
(b.c. 261 — 246), and Wrote in Greek a 
history of Babylonia. Some fragments of 
this work are preserved by Josephus, Euse- 
bius, and the Christian fathers. 

BEBYTITS and BERYTUS (-i : Beirut), 
one of the oldest sea-ports of Phoenicia, stood 
half way between Byblus and Sidon. It was 
destroyed by the Syrian king Tryphon (b.c. 
140), and restored by Agrippa under Augus- 
tus, who made it a colony. It afterwards 
became a celebrated seat of learning. 

BESSI (-orum), a fierce and powerful Thra- 
cian people, who dwelt along the whole of 
Mt. Haemus as far as the Euxine, 

BESSUS (-i), satrap of Bactria under Da- 
rius III., seized Darius soon after the battle 
of Arbela, b.c. 33 L Pursued by Alexander 
in the following year, Bessus murdered Da- 
rius, and fled to Bactria, where he assumed 
the title of king. He was betrayed by two 
of his followers- to Alexander, who put him 
to death. 

BETASII (-orum), a people in Gallia Bel- 
gica, between the Tungri and Nervii, in the 
neighbourhood of Beetz in Brabant. 

BLA.NOB (-oris), also called Ocnus or Auc- 
nus, son of Tiberis and Manto, is said to 
have built the town of Mantua, and to have 
called it after his mother. 

BIAS (-antis). (1) Brother of the seer 
Melampus. — (2) Of Priene in Ionia, one of 
the Seven Sages of Greece, flourished about 
B.c. 550. 

BIBACULUS, M. FUEIUS (4), a Boman 
poet, born at Cremona, wrote a poem on 
Caesar's Gallic wars, and another entitled 
Athiopis. They are both ridiculed by Horace. 

BIBRACTE (-es : Auttm), the chief town 
of the Aedui in Gallia Lugdunensis, after- 
wards Augustodunum. 



BIBRAX (-actis : Bievre), a town of the 
Bemi in Gallia Belgica, not far from Aisne. 

BIBULUS, L. CALPUBNIUS (4), curule 
aedile b.c. 65, praetor 62, and consul 59, in 
each of which years he had C. Julius Caesar 
as his colleague. He was a staunch adherent 
of the aristocratical party, but was unable in 
his consulship to resist the powerful combi- 
nation of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, 
After an ineffectual attempt to oppose Caesar's 
agrarian law, he withdrew from the popular 
assemblies altogether ; whence it was said in 
joke that it was the consulship of Julius and 
of Caesar. In the civil war he commanded 
Pompey's fleet in the Adriatic, and died (48) 
while holding this command off Corcyra. 
He married Porcia, the daughter of Cato 
Uticensis. 

BIDIS (4s), a small town in Sicily, W. of 
Syracuse. 

BIGEBBA (-ae), a town of the Oretani in 
Hispania Tarraconensis. 

BIGEBBIONES (-urn), or BIGERBI 
(-orum), a people in Aquitania near the Pyre- 
nees. 

BILBILIS (4s : Baubola) a town of the 
Celtiberi in Hispania Tarraconensis, the birth- 
place of the poet Martial. 

BINGIUM (4 : Bingen), a town on the 
Bhine in Gallica Belgica. 

BION (-onis). (1) Of Smyrna, a bucolic 
poet, flourished about b. c. 280, and spent the 
last years of his life in Sicily, where he was 
poisoned. The style of. Bion is refined, and 
his versification fluent and elegant. — (2) Of 
Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dnieper, 
flourished about b.c 250. He was sold as a 
slave, when young, and received his liberty 
from his master, a rhetorician. He studied 
at Athens, and afterwards lived a considera- 
ble time at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, 
king of Macedonia. Bion was noted for his 
sharp sayings, whence Horace speaks of 
persons delighting Bloneis sermonibus et sale 
nigro. 

BIS ALT! A (-ae), a district in Macedonia, 
on the W. bank of the Strymon, inhabited 
by a Thracian people. 

B1SA1STHE (-es : Bodosto), subsequently 
Rhaedestum or Rhaedestus, a town in Thrace 
on the Propontis, with a good harbour. 

BISTONES (-urn), a Thracian people be- 
tween Mt. Bhodope and the Aegean sea, on 
the lake Bistonis in the neighbourhood of 
Abdera. From the worship of Dionysus in 
Thrace the Bacchic women are called Bis- 
to7iid.es. 

BITHYNTA (-ae), a district of Asia Minor, 
bounded on the W. by Mysia, on the N. by 
the Pontus Euxinus, on the E. by Paphla- 
gonia, and on the S. by Phrygia Epictetus, 



BUT/OX. 



70 



BOII. 



was possessed at an early period by Thracian 
tribes from the neighbourhood of the Stry- 
mon, called Thyni and Bithyni, of whom the 
former dwelt on the coast, the latter in the 
interior. The country was subdued by the 
Lydians, and afterwards became a part of the 
Persian empire under Cyrus, and was go- 
verned by the satraps of Phrygia. During 
the decline of the Persian empire, the N. part 
of the country became independent, under 
native princes, who resisted Alexander and 
his successors, and established a kingdom, 
which lasted till the death of Nicomedes III. 
(b.c. 74), who bequeathed his kingdom to the 
Romans. Under Augustus, it was made a 
proconsular province. It was a fertile coun- 
try, intersected with wooded mountains, the 
highest of which was the Mysian Olympus, 
on its S. border, 

BITOX (-onis), and CLEOBIS (-is), sons of 
Cydippe, a priestess of Hera at Argos. They 
were celebrated for their affection to their 
mother, whose chariot they once dragged 
during a festival to the temple of Hera, a dis- 
tance of 45 stadia. The priestess prayed to 
the goddess to grant them what was best for 
mortals ; and during the night they both died 
while asleep in the temple. 

BITURIGES (-urn), a numerous and power- 
ful Celtic people in Gallia Aquitanica, had in 
early times the supremacy over the other 
Celts in Gaul. They were divided into two 
tribes : 1 Bit. Cubi, with Avaricum as their 
capital (Bourges). 2 Bit. "Vivisei or Urisci : 
their capital was Burdigala [Bordeaux), on 
the left bank of the Garumna. 

BLEMYES (-urn), an Aethiopian people, 
on the borders of Upper Egypt. 

BLOSIUS or BLOSSIUS (-i), the name of 
a noble family in Campania. One of this 
family, C. Blosius, of Cumae, was a philo- 
sopher, a disciple of Antipater, of Tarsus, and 
a friend of Tib. Gracchus, 

BOADICEA (-ae), queen of the Iceni in 
Britain, having been shamefully treated by 
the Romans, who even ravished her 2 daugh- 
ters, excited an insurrection of the Britons 
against their oppressors during the absence 
of Suetonius Paulinus, the Eoman governor, 
on an expedition to the island of Mona. She 
took the Eoman colonies of Camalodunum, 
Londinium, and other places, and slew nearly 
70,000 Romans and their allies. She was at 
length defeated with great loss by Suetonius 
Paulinus, and put an end to her own life, 
a.d. 61. 

BOCCHUS (-i). (1) King of Mauretania, 
and father-in-law of Jugurtha, with whom at 
first he made war against the Romans, but 
whom he afterwards delivered up to Sulla, the 
quaestor of Marius, b.c, 106. — (2). Son of 



the preceding, who took part in the civil wars. 
He was confirmed in his kingdom by Augustus. 

BODOTRIA (-ae), or BODERIA (-ae), 
AESTUARIUM (-i), {Firth of Forth), an aes- 
tuary on the E. coast of Scotland. 

BOEBE (-es), a town in Pelasgiotis in 
Thessaly, on the W. shore of the lake Bocbeis. 

BOEOtIa (-ae), a district of Greece, 
bounded N. by Opuntian Locris, E. by the 
Euboean sea, S. by Attica, Alegaris, and the 
Corinthian Gulf, and W, by Phocis. It is 
nearly surrounded by mountains, namely, 
Helicon and Parnassus on the W., Cithaeron 
and Parnes on the S., the Opuntian moun- 
tains on the X., and a range of mountains 
along the sea-coast on the E. The country 
contains several fertile plains, of which the 
most important were the vallies of the Asopus 
and of the Cephissus. The Boeotians were an 
Aeolian people, who originally occupied Arne 
in Thessaly, from which they were expelled 
by the Thessalians 60 years after the Trojan 
war. They then migrated into the country 
called after them Boeotia, partly expelling and 
partly incorporating with themselves the an- 
cient inhabitants of the land, Boeotia was 
then divided into 14 independent states, which 
formed a league, with Thebes at its head. The 
chief magistrates of the confederacy were the 
Boeotarchs, elected annually. The govern- 
ment in most states was an aristocracy. 

BOETHIUS (-i).j a Roman statesman and 
author, born about a.d. 470, was famous for 
his general learning, and especially for his 
knowledge of Greek philosophy. He was first 
highly favoured by Theodosius the Great ; but 
having awakened his suspicion, he was 
thrown into prison by him, and afterwards 
put to death. It was during his imprisonment 
that he wrote his celebrated work, Be Conso- 
latione Philosophiae, which has come down 
to us. 

BOEUM (-i), an ancient town of the 
Dorian Tetrapolis. 

BOII (-orum), one of the most powerful 
of the Celtic people, said to have dwelt origi- 
nally in Gaul (Transalpina), but in what part 
of the country is uncertain. At an early time 
they migrated in two great swarms, one of 
which crossed the Alps and settled in the 
country between the Po and the Apennines ; 
the other crossed the Rhine and settled in the 
part of Germany called Boihemum (Bohemia) 
after them, and between the Danube and the 
Tyrol. The Boii in Italy long carried on a 
fierce struggle with the Romans, but they 
were at length subdued by the consul P. 
Scipio in b.c 191, and were subsequently 
incorporated in the province of Gallia Cisal- 
pina. The Boii in Germany maintained their 
I power longer, but were at length subdued 



BOLA. 



SO 



BOSPOEES. 



by the Marconianni, and expelled from the 
country. 

BOLA [-ae), BOLAE or TOLAE [-fffum), 
an ancient town of the Aequi, belonging to 
the Latin league. 

BOLBE (-es), a lake in Macedonia, emptying 
itself by a short river into the Strymonic gulf 
near Bromiscns and Anion. 

BOLBITIXE (-es : Bosetta), a city of 
Lower Egypt, near the mouth of a branch of 
the Nile the W.-most but one), which was j 
called the Bolbitine mouth. 

BOMILCAR (-aris , a Nnmidian, deep in | 
the confidence of Jugurtha. When Jugurtha j 
was at Borne, 109, Bomilcar effected for him 
the assassination of Massiva. In 10 7 he j 
plotted against Jugurtha. 

BOMIUS :-i; MOXS, the AY. part of Mt. 
Oeta in Aetolia, inhabited by the Bomienses. 

BONA DEA [-ae] , a Eoman divinity, is 
described as the sister, wife, or daughter of 
Eaunus, and was herself called Fauna, Tatua, j 
or Oma. She was worshipped at Eome as a \ 
chaste and prophetic diyinity ; she revealed 
her oracles only to females, as Faunas did 
only to males. Her festival was celebrated 
every year on the 1st of May, in the house of 
the consul or praetor, as the sacrifices on that 
occasion were offered on behalf of the whole 
Eoman people. The solemnities were con- 
ducted by the Vestals, and no male person 
was allowed to be hi the house at one of the 
festivals. P. Clodius profaned the sacred 
ceremonies, by entering the house of Caesar 
in the disguise of a woman, b.c. 62. 

BOXXA (-ae : Bonn), a town on the left 
bank of the Ehine in Lower Germany, and 
in the territory of the Ubii, was a strong j 
fortress of the Eomans and the regular j 
quarters of a Eoman legion. 

BOXOXIA (-ae). (1) [Bologna), a town in 
Gallia Cispadana, originally caUed Eelsixa, 
was in ancient times an Etruscan city, and 
the capital of X. Etruria. It afterwards fell 
into the hands of the Boii, but it was colo- 
nised by the Eomans on the conquest of the 
Bon, b.c. 191, and its name of Eelsina was 
then changed into Bononia. (2) [Boulogne), 
a town in the X. of Gaul. See Gesoelacoi. 

BOOTES. Mecteees.] 

BOEBETOM'aGUS >i : Worms) , also caUed 
Yaxgioxes, at a later time "Woematia, a town 
of the Yangiones on the left hank of the Ehine 
in Upper Germany. 

BOREAS (-ae;, the X". wind, or more 
strictly the wind from the X.X.E., was," in • 
mythology, a son of Astraeus and Eos, and 
brother of Hesperus, Zephyrus, and Xotus. 
He dwelt in a cave of mount Haemus in 
Thrace. He carried off Orithyia, a daughter 
of Erechtheus, king of Attica, by whom he 



begot Zetes, Calais, and Cleopatra, wife of 
Phineus, who are therefore called Boreades. 
In the Persian war Boreas showed his friendly 
disposition towards the Athenians by destroy- 
ing the ships of the barbarians. Boreas was 
worshipped at Athens, where a festival, Bo~ 
reasmi, was celebrated in his honour. 




Boreas. (Relief from Temple of the Winds at Athens.) 

BOEYSTHEXES [-is: Dnieper}, afterwards 
Da^ apsis, a river of European Sarmatia, 
flows into the Euxine. Near its mouth and 
at its junction with the Hypanis, lay the town 
Bobysthexes or Boeysthexis 'Eudak), also 
called Olbia, Olbiopoeis, and Miletopolis, 
a colony of Miletus, and the most important 
Greek city on the X. of the Euxine. 

BOSPOEES (-i: Ox-ford), the name of 
any straits among the Greeks, ' but espe- 
cially applied to the 2 following : — (1) The 
Theaciax Bospoees {Channel of Constan- 
tinople), unites the Propontis or Sea of 
Marmora with the Euxine or Black Sea. 
According to the legend it was called Bos- 
porus, from Io, who crossed it in the form of 
a heifer. At the entrance of the Bosporus 
was the celebrated Symplegades. Darius 
constructed a bridge across the Bosporus, 
when he invaded Scythia. — 2 The Cem- 
xeeiax Bospoees {Straits of Kaffa), unites 
the Pains Maeotis or Sea of Azof with 
the Euxine or Black Sea. It formed, with 
the Tanais (Eon', the boundary between Asia 
and Europe, and it derived its name from the 
Cemmebu, who were supposed to have dwelt 
in the neighbourhood. On the European 
side of the Bosporus, the modern Crimea, 
the Milesians founded the town of Pantica- 
paeum, also called Bosporus, and the inhabi- 



BOSTRA. 



81 



BRITANNIA. 



tants of Panticapaenm subsequently founded ; 
the town of Phanagoria on the Asiatic side of 
the Straits. Panticapaenm became the resi- 
dence of a race of kings, who are frequently 
mentioned in history under the name of kings 
of Bosporus. 

BO STB. A (-orum : 0. T. Bozrah : Busrah, 
Ru.), a city of Arabia, in an Oasis of the 
Syrian Desert, S. of Damascus. 

* BOTTIA or BOTTIAEA (-ae), a district in 
Macedonia, on the right bank of the river 
Axius, extended in the time of Thucydides 
to Pieria on the W. The Bottiaei were a 
Thracian people, who, being driven out of I 
the country by the Macedonians, settled in 
that part of the Macedonian Chalcidice X. of 
Olynthus, which was called Bottice. 

BOTTICE. "Bottia." 

BOYIAXUM [Bqjano), the chief town of 
the Pentri in Samnium. 

BOYILLAE {-arum', an ancient town in : 
Latium at the foot of the Alban mountain, on 
the Appian Way about 10 miles from Borne. 
Xear it Clodius was killed by Milo [b.c. 52). 

BRACHM1AXAE (-arum;, or BEACH- 
MAXES (-ium), a name used by the an- 
cient geographers, sometimes for a caste of 
priests in India (the Brahmins), sometimes, 
apparently, for all the people whose religion 
was Brahmin ism, and sometimes for a par- I 
ticular tribe. 

BE. AX CHID AE (-arum : Jeronda, Ru.),. 
afterwards Didtma, or -i, a place on the sea 
coast of Ionia, a little S. of Miletus, cele- 
brated for its temple and oracle of Apollo, 
surnamed Didymeus. This oracle, which the 
Ionians held in the highest esteem, was said 
to have been founded by Brahchus, son of 
Apollo,, and a Milesian woman. The reputed 
descendants of this Branchus, the Branchidae, i 
were the hereditary ministers of this oracle. 
The temple, called Didymacum, which was 
destroyed by Xerxes, was rebuilt, and its 
ruins contain some beautiful specimens of the 
Ionic order of architecture. 

BRASIDAS (-ae), the most (listinguished 
Spartan in the first part of the Peloponnesian 
war. In b.c. 124, at the head of a small I 
force, having effected a dexterous march 
through the hostile country of Thessaly, he 
gained possession of many of the cities in 
Macedonia subject to Athens; his greatest 
acquisition was Amphipolis. In 422 he 
gained a brilliant victory over Cieon, who had 
been sent, with an Athenian force, to recover 
Amphipolis, but he was slain in the battle. He 
was buried within the city, and the inhabit- 
ants honoured him as a hero, by yearly sacri- 
fices and by games. 

BRATESPAXTIUM (-i), the chief town of 
the Beilovaci in Gallia Belgica. 



BRAUROX (-onis), a demus in Attica, on 
the E. coast on the river Erasinus, with a 
celebrated temple of Artemis (Diana), who 
was hence called Brauronia. 

BREXXUS (4). (1). The leader of the 
Senonian Gauls, who in b.c 390 crossed the 
Apennines, defeated the Romans at the Allia, 
and took Rome. After besieging the Capitol 
for 6 months, he quitted the city upon 
receiving 1000 pounds of gold as a ransom 
for the Capitol, and returned home safe with 
his booty. But it was subsequently related 
in the popular legends that CamiUus and a 
Roman army appeared at the moment that 
the gold was being weighed, that Brennus 
was defeated by Camillus, and that he himself 
and his whole army were slain to a man. — 
(2). The chief leader of the Gauls who in- 
vaded Macedonia and Greece, b.c. 2S0, 279. 
In the year 2 7 9 he penetrated into the S. of 
Greece, but was defeated near Delphi, most of 
his men were slain, and he himself put an end 
to his own life. 

BREUXI (-orum)j a Rhaetian people, 
dwelt in the Tyrol near the Brenner. 

BRIARETJS." [Aegaeon.] 

BRIGAXTES (-um), the most powerful of 
the British tribes, inhabited the whole of the 
X. of the island from the Abus iHumoer) to 
the Roman wall, with the exception of the 
S. E. corner of Yorkshire, which was in- 
habited by the Parisii. The Brigantes con- 
sequently inhabited the greater part of York- 
shire, and the whole of Lancashire, Durham, 
Westmoreland, and Cumberland. Their capi- 
tal was Ebobaccm. They were conquered 
by Petilius Cerealis, in the reign of Yespasian. 
There was also a tribe of Brigantes in the S. 
of Ireland, between the rivers Birgus {Bar- 
raw) and Dabrona [Blackicater), in the coun*. 
ties of Y'aterford and Tipperary, 

BRIGAXTLXUS (4] LACES [JBodensee or 
Lake of Constance), also caUed Venetus and 
AcBOxirs, through which the Rhine flows, 
inhabited by the Helvetii on the S., by the 
Rhaetii on the S. E., and by the Yindelici on 
the N. 

BRISEIS (-idis), daughter of Briseus, of 
Lyrnessus, fell into the hands of Achilles, but 
was seized by Agamemnon. Hence arose the 
dire feud between the 2 heroes. "Achilles.] 
Her proper name was Hippodamia. 

BRITANNIA (-ae), the island of England 
and Scotland, which was also called ALBIOX. 
Hieebxia, or Ireland, is usually spoken of as 
a separate island, but is sometimes included 
under the general name of the Lssulae Bri- 
taxnicae, which also comprehended the 
smaller islands around the coast of Great 
Britain. The Britons were Celts, belonging 
to that branch of the race called Cymry. 

G 



BRITANNIA. 



82 



BRITANNICUS. 



Their maimers and customs were in general 
the same as the Gauls ; but separated more 
than the Gauls from intercourse with civilised 
nations, they preserved the Celtic religion in 
a purer state than in Gaul ; and hence Druid- 
ism, according to Caesar, was transplanted 
from Gaul to Britain. The Britons also re- 
tained many of the barbarous Celtic customs, 
which the more civilised Gauls had laid aside. 
They painted their bodies with a blue colour, 
extracted from woad, in order to appear more 
terrible in battle ; and they had wives in 
common. At a later time the Belgae 
crossed over from Gaul, and settled on the S. 
and E. coasts, driving the Britons into the 
interior of the island. It was not till a late 
period that the Greeks and Romans obtained 
any knowledge of Britain. In early times 
the Phoenicians visited the Scilly islands and 
the coast of Cornwall for the purpose of ob- 
taining tin ; but whatever knowledge they 
acquired of the country they jealously kept 
secret ; and it only transpired that there were 
Cassiteeides, or Tin Islands, in the N. parts 
of the ocean. The first certain knowledge 
which the Greeks obtained of Britain was 
from the merchants of Massilia about the 
time of Alexander the Great, and especially 
from the voyages of Pvtheas, who sailed 
round a great part of Britain. From this 
time it was generally believed that the island 
was in the form of a triangle, an error which 
continued to prevail even at a later period. 
Another important mistake, which likewise 
prevailed for a long time, was the position 
of Britain in relation to Gaul and Spain. As 
the N.W. coast of Spain was supposed to 
extend too far to the N., and the W. coast of 
Gaul to run N.E., the lower part of Britain 
was believed to lie between Spain and Gaul. 
The Romans first became personally ac- 
quainted with the island by Caesar's invasion. 
He twice landed in Britain (b.c. 55, 54), and 
though on the second occasion he conquered 
the greater part of the S.E. of the island, yet 
he did not take permanent possession of any 
portion of the country, and after his departure . 
the Britons continued as independent as be- 
fore. The Romans made no further attempts 
to conquer the island for nearly 100 years. 
In the reign of Claudius (a.d. 43) they again 
landed in Britain, and permanently subdued 
the country S. of the Thames. They now 
began to extend their conquests over the 
other parts of the island ; and the great 
victory (61) of Suetonius Paulinus over the 
Britons, who had revolted under Boadicea, 
still further consolidated the Roman do- 
minions. In the reign of Vespasian, the 
Romans made several successful expeditions 
against the Sill-res and the Brigantes ; and 



the conquest of S. Britain was at length 
finally completed by Agricola, who in 7 cam- 
paigns (78 — 84) subdued the whole of the 
island as far N. as the Frith of Forth and 
the Clyde, between which he erected a series 
of forts to protect the Roman dominions from 
the incursions of the barbarians in the N. of 
Scotland. The Roman part of Britain was 
now called Britannia Romano,, and the N. 
part inhabited by the Caledonians Britannia 
Barbara or Caledonia. The Romans how- 
ever gave up the N. conquests of Agricola in 
the reign of Hadrian, and made a rampart 
of turf from the Aestuarium Ituna {Solway 
Frith) to the German Ocean, which formed 
the N. boundary of their dominions. In the 
reign of Antoninus Pius the Romans again 
extended their boundary as far as the con- 
quests of Agricola, and erected a rampart 
connecting the Forth and the Clyde, the re- 
mains of which are now called Grimes Dyke, 
Grime in the Celtic language signifying great 
or powerful. The Caledonians afterwards 
broke through this wall ; and in consequence 
of their repeated devastations of the Roman 
dominions, the emperor Severus went to 
Britain in 208, in order to conduct the war 
against them in person. He died in the 
island at Eboracum {York) in 211, after 
erecting a solid stone wall from the Solway 
to the mouth of the Tyne, a little N. of the 
rampart of Hadrian. After the death of 
Severus, the Romans relinquished for ever 
all their conquests N. of this wall. Upon 
the resignation of the empire by Diocletian 
and Maximian (305), Britain fell to the share 
of Constantius, who died at Eboracum in 30C, 
and his son Constantine assumed in the island 
the title of Caesar. Shortly afterwards the 
Caledonians, who now appear under the 
names of Picts and Scots, broke through the 
wall of Severus, and the Saxons ravaged the 
coasts of Britain ; and the declining power 
of the Roman empire was unable to afford 
the province any effectual assistance. In 
the reign of Honorius, Constantine, who had 
been proclaimed emperor in Britain (407), 
withdrew all the Roman troops from the 
island, in order to make himself master of 
Gaul. The Britons were thus left exposed 
to the ravages of the Picts and Scots, and at 
length, in 447, they called in the assistance 
of the Saxons, who became the masters of 
Britain. The Roman dominions of Britain 
formed a single province till the time of Se- 
verus, and were governed by a legatus of the 
emperor. Severus divided the country into 
2 provinces, and Diocletian into 4. 

BRITANNICUS (4), son of the emperor 
Claudius and Messalina, was born a.d. 42. 
Agrippina, the second wife of Claudius, in- 



BRITOMARTIS. 



83 



BRUTUS. 



duced the emperor to adopt her own son, and 
give him precedence over Britannicus. This 
son, the emperor Nero, ascended the throne 
in 54, and caused Britannicus to be poisoned 
in the following year. 

BBITOMARTIS (-is), a Cretan nymph, 
daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Carme, and 
beloved by Minos, who pursued her 9 months, 
till at length she leaped into the sea and 
was changed by Artemis (Diana) into a 
goddess. 

BRIXELLOI (-i : BregeUa or Brescella)^ 
town on the right bank of the Po in Gallia 
Cisalpina, where the emperor Otho put himself 
to death, a.d. 69. 

BRIXIA (-ae : Breseia), a town in Gallia 
Cisalpina'on the road from Comum to Aquileia, 
through which the river Mella flowed. 

BROMIUS, a surname of Dionysus (Bac- 
chus), that is, the noisy god, from the noise 
of the Bacchic revelries (from /%(^) . 

BROXTES. [Cyclopes.] 

BRUCTERI (-oruni), a people of Germany, 
dwelt on each side of the Amisia {Ems) and 
extended S. as far as the Luppia (Lipjie). 
The Bructeri joined the Batavi in their re- 
volt against the Romans in a.d. 69. 

BRUXDUSIUM or BRUXDISIOI (-i : 
Brindisi), a town in Calabria, on a small bay 
of the Adriatic, forming an excellent har- 
bour, to which the place owed its importance. 
The Appia Yia terminated at Brundusiuin, 
and it was the usual place of embarkation for 
Greece and the East. It was conquered and 
colonised by the Romans, b.c. 245. The 
poet Pacuvius was born at this town, and 
Virgil died here on his return from Greece. 

B.C. 19. 

BRUTTIUM (-i), BRUTTIUS and 
BRUTTIORUM AGER, more usually called 
BRUT Til after the inhabitants, the S. ex- 
tremity of Italy, separated from Eucania by 
a line drawn from the mouth of the Laus to 
Thurii, and surrounded on the other three I 
sides by the sea. It was the country called 
in ancient times Oenotria and Italia. The | 
country is mountainous, as the Apennines 
run through it down to the Sicilian Straits ; 
it contained excellent pasturage for cattle, 
and the valleys produced good corn, olives, 
and fruit. — The earliest inhabitants of the 
country were Oenotrians. Subsequently 
some Lucanians, who had revolted from their 
countrymen in Lucania, took possession of 
the country, and were hence called Bruttii 
or Brettii, which word is said to mean 
f rebels " in the language of the Lucanians. 
This people, however, inhabited only the in- 
terior of the land ; the coast was almost 
entirely in the possession of the Greek colo- 
nies. At the close of the 2nd Punic war, in 



which the Bruttii had been the allies of Han- 
nibal, they lost their independence, and were 
treated by the Romans with great severity. 
They were declared to be public slaves, and 
were employed as lictors and servants of the 
magistrates. 

BRUTUS (-i), a family of the Junia gens. 
— 'D L. Junius Brutus, son of M. 
Junius and of Tarquinia, the sister of 
Tarquinius Superbus. His elder brother was 
murdered by Tarquinius, and Lucius escaped 
his brother's fate only by feigning idiotcy, 
whence he received the surname of Brutus. 
After Lucretia had stabbed herself, Brutus 
roused the Romans to expel the Tarquins ; 
and upon the banishment of the latter he 
was elected first consul with Tarquinius Col- 
latinus. He loved his country better than 
his children, and put to death his 2 sons, 
who had attempted to restore the Tarquins. 
He fell in battle the same year, fighting 
against Aruns, the son of Tarquinius. Brutus 
was the great hero in the legends about the 
expulsion of the Tarquins. — (2) D. Junius 
Brutus, surnamed Gallaecus or Callaicus, 
consul 138, conquered a great part of Lusi- 
tania. Erom his victory over the Gallaeci he 
obtained his surname. He was a patron of the 
poet L. Aecius, and well versed in Greek and 
Roman literature. — (3) D. Junius Brutus, 
consul 77, and husband of Sempronia, who 
carried on an intrigue with Catiline. — (4) D. 
Junius Brutus, adopted by A. Postumius Albi- 
nus, consul 99, and hence called Brutus Allinus. 
He served under Caesar in Gaul and in the 
civil war ; but he nevertheless joined the 
conspiracy against Caesar's life. After the 
death of the latter (44) he went into Cisal- 
pine Gaul, which had been promised him by 
Caesar, and which he refused to surrender to 
Antony, who had obtained this province from 
the people. Antony made war against him, 
and kept him besieged in Mutina, till the 
siege was raised in April 43 by the consuls 
Hirtius and Pansa, and by Octavianus. But 
Brutus only obtained a short respite. Antony 
was preparing to march against him from the 
X. with a large army, and Octavianus, who 
had deserted the senate, was marching against 
him from the S. His only resource was flight, 
but he was betrayed by Camillas, a Gaulish 
chief, and was put to death by Antony, 43. — 
(5) M. Junius Brutus, married Servilia, 
the half-sister of Cato of Utica. In 77 he 
espoused the cause of Lepidus, and was 
placed in command of the forces in Cisal- 
pine Gaul, where he was slain by command 
of Pompey. — (6) M. Junius Brutus, the so- 
called tyrannicide, son of Xo. 5 and Servilia. 
He lost his father when he was only 8 years 
old, and was trained by his uncle Cato in the 

g 2 



BRYGI. 



S4 



BYZACIUM. 



principles of the aristocratical party. Ac- 
cordingly, on the breaking out of the civil 
war, 49, he joined Pompey, although he was 
the murderer of his father. After the battle 
of Pharsalia, 48, he was not only pardoned 
by Caesar, but received from him the greatest 
marks of confidence and favour. Caesar made 
him governor of Cisalpine Gaul in 46, and 
praetor in 44, and also promised him the 
government of Macedonia. But notwith- 
standing all the obligations he was under to 
Caesar, he was persuaded by Cassius to mur- 
der his benefactor under the delusive idea of 
again establishing the republic. [Caesar.] 
After the murder of Caesar, Brutus spent a 
short time in Italy, and then took possession 
of the province of Macedonia. He was joined 
by Cassius, who commanded in Syria, and 
their united forces were opposed to those 
of Octavian and Antony. Two battles were 
fought in the neighbourhood of Philippi (42), 
in the former of which Brutus was victorious, 
though Cassius was defeated, but in the latter 
Brutus also was defeated and put an end to 
his own life. Brutus 's wife was Porcia, the 
daughter of Cato. Brutus was an ardent 
student of literature and philosophy, but he 
appears to have been deficient in judgment 
and original power. He wrote several works, 
all of which have perished. He was a lite- 
rary friend of Cicero, who dedicated to him 
several of his works, and who has given the 
name of Brutus to his dialogue on illustrious 
orators. 

BRYGI (-orum) or BRYGES (-urn), a bar- 
barous people in the X. of Macedonia. The 
Phrygians were believed by the ancient> to 
have been a portion of this people, who emi- 
grated to Asia in early times. [Phrvgia.] 

BUBASSUS (-i), an ancient city of Caria, 
E. of Cnidus, which gave name to the bay 
(Bubassius Sinus) and the peninsula on which 
it stood. 

BtBASTIS (-is) or BU'BASTUS (-i), the 
capital of the Xomos Bubastltes in Lower 
Egypt, stood on the E. bank of the Pelusiac 
branch of the Nile, and was the chief seat of I 
the worship of the goddess Bubastis, whom 
the Greeks identified _with Artemis (Diana). 

BUCEPHALA or -IA (-ae : Jlielum), a city 
on the Hydaspes in X. India, built by Alex- 
ander, after his battle with Porus, in memory 
of his favourite charger Bucephalus, who died 
there, after carrying him through all his 
campaigns. This horse was purchased by 
Philip for 13 talents, and no one was able to 
break it in except the youthful Alexander. 

BUCEPILALUS. [Bvcephala.] 

BUD INI (-orum), a Scythian people, who 
dwelt X, of the Sauromatae in the steppes of I 
S. Russia. 



BULLIS (-idis), a town of Dlyria on the 
coast, S. of Apollonia. 

BUPRAS1UM (-i),an ancient town in Elis, 
mentioned in the Iliad. 

BUB A (-ae), one of the 12 cities of Achaia, 
destroyed by an earthquake, together with 
Helice, but subsequently rebuilt. 

BURDIGALA. [Bituriges.] 

BURGUXDIOXES (-urn), or BURGUXDIL 
(-orum) , a powerful nation of Germany, dwelt 
originally between the Viadus ( Oder) and the 
Vistula, and were of the same race as the 
Yandals or Goths. They were driven out of 
their original abodes by the Gepidae, and the 
greater part of them settled in the country 
on the Maine. In the 5th century they settled 
in Gaul, where they founded the powerful 
kingdom of Burgundy. Their chief towns 
were Geneva and Lyons. 

BURSA. [Plaxcis.1 

BUSIRIS (-idis). (I) A king of Egypt, 
who sacrificed strangers to Zeus (Jupiter), 
but was slain by Hercules. — (2< A city in 
Lower Egypt, stood in the middle of the 
Delta, on the W. bank of the Xile, and had a 
great temple of Isis, the remains of which 
are still standing. 

BUTHROTUM (4 : Butrinto), a town of 
Epirus, a flourishing sea-port on a small 
peninsula, opposite Corcyra. 

BUTO. (1) An Egyptian divinity, was the 
nurse of Horus and Bubastis, the children of 
Osiris and Isis, whom she saved from the 
persecutions of Typhon by concealing them 
in the floating island of Chemnis. The 
Greeks identified her with Leto (Latona), and 
represented her as the goddess of night. — 
(2) A city in Lower Egypt, stood near the 
Sebennytic branch of the Xiie, on the lake of 
Buto. It was celebrated for its oracle of the 
goddess Buto, in honour of whom a festival 
was held at the city every year. 

BUXEXTUM (-i : Policastro), originally 
Pyxtjs, a town on the W. coast of Lucania 
and on the river Bexentius, was founded by 
Micythus, tyrant of Messana, b.c. 471, and 
was afterwards a Roman colony. 

BYBLIS (-idis), daughter of Miletus and 
Idothea, was in love with her brother Caunus, 
whom she pursued through various lands, till 
at length, worn out with sorrow, she was 
changed into a fountain. 

BYBLUS (-i : JebeU), a very ancient city 
on the coast of Phoenicia, between Berytus 
and Tripolis, a little X. of the river Adonis. 
It was the chief seat of the worship of 
Adonis. 

BYRSA (-ae), the citadel of Carthago. 

BYZACIUM (-i) or BYZACEXA REGIO (S. 
part of Tunis), the S. portion of the Roman 
province of Africa. 



BYZANTIUM. 



85 



CAECILIA. 



BYZANTIUM (-i : Constantinople), a town 
on the Thracian Bosporus, founded by the 
Megarians, b.c, 658, is said to have derived 
its name from Byzas, the leader of the colony 
and the son of Poseidon (Neptune). It was 
situated on 2 hills, was 40 stadia in circum- 
ference, and its acropolis stood on the site of 
the present seraglio. Its favourable position, 
commanding as it did the entrance to the 
Euxine, rendered it a place of great com- 
mercial importance. A new city was built 
on its site (330) by Constantine, who made 
it the capital of the empire, and changed its 
name into Coxstaxtixopolis. 



/^ABALIA (-ae), a small district of Asia 
^ Minor, between Lycia and Pamphylia, with 
a town of the same name. 

CABILLONUM (-i : Chalonssur-Saone), a 
town of the Aedui on the Arar (Saone) in 
Gallia Lugdunensis. 

CABIRA (-orum), a place inPontus, on the 
borders of Armenia ; a frequent residence 
of Mithridates, who was defeated here by 
Luculhis, b.c. 71. 

CABIRI (-orum), mystic divinities wor- 
shipped in various parts of the ancient world. 
The meaning of their name, their character, 
and nature, are quite uncertain. Divine 
honours were paid to them at Samothrace, 
Lemnos, and Imbros, and their mysteries at 
Samothrace were solemnized with great splen- 
dour. They were also worshipped at Thebes, 
Anthedon, Pergamus, and elsewhere. 

CACUS, (-i), son of Vulcan, was a huge giant, 
who inhabited a cave on Mt. Aventine, and 
plundered the surrounding country. "When 
Hercules came to Italy with the oxen which 
he had taken from Geryon in Spain, Cacus 
stole part of the cattle while the hero slept, 
and, as he dragged the animals into his cave 
by their tails, it was impossible to discover 
their traces. But when the remaining oxen 
passed by the cave, those within began to 
bellow, and were thus discovered, whereupon 
Cacus was slain by Hercules. In honour 
of his victory Hercules dedicated the ara 
maxima, which continued to exist ages after- 
wards in Borne. 

CADI (-orum), a city of Phrygia Epictetus, 
on the borders of Lydia. 

CADMEA. [Thebae.] 

CADMUS (4). (1) Son of Agenor, king 
of Phoenicia, and of Telephassa, and brother 
of Europa. Another legend makes him a 
native of Thebes in Egypt. When Europa 
was carried off by Zeus (Jupiter) to Crete, 
Agenor sent Cadmus in search of his sister, 
enjoining him not to return without her. 
Unable to find her, Cadmus settled in Thrace, 



but having consulted the oracle at Delphi, he 
was commanded by the god to follow a cow 
of a certain kind, and to build a town on the 
spot where the cow should sink down with 
fatigue. Cadmus found the cow in Phocis 
and followed her into Boeotia, where she sank 
down on the spot on which Cadmus built 
Cadmea, afterwards the citadel of Thebes. 
Intending to sacrifice the cow to Athena 
(Minerva), he sent some persons to the 
neighbouring well of Ares to fetch water. 
This well was guarded by a dragon, a son of 
Ares (Mars), who killed the men sent by 
Cadmus. Thereupon Cadmus slew the dragon, 
and, on the advice of Athena, sowed the teeth 
of the monster, out of which armed men grew 
up, called Sparti or the Soicn, who killed each 
other, with the exception of 5, who were the 
ancestors of the Thebans. Athena assigned to 
Cadmus the government of Thebes, and Zeus 
gave him Harmonia for his wife. The mar- 
riage solemnity was honoured by the pre- 
sence of all the Olympian gods in the Cadmea. 
Cadmus gave to Harmonia the famous peplus 
and necklace which he had received from 
Hephaestus (Yule an) or from Europa, and he 
became by her the father of Autonoe, Ino, 
Semele, Agave, Polydorus, and at a subse- 
quent period, Illyrius. In the end, Cadmus 
and Harmonia were changed into serpents, 
and were removed by Zeus to Elysium. Cad- 
mus is said to have introduced into Greece 
from Phoenicia or Egypt an alphabet of 16 
letters. — (2) Of Miletus, the earliest Greek 
historian or logographer, lived about b.c. 
540.^ 

CADURCI (-orum), a people in Gallia 
Aquitanica, in the country now called Querci 
(a corruption of Cadurci). Their capital was 
Divoxa, afterwards Civitas CADURCORriu, now 
I Cahors, where are the remains of a Bom an 
: amphitheatre and of an aqueduct, 
j CADUSII (-orum) or GELAE (-arum), a 
: powerful Scythian tribe in the mountains 
I S."W. of the Caspian, on the borders of Media 
j Atropatene. 

| CADYTIS, according to Herodotus, a great 
city of the Syrians of Palestine, not much 
smaller than Sardis, was taken by Necho, 
king of Egypt, after his defeat of the 
"Syrians" at Magdolus. It is now pretty 
well established that by Cadytis is meant 
Jerusalem, and that the battle mentioned by 
Herodotus is that in which Necho defeated 
and slew king Josiah at Megiddo, b. c. 608. 

CAECILIA (-ae).— (1) Caia, the Roman 
name of Taxaqiil, wife of Tarquinius Pris- 
cus. — (2) Metella, daughter of L. Metellus 
Dalmaticus, consul b. c. 119, was first married 
to M. Aemilius Scaurus, consul in 115, and 



afterwards to the dictator Sulla. — (3) Daughter 



CAECILIUS. 



CAESAR. 



of T. Ponrponius Atticns, called Caecilia, j 
because her father took the name of his uncle, I 
Q. Caecilius, by whom he was adopted. She 
was married to M. Tipsanius Agrippa. 
[Axxicrs.] 

CAECILIUS (-i). (l) Q., a wealthy Ro- 
man eques, who adopted his nephew Atticus 
in his will, and left the latter a fortune of 1 
millions of sesterces. — (2) Caecilius Calac- 
tixus, a Greek rhetorician at Home in the 
time of Augustus. — [3) Caecilius Statius, 
a Roman comic poet, the immediate prede- 
cessor of Terence, was by birth an Insubrian 
Gaul, and a native of Milan. Being a slave, 
he bore the servile appellation of Statins, 
which was afterwards, probably when he 
received his freedom, converted into a sort of 
cognomen, and he became known as Caecilius 
Statius. He died b. c.- 168. 

CAECILIUS METELLUS. [Metellus.] 

CAEClNA (-ae), the name of a family of 
the Etruscan city of Tolaterrae, probably de- 
rived from the river Caecina, which flows 
by the town. — [1] A. Caecina, whom Cicero 
defended in a law-suit, b. c. 69. — (2) 
A. Caecina, son of the preceding, published 
a libellous work against Caesar, and was in 
consequence sent into exile after the battle of 
Pharsalia, b. c. IS. — [3] A. Caecina Atjenus 
was quaestor in Baetica, in Spain, at Nero's 
death, and was one of the foremost in joining 
the party of Galba. He served first under 
Galba, and afterwards joined Vitellius ; but 
proving a traitor to the latter, he joined 
Vespasian, against whom, also, he conspired ; 
and was slain by order of Titus. 

CAECUBTJS ;'-i; AGEB, a marshy district 
in Latium, bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, 
close to Fundi, celebrated for its wine (Cae- 
ciibum) in the age of Horace. In the time of 
Pliny the reputation of this wine was entirely 
gone. 

CAECULUS (-i), an ancient Italian hero, 
son of Vulcan, is said to have founded 
Praeneste. 

CAELES or CAELHJS (-i) VIBENNA 
(-ae), the leader of an Etruscan army, is said 
to have come to Rome in the reign either of 
Romulus or of Tarquinins Priscus, and to 
have settled with his troops on the hill called 
after him the Caelian. 

CAELIUS or COELIUS MONS. [Roma.] 
CAENEUS (-eos or -ei), one of the La- 
pithae, son of Elatus or Coronas, was 
originally a maiden named Caexis (-idis), 
who was beloved by Poseidon (Neptune), and 
was by this god changed into a man, and 
rendered invulnerable. In the battle between 
the Lapithae and the Centaurs at the mar- 
riage of Pirithous, he was buried by the Cen- 
taurs under a mass of trees, as thev were 



unable to kill him ; but he was changed into 
a bird. In the lower world Caeneus re- 
covered his female form. 

CA EXI or CAENICI [-oram),a Thracian peo- 
ple, between the Black Sea and the Panysus. 

CAENINA (-ae), a town of the Sabines, in 
Latium, whose king Acron is said to have 
carried on the first war against Koine. After 
their defeat, most of the inhabitants removed 
to Rome. 

CAEXIS. [CaeneusJ 

CAEPIO, Cx. SERVILLTS (-i\ consul b. c. 
106, was sent into Gallia Xarbonensis to 
oppose the Cimbri. In 105 he was defeated 
by the Cimbri, along with the consul Cn. 
Mallius or Manlius. SO, 000 soldiers and 
40.000 camp-followers are said to have 
perished. Caepio survived the battle, but 10 
years afterwards [95] he was brought to trial 
by the tribune C. Xorbanus, on account of his 
misconduct in this war. He was condemned, 
and cast into prison, where, according to one 
account, he died ; but it was more generally 
stated that he escaped from prison, and lived 
in exile at Smyrna. 

CAERE (Cervetri), called by the Greeks 
Agylla [AgylKna urbs, Virg.), a city in 
Etruria, situated on a small river W. of 
Veii, and 50 stadia from the coast. It was an 
ancient Pelasgic city, the capital of the cruel 
Mezentius, and was afterwards one of the 12 
Etruscan cities, with a territory extending 
apparently as far as the Tiber. In early times 
Caere was closely allied with Rome ; and 
when the latter city was taken by the Gauls, 
b.c. 390, Caere gave refuge to the Vestal 
virgins. The Romans, out of gratitude, are 
said to have conferred upon the Caerites the 
Roman franchise without the suffragium, 
though it is not improbable that the Caerites 
enjoyed this honour previously. The Caerites 
appear to have been the first body of Roman 
citizens who did not enjoy the suffrage. Thus, 
when a Roman citizen was struck out of his 
tribe by the Censors, and made an aerarian, 
he was said to become one of the Caerites, 
since he had lost the suffrage : hence we find 
the expressions in tabulas Caeritum referre, 
and aerarium facere, used as synonymous. 

CAESAR (-aris), the name of a patrician 
family, of the Julia gens, which traced its 
I origin to lulus, the son of Aeneas. Various 
I etymologies of the name are given by the 
' ancient winters ; but it is probably connected 
j with the Latin word cctes-ar-ics, and the Sans- 
krit kesa, "hair;" for it is in accordance 
j with the Eoman custom for a surname to be 
given to an individual from some peculiarity 
I in his personal appearance. The name was 
assumed by Augustus as the adopted son of 
I the dictator C. Julius Caesar, and was by 



CAESAR. 



87 



CAESAR. 



Augustus handed down to his adopted son 
Tiberius. It continued to be used by Caligula, 
Claudius, and Nero, as members either by 
adoption or female descent of Caesar's family ; 
but though the family became extinct with 
Nero, succeeding emperors still retained the 
name as part of their titles, and it was the 
practice to prefix it to their own name, as, 
for instance, Imperator Caesar Domitianus 
Augustus. When Hadrian adopted Aelius 
Verus, he allowed the latter to take the title 
of Caesar ; and from this time, though the 
title of Augustus continued to be confined to 
the reigning prince, that of Caesar was also 
granted to the second person in the state, and 
the heir presumptive to the throne. — 1) 
L. JrLius Caesar, consul, b.c. 90, fought 
against the Socii, and in the course of the 
same year proposed the Lex Julia de Civitate, 
which granted the citizenship to the Latins and 
the Socii who had remained faithful to Rome. 
Caesar was censor in 89 ; he belonged to the 
aristocratical party, and was put to death by 
Marios in 87. — (2) C. Julius Caesar Strabo 
Yopisces, brother of No. 1, was curule aedile 
90, was a candidate for the consulship in 88, 
and was slain along with his brother by 
Marius in 87. He was one of the chief 
orators and poets of his age, and is one of the 
speakers in Cicero's dialogue Be Oratore. — 
(3) E. JuLrus Caesar, son of No. 2, and 
uncle by his sister Julia of M. Antony the 
triumvir. He was consul 64, and belonged, 
like his father, to the aristocratical party. 
He appears to have deserted this party after- 
wards ; we find him in Gaul in 52 as one of 
the legates of C. Caesar, and he continued in 
Italy during the civil war. After Caesar's 
death (41) he sided with the senate in oppo- 
sition to his uncle Antony, and was in conse- 
quence proscribed by the latter in 48, but 
obtained his pardon through the influence of 
his sister Julia. — (4) L. Jelies Caesar, son 
of No. 3, usually distinguished from his 
father by the addition to his name oifilius or 
adolescens. He joined Pompey on the break- 
ing out of the civil war in 49, and was sent 
by Pompey to Caesar with proposals of peace. 
■ — (5) C. Julius Caesar, the dictator, was born 
on the 12th of July, 100, in the consulship of 
C. Marius (XI.) and L. Valerius Elaccus, and 
was consequently 6 years younger than 
Pompey and Cicero. Caesar was closely con- 
nected with the popular party by the mar- 
riage of his aunt Julia with the great Marius ; 
and in 83, though only 17 years of age, he 
married Cornelia, the daughter of L. China, 
the chief leader of the Marian party. Sulla 
commanded him to put away his wife, but he 
refused to obey him, and was consequently 
proscribed. He concealed himself for some 



time in the country of the Sabines, till his 
friends obtained his pardon from Sulla, who 
is said to have observed, when they pleaded 
his youth, " that that boy would some day 
or another be the ruin of the aristocracy, for 
that there were many Mariuses in him." 
Seeing that he was not safe at Rome, he went 
to Asia, where he served his first campaign 
under M. Minucius Thermus, and, at the 
capture of Mytilene (80), was rewarded with 
a civic crown for saving the life of a fellow- 
soldier. On the death of Sulla, in 7 8, he 
returned to Rome, and in the following year 
gained great renown as an orator, though he 
was only 22 years of age, by his prosecution 
of Cn. Dolabella on account of extortion in 
his province of Macedonia. To perfect him- 
self in oratory, he resolved to study in 
Rhodes under Apollonius Molo, but on his 
voyage thither he was captured by pirates, 
and only obtained his liberty by a ransom of 
50 talents. At Miletus he manned some ves- 
sels, overpowered the pirates, and conducted 
them as prisoners to Pergamus, where he cru- 
cified them — a punishment with which he had 
frequently threatened them in sport when he 
was their prisoner. On his return to Rome 
he devoted all his energies to acquire the 
favour of the people. His liberality was un- 
bounded ; and as his private fortune was 
not large, he soon contracted enormous 
debts. But he gained his object, and 
became the favourite of the people, and was 
raised by them in succession to the high 
offices of the state. He was quaestor in 68, 
aedile in 65, when he spent enormous sums 
upon the public games and buildings, and 
was elected Pontifex Maximus in 63. In 
the debate in the senate on the punish- 
ment of the Catilinarian conspirators, he 
opposed their execution in a very able speech, 
which made such an impression that their 
lives would have been spared but for the 
speech of Cato in reply. In 62 he was prae- 
tor, and in the following year he went as pro- 
praetor into Further Spain, where he gained 
great victories over the Lusitanians. On 
his return to Rome he was elected consul 
along with Bibulus, a warm supporter of the 
aristocracy. After his election, but before he 
entered upon the consulship, he formed that 
coalition with Pompey and M. Crassus, 
usually known by the name of the first tri- 
umvirate. Pompey had become estranged 
from the aristocracy, since the senate had 
opposed the ratification of his acts in Asia, 
and of an assignment of lands which he had 
promised to his veterans. Crassus, in conse- 
quence of his immense wealth, was one of the 
most powerful men at Rome, but was a per- 
sonal enemy of Pompey. They were recon- 



CAESAR, 



ss 



CAESAE. 



ciled by means of Caesar, and the 3 entered 
into an agreement to support one another, I 
and to divide the power in the state between 
them. In 59 Caesar was consul, and being 1 
supported by Pompey and Crassus, he was 
able to carry all his measures. Bibulus, 
from whom the senate had expected so much, 
could offer no effectual opposition, and, after 
making a vain attempt to resist Caesar, shut 
himself up in his own house, and did not 
appear again in public till the expiration of 
his consulship. Caesar brought forward such 
measures as secured for him the affections of 
the poorest citizens, of the Equites, and of 
the powerful Pompey ; having done this, he 
was easily able to obtain for himself the pro- 
vinces which he wished. By a vote of the 
people, proposed by the tribune Yatinius, the 
provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum 
were granted to Caesar, with 3 legions, for 5 
years ; and the senate added to his govern- 
ment the province of Transalpine Gaul, with 
another legion, for 5 years also, as they saw 
that a bill would be proposed to the people 
for that purpose, if they did not grant the 
province themselves. Caesar foresaw that the 
struggle between the different parties at 
Home must eventually be terminated by the 
sword, and he had therefore resolved to ob- 
tain an army, which he might attach to 
himself by victories and rewards. In the 
course of the same year he united himself 
more closely to Pompey by giving him his 
daughter Julia in marriage. During the next 
9 years Caesar was occupied with the subju- 
gation of Gaul. He conquered the whole of 
Transalpine Gaul, which had hitherto been 
independent of the Eomans, with the excep- 
tion of the S.E. part called Provincia ; he 
twice crossed the Ehine, and twice landed in 
Britain, which had been previously unknown 
to the Eomans. His first invasion of Britain 
was made late in the summer of 55, but more 
with the view of obtaining some knowledge 
of the island from personal observation, than 
with the intention of permanent conquest at 
present. He sailed from the port Itius (pro- 
bably Witsand, between Calais and Boulogne), 
and effected a landing somewhere near the 
South Foreland, after a severe struggle with 
the natives. The late period of the year 
compelled him to return to Gaul after re- 
maining only a short time in the island. In 
this year, according to his arrangement with 
Pompey and Crassus, who were now consuls, 
his government of the Gauls and Illyricum 
was prolonged for five years, namely, from 
the 1st of January, 53, to the end of Decem- 
ber, 49. During the foUowing year (54) he 
invaded Britain a second time. He landed in 1 
Britain at the same place as in the former 



year, defeated the Britons in a series of en- 
gagements, and crossed the Tamesis {Thames}. 
The Britons submitted, and promised to pay 
an annual tribute ; but their subjection was 
only nominal. Caesar's success in Gaul ex- 
cited Pompey's jealousy ; and the death of 
Julia in childbirth, in 54, broke one of the 
few links which kept them together. Pompey 
was thus led to join again the aristocratical 
party, by whose assistance he hoped to retain 
his position as the chief man in the Eoman 
state. The great object of this party was to 
deprive Caesar of his command, and to com- 
pel him to come to Eome as a private man to 
sue for the consulship. Caesar offered to 
resign his command if Pompey would do the 
same ; but the senate would not listen to any 
compromise. Accordingly, on the 1st of 
January, 49, the senate passed a resolution 
that Caesar should disband his army by a 
certain day, and that if he did not do so, he 
should be regarded as an enemy of the state. 
Two of the tribunes, M, Antonius and 
Q. Cassius, put their veto upon this resolu- 
tion, but their opposition was set at nought, 
and they fled for refuge to Caesar's camp. 
Under the plea of protecting the tribunes, 
Caesar crossed the Eubicon, which separated 
his province from Italy, and marched towards 
Eome. Pompey, who had been entrusted 
by the senate with the conduct of the war, 
soon discovered how greatly he had overrated 
his own popularity and influence. His own 
troops deserted to his rival in crowds ; town 
after town in Italy opened its gates to Caesar, 
whose march was like a triumphal progress. 
Meantime, Pompey, with the magistrates and 
senators, had fled from Eome to the S. of 
Italy, and on the 17 th of March embarked for 
Greece. Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundu- 
sium, but he was unable to follow him to 
Greece for want of ships. Shortly afterwards 
he set out for Spain, where Pompey's legates, 
Afranius, Petreius, and Tarro, commanded 
powerful armies. After defeating Afranius 
and Petreius, and receiving the submission of 
Yarro, Caesar returned to Eome, where he 
had in the meantime been appointed dictator 
by the praetor M. Lepidus. He resigned the 
dictatorship at the end of 11 days, after hold- 
ing the consular comitia. in which he himself 
and P. Servilius Yatia Isauricus were elected 
consuls for the next year. — At the beginning 
of January, 48, Caesar crossed over to Greece, 
where Pompey had collected a formidable 
army. At first the campaign was in Pompey's 
favour ; Caesar was repulsed before Dyrrha- 
chium with considerable loss, and was obliged 
to retreat towards Thessaly. In this country 
on the plains of Pharsalus, or Pharsalia, a 
decisive battle was fought between the two 



CAESAR. 



89 



CAESAR. 



armies on Aug. 9th, 48, in which. Pompcy was 
completely defeated. Pompey fled to Egypt, 
pursued by Caesar, hut he was murdered 
before Caesar arrived in the country. [Pom- 
peius.] On his arrival in Egypt, Caesar 
became involved in a war, usually called the 
Alexandrine war. It arose from the determi- 
nation of Caesar that Cleopatra, whose fasci- 
nations had won his heart, should reign in 
common with her brother Ptolemy ; hut this 
decision was opposed by the guardians of the 
young king, and the war which thus broke 
out, was not brought to a close till the latter 
end of March, 47. It was soon after this, 
that Cleopatra had a son by Caesar. [Caesa- 
mo>\] Caesar returned to Rome through 
Syria and Asia Minor, and on his march 
through Pontus, attacked Pharnaces, the son 
of Mithridates the Great, who had assisted 
Pompey. He defeated Pharnaces near Zela 
with such ease, that he informed the senate 
of his victory by the words, Veni, vidi, vid. 
He reached Rome in September (47), and 
before the end of the month set sail for Africa, 
where Scipio and Cato had collected a large 
army. The war was terminated by the defeat 
of the. Pompeian army at the battle of Thap- 
sus, on the 6th of April, 46. Cato, unable to 
defend Erica, put an end to his own life. — 
Caesar returned to Rome in the latter end of 
July. He was now the undisputed master of 
the Roman world, but he used his victory 
with the greatest moderation. Unlike other 
conquerors in civil wars, he freely forgave | 
all who » had borne arms against him, and 
declared that he would make no difference 
between Pompeians and Caesarians. His 
clemency was one of the brightest features of 
his character. One of the most important of 
his measures this year (46) was the reforma- 
tion of the calendar. As the Roman year 
was now 3 months in advance of the real : 
time, Caesar added 90 days to this year, and 
thus made the whole year consist of 445 days ; 
and he guarded against a repetition of similar 
errors for the future by adapting the year to 
the sun's course. — Meantime the two sons of 
Pompey, Sextus and Cneius, had collected a 
new army in Spain. Caesar set out for 
Spain towards the end of the year, and 
brought the war to a close by the battle of 
Munda, on the 17th of March, 45, in which 
the enemy were only defeated after a most 
obstinate resistance. Cn. Pompey was killed 
shortly afterwards, but Sextus made good his 
escape. Caesar reached Rome in September, 
and entered the city in triumph. Possessing 
royal power, he now wished to obtain the 
title of king, and Antony accordingly offered 
him the diadem in public on the festival of 
the Lupercaiia (the 15th of February) ; but, j 



seeing that the proposition was not favour- 
ably received by the people, he declined it for 
the present. — But Caesar's power was not 
witnessed without envy. The Roman aris- 
tocracy resolved to remove him by assassina- 
tion. The conspiracy against Caesar's life 
had been set afoot by Cassius, a personal 
enemy of Caesar's, and there were more than 
60 persons pi ivy to it. Many of these 
persons had been raised by Caesar to wealth 
and honour ; and some of them, such as M. 
Brutus, lived with him on terms of the most 
intimate friendship. It has been the practice 
of rhetoricians to speak of the murder of 
Caesar as a glorious deed, and to represent 
Brutus and Cassius as patriots ; but the mask 
ought to be stripped off these false patriots ; 
they cared not for the republic, but only for 
themselves ; and their object in murdering 
Caesar was to gain power for themselves and 
their party. Caesar had many warnings 
of his approaching fate, but he disregarded 
them all, and fell by the daggers of his 
assassins on the Ides or 15th of March, 44. 
At an appointed signal the conspirators 
surrounded him ; Casca dealt the first blow, 
and the others quickly drew their swords 
and attacked him ; Caesar at first defended 
himself, but when he saw that Brutus, his 
friend and favourite, had also drawn his 
sword, he exclaimed, Tu quoque, Brute ! pulled 
his toga over his face, and sunk pierced with 
wounds at the foot of Pompey's statue. — 
Julius Caesar was one of the greatest men of 
antiquity. He was gifted by nature with the 
most various talentsj and was distinguished 
by extraordinary attainments in the most di- 
versified pursuits. During the whole of his 
busy life he found time for the prosecution of 
literature, and was the author of many works, 
the majority of which has been lost. The 
purity of his Latin and the clearness of his 
style were celebrated by the ancients them- 
selves, and are conspicuous in his CommentarU, 
which are his only works that have come down 
to us. They relate the history of the first 7 
years of the Gallic war in 7 books, and the 
history of the Civil war, down to the com- 
mencement of the Alexandrine, in 3 books. 
Neither of these works completed the history 
of the Gallic and Civil wars. The history of 
the former was completed in an 8th book, 
which is usually ascribed to Hirtius, and the 
history of the Alexandrine, African, and 
Spanish wars was written in three separate 
books, which are also ascribed to Hirtius, 
but their authorship is uncertain. 

C. CAESAR and L. CAESAR, the sons of 
M. Yipsanius Agrippa and Julia, and the 
grandsons of Augustus. L. Caesar died at 
Massilia on his way to Spain, a.d. 2, and C. 



CAE S Alt AU GU S T A. 



90 



CALES. 



Caesar in Lycia, a.d. 4, of a wound 'which 
he had received in Armenia. 

CAE SAE AUGUSTA (-ae : Zaragoza or Sa- 
ragossa), more anciently Salduba, a town of 
the Edetani on the Iberus, in Hispania Tar- 
raconensis, colonized by Augustus b.c. 27. 

CAES ARE A (-ae), a name given to several 
cities of the Roman empire in honour of one 
or other of the Caesars. — (1) C. ad Argaeum, 
formerly Mazaca, also Eusebia [Kesarieh, 
Eu.), one of the oldest cities of Asia Minor, 
stood upon Mount Argaeus, about the centre 
of Cappadocia. When that country was made 
a Eoman province by Tiberius (a.d. 18), it 
received the name of Caesarea. It was ulti- 
mately destroyed by an earthquake. — (2) C. 
Philippi or Paxeas [Banias), a city of Pales- 
tine, at the S. foot of M. Hermon, on the 
Jordan, just below its source, built by Philip 
the tetrarch, b.c. 3 ; King Agrippa called it 
Neronias, but it soon lost this name. — (3) C. 
Palaestixae, formerly Stratoxis Turris, 
an important city of Palestine, on the sea- 
coast, just above the boundary line between 
Samaria and Galilee. It was surrounded 
with a wall, and decorated with splendid 
buildings by Herod the Great (b.c. 13), who 
called it Caesarea, in honour of Augustus. 
He also made a splendid harbour for the 
city. Under the Eomans it was the capital 
of Palestine and the residence of the procu- 
rator. — (4) C, Maeretaxiae, formerly Iol 
{ZersheU, Eu.), a Phoenician city on the N. 
coast of Africa, with a harbour, the residence 
of King Juba, who named it Caesarea, in 
honour of Augustus. There are several other 
cities, which are better known by other 
names. 

CAESARION (-onis), son of C. Julius 
Caesar and of Cleopatra, originally called 
Ptolemaeus as an Egyptian prince, was born 
b.c. 47. After the death of his mother in 30 
he was executed by order of Augustus. 

CAE SAE 6 DUN 111 (-i : Toars), chief town 
of the Turones or Turoni, subsequently called 
Tritoxi, on the Liger [Loire) in Gallia Lug- 
dunensis. 

CAESIA (-ae), a forest in Germany be- 
tween the Lippe and the Yssel. 

CAICUS (-i), a river of Mysia, rising in M. 
Temnus and flowing past Pergamus into the 
Cumaean Gulf. 

CAIETA (-ae : Gaeta), a town in Latium 
on the borders of Campania, situated on a 
promontory of the same name and on a bay 
of the sea called after it Sixes Caietaxes. 
It possessed an excellent harbour, and was 
said to have derived its name from Caieta, 
the nurse of Aeneas. 

CAIUS, the jurist. [Gaitjs.] 

CAIUS CAESAR. [Caligula.] 



CALABER. [Quintus Smyrxaees,] 

CALABRIA (-ae), the peninsula in the 
S.E. of Italy, extending from Tarentum to 
the Prom. Iapygium, formed part of Apulia. 

CALACTE (-es), originally the name of 
part of the coast, and afterwards a town on 
the N. coast of Sicily, founded by Ducetius, 
a chief of the Sicels, about b.c 447. 

CALAGURRIS (-is: Calahorra), a town 
of the Yascones in Hispania Tarraconensis 
near the Iberus. It was the birth-place of 
Quintiiian. 

CALAIS, brother of Zetes. [Zetes.] 

CALANUS (-i), an Indian gymnosophist, 
who burnt himself alive in the presence of 
the Macedonians, 3 months before the death 
of Alexander (b.c. 323), to whom he had pre- 
dicted his approaching end. 

CALATIA (-ae : Cajazzo), a town in Sam- 
nium on the Appia Via between Capua and 
Beneventum. 

CALATINUS, A. ATILIUS, consul b.c. 
258, and dictator 249, when he carried on 
the war in Sicily. He was the first dictator 
that commanded an army out of Italy. 

CALAUREA or -LA (-ae : Poro), a small 
island in the Saronic gulf off the coast of 
Argolis and opposite Troezen, possessed a 
celebrated temple of Poseidon (Neptune), 
which was regarded as an inviolable asylum. 
Hither Demosthenes fled to escape Antipater, 
and here he took poifeon, b.c. 322. 

CALCHAS (-antis), son of Thestor, was 
the wisest soothsayer among the Greeks at 
Troy, and advised them in their various dif- 
ficulties. An oracle had declared that he 
should die if he met with a soothsayer supe- 
rior to himself ; and this came to pass at 
Ciaros, near Colophon, for here he met the 
soothsayer Mopsus, who predicted things 
which Calchas could not. Thereupon Calchas 
died of grief. After his death he had an 
oracle in Daunia. 

CALE (-es : Oporto), a port-town of the 
Callaeci in Hispania Tarraconensis at the 
mouth of the Durius. From Porto Cale the 
name of the country Portugal is supposed to 
have come. 

CALEDONIA. [Britanxia.j 

CALENUS, Q. FUFIUS, a tribune of the 
plebs, b.c 61, when he succeeded in saving 
P. Clodius from condemnation for his vio- 
lation of the mysteries of the Bona Dea. In 
59 he was praetor, and from this time ap- 
pears as an active partizan of Caesar, in 
whose service he remained until Caesar's 
death (44). After this event Calenus joined 
M. Antony, and subsequently had the com- 
mand of Antony's legions in the N. of Italy. 

CALES (-is, usually PI. Cales, -ium : Calvi), 
chief town of the Caleni, an Ausonian people 



CALETES, 



91 



C AL L I B KHOE. 



in Campania, on the Via Latina, said to have 
"been founded by Calais, son of Boreas, and | 
therefore called Tlire'icia hy the poets. It 
"was celebrated for its excellent wine. 

CALETES (-urn) or CALETI (-orivm), a ! 
people in Belgic Gaul near the mouth of the j 
Seine. ^ 

CALIGULA (-ae), Roman emperor, a.d. 
37 — 41, son of Germanicus and Agrippina, j 
was horn a.d. 12, and was brought up among 
the legions in Germany. His real name was 
Cains Caesar, and he was always called Cuius j 
hy his contemporaries ; Caligula was a sur- 
name given him by the soldiers from his j 
wearing in his boyhood small caligac, or 
soldiers' boots. He gained the favour of 
Tiberius, who raised him to offices of honour, 
and held out to him hopes of the succession. I 
On the death of Tiberius (37), which was I 
either caused or accelerated by Caligula, the 
latter succeeded to the throne. He was sa- 
luted by the people with the greatest enthu- 
siasm as the son of Germanicus. His first | 
acts gave promise of a just and beneficent 
reign. But at the end of 8 months his conduct 
became suddenly changed. After a serious j 
illness, which probably weakened his mental \ 
powers, he appears as a sanguinary and 
licentious madman. In his madness he built 
a temple to himself as Jupiter Latiaris, and 
appointed priests to attend to his worship, j 
His extravagance was monstrous. One in- 
stance will show at once his wastefulness and I 
cruelty. He constructed a bridge of boats 
between Baiae and Puteoli, a distance of about \ 
3 miles, and after covering it with earth he 
built houses upon it. When it was finished, 
he gave a splendid banquet in the middle of 
the bridge, and concluded the entertainment 
by throwing numbers of the guests into the 
sea. To replenish the treasury he exhausted 
Italy and Borne by his extortions, and then j 
marched into Gaul in 40, which he plundered 
in all directions. With his troops he ad- 
vanced to the ocean, as if mtencling to cross 
over into Britain ; he drew them up in battle 
array, and then gave them the signal — to 
collect shells, which he called the spoils of 
conquered Ocean. The Boman world at 
length grew tired of such a mad tyrant. 
Four months after his return to the city, on 
the 24th of January, 41, he was murdered I 
hy Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian 
cohort, Cornelius Sabinus, and others. His 
wife Caesonia and his daughter were like- ,1 
wise put to death. 

CALL Aid, CALLAECI. [Gallaeci.] 
CALLATIS (-is), a town of Moesia, on the 
Black Sea, originally a colony of Miletus, and ! 
afterwards of Haraclea. 

CALLIAS (-ae) and HIPPONICUS (-i), a 



noble Athenian family, celebrated for their 
wealth. They enjoyed the hereditary dignity 
of torch-bearer at the Eleusinian mysteries, 
and claimed descent from Triptolemus. The 
first member of this family of any note 
was Callias, who fought at the battle of 
Marathon, 490. He was afterwards ambas- 
sador from Athens to Artaxerxes, and ac- 
cording to some accounts negotiated a peace 
with Persia, 449, on terms most humiliating 
to the latter. On his return to Athens, he 
was accused of having taken bribes, and was 
condemned to a fine of 50 talents. His son 
Hipponicus was killed at the battle of Deliuni 
in 424. It was his divorced wife, and not 
his widow, whom Pericles married. His 
daughter Hipparete was married to Alci- 
hiades. Callias, son of this Hipponicus by 
the lady who married Pericles, dissipated all 
his ancestral wealth on sophists, flatterers, 
and women. The scene of Xenophon's Ban- 
quet, and also that of Plato's Protagoras, is 
laid at his house. 

CALLIAS, a wealthy Athenian, who, on 
condition of marrying Cimon's sister, Elpi- 
nice, liberated Cimon from prison by paying 
for him the fine of 50 talents which had been 
imposed on Miltiades. 

CALLIDBOML'S or -UM (-i), part of the 
range of Mt. Oeta, near Thermopylae. 

CALLIFAE, a town in Samnium of uncer- 
tain site. 

CALLIMACHUS (-i), a celebrated Alexan- 
drine grammarian and poet, was a native of 
Cyrene in Africa, lived at Alexandria in 
the reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euer- 
getes, and was chief librarian of the famous 
library of Alexandria, from about n.c. 260 until 
his death about 240. Among his pupils were 
Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, 
and Apolionius Bhodius, with the latter of 
whom he subsequently quarrelled. He wrote 
numerous works on an infinite variety of sub- 
jects, but of these we possess only some of 
his poems, which are characterised rather by 
labour and learning than by real poetical 
genius. 

CALLIXUS (-i), of Ephesus, the earliest 
Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about 
B.c. 700. 

CALLIOPE. r MrsAE.] 

CALLIPOLIS (-is). (1) A town on the E. 
coast of Sicily not far from Aetna. — 2) [GaJ- 
lipoli), a town in the Thracian Chersonese 
opposite Lampsacus. — [33 A town in Aetolia. 
[Callivm.] 

CALLIBRHOE (-es). (1) Daughter of 
Achelous and wife of Alemaeon, induced her 
husband to procure her the peplus and neck- 
lace of Harmonia, by which she caused his 
death. [Alcmaeox.] — (2) Daughter of Sea- 



CALLIRRHOE. 



92 



CAMALODUNUM. 



mander, wife of Tros, and mother of Hus 
and Gaiiymedes. 

CALLIRRHOE (-es), afterwards called Ex- 
neaceuntjs or the " Nine Springs," because 
its water was distributed by 9 pipes, was the 
most celebrated well in Athens, situated in 
the S.E. part of the city, and still retains its 
ancient name CalUrrhoe. 

CALLISTHENES (-is), of Olynthus, a re- 
lation and a pupil of Aristotle, accompanied 
Alexander the Great to Asia. He rendered 
himself so obnoxious to Alexander by the 
boldness and independence with which he 
expressed his opinions on several occasions, 
that he was accused of being privy to the 
plot of Hermolaus to assassinate Alexander ; 
and after being kept in chains for 7 months, 
was either put to death or died of disease. 
He wrote several works, all of which have 
perished. 

CALLISTO (-us : acc. -5), an Arcadian 
nymph, hence called Nondcrlna virgo, from 
Nonacris, a mountain in Arcadia, was a com- 
panion of Artemis (Diana) in the chase. She 
was beloved by Zeus (Jupiter), who meta- 
morphosed her into a she-bear, that Hera 
(Juno) might not become acquainted with 
the amour. But Hera learnt the truth, and 
caused Artemis to slay Callisto during the 
chase. Zeus placed Callisto among the stars | 
under the name of Arctos, or the Bear. ! 
Arcas was her son by Zeus. [Aectos.] 

CALLISTRATIA (-ae), a town in Paphla- 
gonia, on the coast of the Euxine. 

GALLIUM (-i) called CALLIPOLIS (-is), 
by Livy, a town in Aetolia in the valley of 
the Spercheus. 

CALOR (-oris), a river in Samnium flow- 
ing past Beneventum and falling into the 
Yulturnus. 

CALPE (-es : Gibraltar.) (1) A mountain 
in the S. of Spain on the Straits between the 
Atlantic and Mediterranean. This and M. 
Abyla opposite to it on the African coast, 
were called the Columns of Hercules. [Abvla.] 
— (2) A river, promontory, and town on the 
coast of Bithynia. 

CALPTJRNIA (-ae), daughter of L. Calpur- 
nius Piso, consul b.c 58, and last wife of the 
dictator Caesar, to whom she was married in 
59. She survived her husband. 

CALPURXIA GENS, plebeian, pretended 
to be descended from Calpus, a son of Numa. 
It was divided into the families of Bibtjltjs 
and Piso^ 

CALYINUS, CX. DOMITIUS (-i), tribune 
of the plebs, b.c 59, when he supported 
Bibulus against Caesar, praetor 56, and consul 
53, through the influence of Pompey. He 
took an active part in the civil war as one of 
Caesar's generals. 



CALYCADNtJS (-i), a considerable river of 
| Cilicia Tracheia, navigable as far as Seleucia. 
| CALYDNAE (-arum). (1) Two small 
I islands off the coast of Troas.— (2) A group 
of islands off the coast of Caria, belonging 
to the Sporades. The largest of them was 
; called Calydna, and afterwards Calymna. 
1 CALYDON (-onis), an ancient town of 
Aetolia W. of the Evenus in the land of the 
Curetes, said to have been founded by Aetolus 
or his son Calydon. The town was celebrated 
in the heroic ages, but is rarely mentioned in 
I historical times. In the mountains in the 
neighbourhood took place the celebrated hunt 
' of the Calydonian boar. The inhabitants 
were removed by Augustus to Njcopolis. In 
the Roman poets we find Calydunis, a woman 
of Aetolia, i.e. Deianlra, daughter of Oeneus, 
king of Calydon : Calydonius heros, i.e. 
Meleager : Calydonius amnis, i.e., the Ache- 
lous separating Acarnania and Aetolia, be- 
cause Calydon was the chief town of Aetolia : 
Calydonia regna, i.e. Apulia, because Dio- 
medes, grandson of Oeneus, king of Calydon, 
afterwards obtained Apulia as his kingdom. 

CALYPSO (-us: acc. -5), a nymph inhabit- 
ing the island of Ogygia, on which Ulysses 
was shipwrecked. Calypso loved the unfor- 
tunate hero, and promised him immortality 
if he would remain with her. Ulysses re- 
fused, and after she had detained him 7 years, 
the gods compelled her to allow him to con- 
tinue his journey homewards. 




Calypso. (From a painted Vase.) 



CAMALODUNUM [Colchester), the capital 
of the Trinobantes in Britain, and the first 
Roman colony in the island, founded by the 
emperor Claudius, a.d. 43. 



CAMARIXA. 



93 



CAMPANIA. 



CAMARIXA f-ae), a town on the S. coast great heroes of the Roman republic. He 
of Sicily, at the mouth of the Hipparis, ; was censor b.c. 403, in which year Livy er- 
founded by Syracuse, b.c. 599. It was roneously places his first consular tribunate, 
several times destroyed by Syracuse ; and in j He was consular tribune six different years, 
the first Punic war it was taken by the j and dictator five times during his life. In 
Romans, and most of the inhabitants sold as } his first dictatorship (396) he gained a glori- 
slaves. ous victory over the Faliscans and Fidenates, 

CAMBL'XI (-orum) MONIES, the moun- took Yeii, and entered Rome in triumph, 
tains which separate Macedonia and Thessaly. ! Five years afterwards (391) he was accused 
CAMBYSES (-is). (1) Father of Cybxs the j of having made an unfair distribution of the 
Great. — (2) Second king of Persia, succeeded i booty of Yeii, and went voluntarily into exile 
his father Cyrus, and reigned b.c. 529 — 522. j at Ardea. Next year (390, the Gauls took 
In 525 he conquered Egypt ; but was unsuc- ] Rome, and laid siege to Ardea. The Romans 
cessful in expeditions against the Ammonians in the Capitol recalled Camillus, and ap- 
and against the Aethiopians. On his return i pointed him dictator in his absence. Camillus 
to Memphis he treated the Egyptians with i hastily collected an army, attacked the Gauls, 
great cruelty ; he insulted their religion, and and defeated them completely. [Bbbnwtts.] 
slew their god Apis with his own hands. He ! His fellow-citizens saluted him as the Second 
also acted tyrannically towards his own family Romulus. In 367 he was dictator a fifth 
and the Persians in general. He caused his time, and though 80 years of age, he corn- 
own brother Smerdis to be murdered ; but a pletely defeated the Gauls. He died of the 
Magian personated the deceased prince, and : pestilence, 365. Camillus was the great 
set up a claim to the throne. [Smekdis.] Cam- general of. his age, and the resolute cham- 
byses forthwith set out from Egypt against pion of _the patrician order, 
this pretender, but died in Syria, at a place CAMJRTJS (-i), a Dorian town on the W. 
named Ecbatana, of an accidental wound in j coast of the island of Rhodes, and the prin- 
the thigh, 522. cipal town in the island before the foundation 

CAMEXAE (-arum), prophetic nymphs, of Rhodes, 
belonging to the religion of ancient Italy, ■ CAMPANIA (-ae), a district of Italy, the 
although later traditions represent their wor- name of which is probably derived from 
ship as introduced into Italy from Arcadia, I campus "a plain," separated from Latium 
and some accounts identify them with the by the river Liris, and from Lucania at a 
Muses. The most important of these god- \ later time by the river Silarus, though in the 
desses was Carmenta or Carmentis, who had | time of Augustus it did not extend further 
a temple at the foot of the Capitoline hill, j S. than the promontory of Minerva. In still 
and altars near the Porta Carmentalis. The earlier times the Ager Campanus included 
traditions which assigned a Greek origin to only the country round Capua. Campania is 
her worship, state that her original name was a volcanic country, to which circumstance it 
Xicostrate, and that she was the mother of was mainly indebted for its extraordinary 
Evander, with whom she came to Italy. j fertility, for which it was celebrated in an- 

CAMERIA (-ae), an ancient town of La- tiquity above all other lands. The fertility 
thim, conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. of the soil, allowing in parts 3 crops in a 

CAMERINUM or CAMARINFM (-i), more year, the beauty of the scenery, and the soft- 
anciently CAMERS (-tis : Camerino), a town ness of the climate, the heat of which was 
in Fimbria, on the borders of Picenum, and tempered by the delicious breezes of the sea, 
subsequently a Roman colony. I procured for Campania the epithet Felix, a 

CAMERIXUS (-i), a Roman poet, contem- name which it justly deserved. It was the 
porary with Ovid, wrote a poem on the cap- favourite retreat in summer of the Roman 
ture of Troy by Hercules. j nobles, whose' villas studded a considerable 

CAMICUS (-i), an ancient town of the part of its coast, especially in the neighbour- 
Sicani on the S. coast of Sicily, and on a river hood of Baiae. The earliest inhabitants of 
of the same name, occupied the site of the the country were the Ausones and Osci or 
citadel of Agbigentum. \ Opici. They were subsequently conquered 

CAMILLA (-ae), daughter of king Metabus by the Etruscans, who became the masters of 
of the Yolscian town of Privernum, was one . almost all the country. In the time of the 
of the swift-footed servants of Diana, accus- , Romans we find 3 distinct peoples, besides 
tomed to the chase and to war. She assisted the Greek population of Coiae : 1 . The 
Turnus against Aeneas, and after slaying Campani, properly so called, a mixed race, 
numbers of the Trojans was at length killed consisting of Etruscans and the original in- 
by Aruns. i habitants of the country, dwelling along the 

L CAMILLUS, M. FURIL'S (-i), one of the | coast from Sinuessa to Paestum. They were 



CAMPI RAt'DII. 



94 



CAPANEUS. 



the ruling race. [Capua.] — 2. Sidicixi, an 
Ausonian people, in the N.W. of the country 
on the borders of Samnium. — 3. Picextixi, 
in the S.E. of the country. 

CAMPI RAEDII (-drum), a plain in the 
N. of Italy, near Yerona, where Marius and 
Catulus defeated the Chnbri, b.c. 101. 

CAMPUS MARTIUS (-i), the " Plain of 
Mars," frequently called Campus simply, was 
the N.TS\ portion of the plain lying in the 
bend of the Tiber, outside the walls of Rome. 
The Circus Flaminius in the S. gave its name 
to a portion of the plain. The Campus Mar- 
tins is said to hare belonged originally to the 
Tarquins, and to hare been consecrated to 
Mars upon the expulsion of the kings. Here 
the Roman youths were accustomed to per- 
form their gymnastic and warlike exer- 
cises, and here the comitia of the centuries 
were held. At a later time it was sur- 
rounded by porticoes, temples, and other 
public buildings. It was included within 
the city walls by Aurelian. 




Personification of tlie Campus Alartius. (Tisconti, 
Mus. Pio Clem. vol. 6, tav. 1.) 

CAN ACE (-es), entertained an unnatural 
love for her brother Macareus, and on this 
account was compelled by her father to kill 
herself. 

CANDACE (-es), a queen of the Aethio- 
pians of Meroe, invaded Egypt b.c. 22, but 
was driven back and defeated by Petronius, 
the Eoman governor of Egypt. Her name 
"eems to have been common to all the queens 
of Aethiopia. 

CANDAELES, also called Myrsilus, last 
Heraclid king of Eydia. He exposed his 



wife to Gyges, whereupon she compelled 
Gyges to put hira to death. [Gyges.] 

CANDAYIA (-ae), CANDAYII (-6mm) 
MONTES, the mountains separating Illyri- 
cum from Macedonia, across which the Via 
; Egnatia ran. 

i CANIDIA (-ae), whose real name was 

I Gratidia, was a Neapolitan courtezan, be- 
loved by Horace ,• but when she deserted 
him, he revenged himself by holding her up 

; to contempt as an old sorceress. 

CANLS (-is), the constellation of the 
Great Bog. The most important star in 

' this constellation was specially named 

j Cards or Canicula, and also Sinus. The 
Dies Caniculares were as proverbial for the 
heat of the weather among the Romans 

: as are the clog days among ourselves. 
The constellation of the Little Bog was 

: called Procyon, literally translated Ante 
can em, Antecanis, because in Greece this con- 

i stellation rises heliacally before the Great 
Dog. When Bootes was regarded as Icarius 
"Aectos], Procyon became Maera, the dog of 
Icarius. 

CANNAE (-arum), a village in Apulia, 
situated in an extensive plain, memorable for 
the defeat of the Romans by Hannibal, b.c. 
216. 

CANOBES or CANOPUS (4), an import- 
ant city on the coast of Lower Egypt, 2 
geog. miles E. of Alexandria. It was near 
the W.-niost mouth of the Nile, which was 
hence called the Canopic Mouth. It was 
celebrated for a great temple of Serapis, for 
its commerce and its luxury. 

CANTABRI (-or urn;, a fierce and warlike 
people in the N. of Spain, bounded on the 
E. by the Astures, and on the W. by the 
Autrigones. They were subdued by Au- 
gustus after a struggle of several years (b.c 
25—19). 

CANTIUM (-i) a district of Britain, nearly 
the same as the modern Kent, but included 

• LOXDIXIUM. 

CANESIEM(-i : Canosa), an important town 
in Apulia, on the Aufidus, founded, according 
to tradition, by Diomedes. It was at all 
events a Greek colony, and both Greek and 
Oscan were spoken there in the time of 
Horace. It was celebrated for its mules and 
its woollen manufactures, but it had a de- 
ficient supply of water. 

CAP AN EES (-eos or -ei), son of Hipponous, 
and one of the 7 heroes who marched against 
Thebes. He was struck by Zeus (Jupiter) 
with lightning, as he was scaling the walls 
of Thebes, because he had dared to defy the 
god. While his body was burning, his wife 
Evadne leaped into the flames and destroyed 
herself. 



CAPELLA. 



95 



CAPUA. 



CAPELLA, the star. [Capra.] 
CAPENA (-ae), an ancient Etruscan town 
founded by Yeii, and subsequently became a 
Roman municipium. In its territory was the 
celebrated grove and temple of Feronia on the 
small river Capenas. [Feronia.] 
CAPETUS SILVIUS. [Silvius.] 
CAPHAREUS {Capo d' Oro), a rocky and 
dangerous promontory on the S. E. of Eu- 
boea, where the Greek fleet is said to have 
been wrecked on its return from Troy. 

CAPITO, C. ATEIUS, an eminent Roman 
jurist, who gained the favour of both Au- 
gustus and Tiberius by flattery and obse- 
quiousness. Capito and his contemporary 
Labeo were reckoned the highest legal au- 
thorities of their day, and were the founders 
of 2 legal schools, to which most of the great 
jurists belonged. 

CAPITO, C. FONTEITJS, a friend of M. 
Antony, accompanied Maecenas to Brundi- 
sium, b.c. 37, when the latter was sent to 
effect a reconciliation between Octavianus 
and Antony. _ 

CAPITOLINUS, MANLIUS. [Manlitjs.] 
CAPITOLLNUS MONS. [Capitolium : 

ROMA.] 

CAPITOLIUM (-i), the temple of Jupiter 
Optimus Maximus at Pome, was situated on the 
S. summit of the Mons Capitolinus, so called 
on account of the temple. The site of the 
temple is now covered in part by the Palazzo 
Caffarelli, while the N. summit, which was 
formerly the arx, is occupied by the church 
of Ara Celi. The temple is said to have 
been called the Capitolium, because a human 
head [caput) was discovered in digging the 
foundations. The building of it was com- 
menced by Tarquinius Priscus, and it was 
finished by Tarquinius Superbus, but was 
not dedicated till the 3rd year of the re- 
public, b.c. 507, by the consul M. Hora- 
tius. It was burnt down in the civil wars, 
83, and twice afterwards in the time of the 
emperors. After its 3rd destruction in the 
reign of Titus it was again rebuilt by Domi- 
tian with greater splendour than before. 
The Capitol contained 3 cells under the same 
roof : the middle cell was the temple of Ju- 
piter, hence described as " media qui sedet 
aede Deus," and on either side were the 
cells of his attendant deities, Juno and Mi- 
nerva. The Capitol was one of the most im- 
posing buildings at Pome, and was adorned 
as befitted the majesty of the king of the 
gods. It was in the form of a square, 
namely, 200 feet on each side, and was ap- 
proached by a flight of 100 steps. The gates 
were of bronze, and the ceilings and tiles 
gilt. The gilding alone of the building cost 
Domitian 12,000 talents. In the Capitol 



were kept the Sibylline books. Here the 
consuls upon entering on their office offered 
sacrifices and took their vows; and hither 
the victorious general, who entered the city 
in triumph, was carried in his triumphal 
car to return thanks to the Father of the 
gods. The whole hill was sometimes called 
Arx, and sometimes Capitolium, but most 
completely and correctly Arx Capitoliumque. 

CAPPADOCIA (-ae), a district of Asia 
Minor, to which different boundaries were 
assigned at different times. Under the Per- 
sian empire it included the whole country 
inhabited by a people of Syrian origin, who 
were called (from their complexion) "White 
Syrians; {Leucosyri), and also Cappadoces. 
Their country embraced the whole N.E. part 
of Asia Minor, E. of the river Halys, and 
N. of Mt. Taurus, which was afterwards 
divided into Pontus and Cappadocia Proper. 
[Ponttjs.] "When this division took place is 
uncertain ; but we find that under the Per- 
sian empire the whole country was governed 
by a line of hereditary satraps, who even- 
tually became independent kings. At a later 
period Cappadocia Proper was governed by a 
line of independent monarchs. In a.d. 17, 
Archelaus, the last king, died at Pome, and 
Tiberius made Cappadocia a Poman province. 
Cappadocia was a rough and mountainous 
region. Its fine pastures supported abun- 
dance of good horses and mules. 

CAPRA, CAPRA or CAPELLA (-ae), the 
brightest star in the constellation of the 
Auriga, or Charioteer, is said to have been 
originally the nymph or goat who nursed the 
infant Zeus (Jupiter) in Crete. [Amal- 
thea.] 

CAPRARIA (-ae), a small island off the 
coast of Etruria, inhabited only by wild 
goats, whence its name. 

CAPREAE (-arum : Capri), a small island, 
9 miles in circumference, off Campania, at 
the S. entrance of the gulf of Puteoli. The 
scenery is beautiful, and the climate soft and 
genial. Here Tiberius lived the last 10 years 
of his reign, indulging in secret debauchery, 
and accessible only to his creatures. 

CAPRICORXUS (-i), the Goat, a sign of the 
Zodiac, between the Archer and the "Water- 
man, is said to have fought with Jupiter 
against the Titans. 

CAPS A (-ae), a strong and ancient city in 
the S."W. of Byzacena, in N. Africa, in a fer- 
tile oasis, surrounded by a sandy desert, 
abounding in serpents. In the war with 
Jugurtha it was destroyed by Mar his ; but it 
was afterwards rebuilt, and erected into a 
colony. 

CAPUA (-ae : Capua), the chief city of 
Campania, either founded or colonised by the 



CAPYS. 



96 



CARIA. 



Etruscans. It became at an early period the 
most prosperous, wealthy, and luxurious city 
in the S. of Italy. Its warlike neighbours, 
the Samnites, made frequent attempts upon 
it, sometimes with success. In order to be 
a match for them, Capua, in b.c. 343, placed 
itself under the protection of Rome. It re- 
volted to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae, 
216, but was taken by the Romans in 211, 
was fearfully punished, and never recovered 
its former prosperity. It was subsequently 
made a Roman colony. 

CAPYS (-yos and -ys).— (1) Son of Assa- 
racus, and father of Anchises. — (2) A com- 
panion of Aeneas, from whom Capua was 
said to have derived its name. 

CAPYS SILYIUS. [SiLvirs.] 

CARACALLA (-ae), emperor of Rome, 
a.d. 211 — 217, was son of Septimius Severus, 
and was born at Lyons, a.d. 188. His proper 
name was 21. Aurelius Antoninus. Caracalla 
was a nickname derived from a long tunic 
worn by the Gauls, which he adopted as his 
favourite dress after he became emperor. He 
accompanied his father to Britain in 208; 
and on the death of Severus, at York, 211, 
Caracalla and his brother Geta succeeded to 
the throne, according to their father's ar- 
rangements. A succession of cruelties now 
marked his career. He assassinated his 
brother Geta, and, with him, many of the 
most distinguished men in the state ; thus 
securing himself in the sole government. The 
celebrated jurist, Papinian, was one of his 
victims. He added extravagance to cruelty ; 
and after wasting the resources of Italy, he 
visited the eastern and western provinces of 
the empire, for the purposes of extortion 
and plunder, and sometimes of wanton cruelty. 
He was about to set out on further expe- 
ditions across the Tigris, but was murdered 
at Edessa by Macrinus, the praetorian pre- 
fect. Caracalla gave to all free inhabitants 
of the empire the name and privileges 
of Roman citizens. 

CARACTACUS (-i), king of the Silures in 
Britain, bravely defended his country against 
the Romans, in the reign of Claudius. He 
was at length defeated, and fled for protec- 
tion to Cartismandua, queen of the Brigantes ; 
but she betrayed him to the Romans, who 
carried him to Rome, a.d. 51. When brought 
before Claudius, he addressed the emperor in 
so noble a manner that the latter pardoned 
him and his friends. 

CARALIS (-is) or CARALES (-ram : 
Chgliari), the chief town of Sardinia, with an 
excellent harbour. 

CARAMBIS (-idis), a promontory, with a 
city of the same name, on the coast of Pa- 
phlagonia. 



CAR ANUS (Li), a descendant of Hercules, is 
said to have settled at Edessa, in Macedonia, 
with an Argive colony, about b.c. 750, and 
to have become the founder of the dynasty of 
Macedonian kings. 

CARBO (-onis), the name of a family of 
the Papiria gens. (1) C. Papirius Carbo, a 
distinguished orator, and a man of great 
talents, but of no principle. He was one of 
the 3 commissioners or triumvirs for carrying 
into effect the agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus. 
His tribuneship of the plebs, b.c 131, was 
characterised by the most vehement oppo- 
sition to the aristocracy. But after the death 
of C. Gracchus (121), he suddenly deserted 
the popular party, and in his consulship (120) 
undertook the defence of Opimius, who had. 
murdered C. Gracchus. In 119 Carbo was 
accused by L. Licinius Crassus ; and as he 
foresaw his condemnation, he put an end to 
his life. — (2) Cn. Papirius Carbo, one of the 
leaders of the Marian party. He was thrice 
consul, namely, in 85, 84, and 82. In 82 he 
carried on war against Sulla, but he was at 
length obliged to fly to Sicily, where he was 
put to death by Pompey at Lilybaeum. 

CARCASO (-onis : Carcassone), a town of 
the Tectosages, in Gallia Narbonensis. 

CARDAMYLE (-es), a town in Messenia. 

CARDEA (-ae), a Roman divinity, pre- 
siding oyer the hinges of doors, that is, over 
family life. 

CARDIA (-ae), a town on the Thracian 
Chersonese, on the gulf of Melas, was the 
birth-place of Eumenes. It was destroyed 
by Lysimachus, who built the town of Lysi- 
machia, in its immediate neighbourhood. 

CARDTJCHI (-orum), a powerful and war- 
like people, probably the Kurds of modern 
times, dwelt in the mountains which divided 
Assyria^ from Armenia (Mts. of Kurdistan). 

CARIA (-ae), a district of Asia Minor, in 
its S.W. corner. It is intersected by low 
mountain chains, running out far into the sea 
in long promontories, forming gulfs along 
the coast and inland valleys that were fertile 
and well watered. The chief products of the 
country were corn, wine, oil, and figs. The 
coast was inhabited chiefly by Greek colo- 
nists. The inhabitants of the rest of the 
country were Carians, a people nearly allied 
; to the Lyclians and Mysians. The Greeks 
considered the people mean and stupid, even 
for slaves. The country was governed by a 
race of native princes, who fixed their abode 
at Halicarnassus. These princes were subject 
allies of Lydia and Persia, and some of them 
rose to great distinction in war and peace. 
[See Artemisia, Mausoltjs.] Under the Ro- 
mans, Caria formed a part of the province of 
Asia. . . 



CARINUS. 



07 



CARTHAGO. 



CAEIXUS, M. AUBELIUS (-i), Eoman 
emperor, a.d. 284 — 285, the elder of the 2 
sons of Cams, was associated with his father 
in the government, a.d. 283. He was slain 
in a battle against Diocletian by some of his 
own officers. 

CARMANIA (-ae), a province of the an- 
cient Persian empire, bounded on the W. by 
Persia, on the X. by Parthia, on the E. by 
Gedrosia, and on the S. bv the Indian Ocean. 

CABMELUS, and -UM (_i), a range of 
mountains in Palestine, commencing on the 
N. border of Samaria, and running through 
the S.W. part of Galilee, till it terminates in 
the promontory of the same name [Cape 
Carmel). 

CABMEXTA, CABMEXTIS. [Camenae.] 

CABXA (-ae), a Eoman divinity, whose 
name is probably connected with Caro, flesh, 
for she was regarded as the protector of the 
physical well-being of man. Her festival was 
celebrated June 1st, and was believed to have 
been instituted by Brutus in the first year of 
the republic. Ovid confounds this goddess 
with Cardea. 

CABXEADES (-is), a celebrated philoso- 
pher, born at Cyrene about b.c. 213, was the 
founder of the Third or New Academy at 
Athens, and a strenuous opponent of the 
Stoics. In 155 he was sent to Eome, with 
Diogenes and Critolaus, by the Athenians, to 
deprecate the fine of 500 talents which had 
been imposed on the Athenians for the de- 
struction of Oropus. At Eome he attracted 
great notice from his eloquent declamations 
on philosophical subjects. He died in 129, 
at the age of 85. 

CAEXI (-orum), a Celtic people, dwelling 
N. of the Yeneti, in the Alpes Carnicae. 
[Alpes.] 

CAEXTJXTTJaI (-i), an ancient Celtic town 
in Upper Pannonia, on the Danube, E. of 
Tindobona {Viemia), and subsequently a 
Eoman municipium or a colony. 

CABXUTES (-urn) or -I (-orum), a power- 
ful people in the centre of Gaul, between the 
Liger and Sequana : their capital was Ge- 
stabtjm {Orleans). 

CABPATES (-urn), also called AEPES 
BASTABXICAE {Carpathian Mountains), the 
mountains separating Daeia from Sarmatia. 

CABPATHUS (-i: Scarpanto), an island 
between Crete and Ehodes, in the sea named 
after it. 

CAEPETAXI (-orum), a powerful people 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, with a fertile 
territory on the rivers Anas and Tagus. 
Their capital was Toletuh. 

CAEPI or CAEPIAXI (-orum), a German 
people between the Carpathian mountains and 
the Danube. 



CAEEAE or CAEEHAE (-arum) the Haran 
or Charran of the Scriptures, a city of Osro- 
ene, in Mesopotamia, where Crassus met his 
death after his defeat by the Parthians, 
b.c. 53. ^ 

CAESEOLI (-orum : Car soli), a town of 
the Aequi, in Latium, colonised by the 
Eomans. 

CAETEIA (-ae : also called Carthaea, Car- 
pia, Carpessus), more anciently TAETE>> US, 
a celebrated town and harbour in the S. of 
Spain, at the head of the gulf of which 
M, Calpe forms one side, founded by the 
Phoenicians, and colonised b.c 170 by 4000 
Eoman soldiers. 

CAETHAEA (-ae), a town on the S, side 
of the island of Ceos. 

CAETHAGO (-inis), MAGNA CAETH- 
AGO (Eu. near El-Marsa, X.E. of Tunis), 
one of the most celebrated cities of the 
ancient world, stood in the recess of a large 
bay, in the middle of the X,-most part of the 
X. coast of Africa. The coast of this part 
of Africa has been much altered by the de- 
posits of the river Bagradas, and the sand 
which is driven seawards by the X.AV. 
winds. The old Peninsula upon which Car- 
thage stood was about 30 miles in circum r 
ference, and the city itself, in the height of 
its glory, measured about 15 miles round. 
But owing to the influences just referred to 
the locality presents a very different appear- 
ance at present. Carthage was founded by 
the Phoenicians of Tyre, according to tra- 
dition, about 100 years before the building 
of Eome, that is about b.c 853. The my- 
thical account of its foundation is given 
under Dido. The part of the city first built 
was called, in the Phoenician language, Bet- 
zura or Bosra, i. e. a castle, which was 
corrupted by the Greeks into Byrsa i. e, 
a kid 6, and hence probably arose the story of 
the way in which the natives were cheated 
out of the ground. As the city grew, the 
Byrsa formed the citadel. Cothon was the 
inner harbour, and was used for ships of 
war : the outer harbour, divided from it by 
a tongue of land 300 feet wide, was the sta- 
tion for the merchant ships. Beyond the 
fortifications was a large suburb, called 
Magara or Magalia. The population of Car- 
thage, at the time of the 3rd Punic war is 
stated at 700,000. — The constitution of Car- 
thage was an oligarchy. The two chief ma- 
gistrates, called Suffetes, appear to have 
been elected for life ; the Greek and Eoman 
writers call them kings. The generals and 
foreign governors were usually quite distinct 
from the suffetes ; but the 2 offices were 
sometimes united in the same person. The 
governing body was a Senate, partly here- 



CARTHAGO. 



93 



CASPI1 MONTES. 



ditary and partly elective, within -which 
there was a select hody of 100 or 104, called 
Gerusia, whose chief office was to control 
the magistrates, and especially the generals 
returning from foreign service, who might 
be suspected of attempts to establish a 
tyranny. Important questions, especially 
those on which the senate and the suffetes 
disagreed, were referred to a general as- 
sembly, of the citizens ; but concerning the 
mode of proceeding in this assembly and 
the extent of its powers, we know very 
little. Their punishments were very severe, 
and the usual mode of inflicting death 
was by crucifixion. The chief occupa- 
tions of the people were commerce and 
agriculture ; in both of which they reached 
a pre-eminent position among the nations of 
the ancient world. The Carthaginians became 
the rivals of the Romans, with whom they 
carried on three wars, usually known as the 
three Punic Wars. The first lasted from 
b.c. 265 — 242, and resulted in the loss to 
Carthage of Sicily and the Lipari islands. 
The second, which was the decisive contest, 
began with the siege of Saguntum (218), 
and terminated (201) with the peace, by which 
Carthage was stripped of all her power. 
[Hannibal.] The third began and ter- 
minated in 146, by the capture and destruc- 
tion of Carthage. It remained in ruins for 
30 years. At the end of that time a 
colony was established on the old site by 
the Gracchi, which continued in a feeble con- 
dition till the times of Julius and Augustus, 
under whom a new city was built, with the 
name of Colonia Carthago. It became the 
first city of Africa, and occupied an import- 
ant place in ecclesiastical as well as in civi 
history. It was taken by the Yandals in a.d. 
439, retaken by Belisarius in a.d. 533, and 
destroyed by the Arab conquerors in a.d. 
698. The Carthaginians are frequently 
called Poeni by the Latin writers on account 
of their Phoenician origin. 

CARTHAGO (-inis) NOVA (Carthagena) , 
an important town on the E. coast of Hispa- 
nia Tarraconensis, founded by the Cartha- 
ginians under Hasdrubal, b.c. 243, and sub- 
sequently conquered and colonised by the 
Romans. It is situated on a promontory 
running out into the sea, and possesses one of 
the finest harbours in the world. 

CARUS, M. AURELIUS, Roman emperor 
a.d. 282 — 283, succeeded Probus. He was 
engaged in a successful military expedition 
in Persia, when he was struck dead by light- 
ning, towards the close of 283. He was suc- 
ceeded by his sons Carinus and Numerianus. 
Carus was a victorious general and able ruler. 

CARVENTUM (-i), a town of the Volsci, to 



which the Carventana Arx mentioned by 
Livy belonged, a town of the Volsci between 
Signia and the sources of the Trerus. 

CARVILIUS MAXIMUS. (1) Sp., twice 
consul, b.c. 293 and 273, both times with 
L. Papirius Cursor. In their first consul- 
ship they gained brilliant victories over the 
Samnites, and in their second they brought 
the Samnite war to a close. — (2) Sp., son of 
the preceding, twice consul, 234 and 228, is 
said to have been the first person at Rome 
who divorced his wife. 

CARYAE (-arum), a town in Laconia 
near the borders of Arcadia, originally be- 
longed to the territory of Tegea in Arcadia. 
Female figures in architecture that support 
burdens were called Caryatides in token of 
the abject slavery to which the women of 
Caryae were reduced by the Greeks, as a 
punishment for joining the Persians at the 
invasion of Greece. 

CAR Y AND A (-orum), a city of Caria, on a 
little island, once probably united with the 
mainland, was the birthplace of the geo- 
grapher Scylax. 

CARYATIDES. [Caryae.] 

CARYSTUS (-i), a town on the S. coast of 
Euboea, founded by Dryopes, celebrated for 
its marble quarries. 

CASCA, P, SERVILIUS, tribune of the 
plebs, b.c. 44, and one of Caesar's assassins. 

CA.SILINUM (-i), a town in Campania on 
the Vultumus, and on the same site as the 
modern Capua, celebrated for its heroic de- 
fence against Hannibal, b.c 216. 

CASINTJM (-i : S. Germano), a town in 
Latium on the river Casinus. Its citadel 
occupied the same site as the celebrated con- 
vent Monte Cassino. 

CASIOTIS. [Casitjs.] 

CASIUS (-i). (1) (Has Kasaroun), a moun- 
tain on the coast of Egypt, E. of Pelusium, 
with a temple of Jupiter on its summit. 
Here also was the grave of Pompey. — 
(2) (Jebel Okrah), a mountain on the coast 
of Syria,_S. of Antioch and the Orontes. 

CASMENA (-ae), a town in Sicily, founded 
by Syracuse about b.c 643. 

CASPERIA or CASPERULA (-ae), a town 
of the Sabines, on the river Himella. 

CASPIAE PORTAE or PYLAE, the Cas- 
pian Gates, the name given to several passes 
through the mountains round the Caspian. 
The principal of these were near the ancient 
Rhagae or Arsacia. Being a noted and 
central point, distances were reckoned from it. 

CASPII (-orum), the name of certain 
Scythian tribes around the Caspian Sea. 

CASPII MONTES (Mburz Mts.) a name 
applied generally to the whole range of 
mountains which surround the Caspian Sea, 



CASPIRI. 



99 



CASSANDRA. 



011 the S. and S.W., at the distance of from 
15 to 30 miles from its shore, and more espe- 
cially to that part of this range S. of the 
Caspian, in which was the pass called Caspiae 
Pyeae. _ 

CASPIRI or CASPIRAEI (-orum), a people of 
India, whose exact position is doubtful : they 
are generally placed in Cashmeer and Nepcml. 

CASPIUM MARE {the Caspian Sea), also 
called Hybcanium, Albantjm, and Scythicum, 
all names derived from the people who lived 
on its shores, a great salt-water lake in Asia. 
Probably at some remote period the Caspian 
was united both with the sea of Aral and 
with the Arctic Ocean. Both lakes have 
their surface considerably below that of the 
Euxine or Black Sea, the Caspian nearly 350 
feet, and the Aral about 200 feet, and both 
are still sinking by evaporation. The whole 
of the neighbouring country indicates that 
this process has been going on for centuries 
past. Besides a number of smaller streams, 
two great rivers flow into the Caspian ; the 
Rha {Volga) on the N., and the united Cyrus 
and Araxes {Kour) on the W. ; but it loses 



more by evaporation than it receives from 
these rivers. 

CASSANDER (-dri), son of Antipater. His 
father, on his death-bed (b.c. 319), appointed 
Polysperchon regent, and conferred upon Cas- 
sander only the secondary dignity of Chiliarch. 
Being dissatisfied with this arrangement, 
Cassander strengthened himself in various 
ways, that he might carry on war with 
Polysperchon. First he formed an alliance 
with Ptolemy and Antigonus, and next de- 
feated Olympias and put her to death. After- 
wards he joined Seleucus, Ptolemy, and 
Lysimachus in their war against Antigonus. 
This war was on the whole unfavourable to 
Cassander. In 306 Cassander took the title 
of king, when it was assumed by Antigonus, 
Lysimachus, and Ptolemy. But it was not 
until the year 301 that the decisive battle 
of Ipsus secured Cassander the possession 
of Macedonia and Greece. Cassander died 
of dropsy in 297, and was succeeded by his 
son Philip. 

CASSANDRA (-ae), daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, and twin-sister of Helenus. In her 




Cassandra and Apollo. (Pitture d'Ercolano, vol. 2, tav. 17.) 



youth she was the object of Apollo's regard, 
and when she grew up her beauty won upon 
him so much that he conferred upon her the 



gift of prophecy, upon her promising to 
comply with his desires ; but when she had 
become possessed of the prophetic art, she 
h 2 



CASS ANDRE A . 



100 



CASSIVELAUHUS. 



refused to fulfil her promise. Thereupon the 
god in anger ordained that no one should 
believe her prophecies. On the capture of 
Troy she fled into the sanctuary of Athena j 
(Minerva), but was torn away from the statue j 
of the goddess by Ajax, son of Oileus. On 
the division of the booty, Cassandra fell to l 
the lot of Agamemnon, who took her with 
him to Mycenae. Here she was killed by 
Clytaemnestra. 

CASSANDREA. [Potidaea.] 

CASSIEPEA, CASSIOPEA (-ae), or CAS- 
SIOPE (-es), wife of Cepheus, in Aethiopia, I 
and mother of Andromeda, whose beauty she J 
extolled above that of the Nereids. [Asdro- j 
med a.] She was afterwards placed among 
the stars. 

CASSIODORT7S, MAGNUS AURELIUS 
(-i), a distinguished statesman, and one of the j 
few men of learning at the downfal of the 
Western Empire, was born about a.d. 468. 
He enjoyed the confidence of Theodoric the 
Great and his successors, and conducted for a 
long series of years the government of the ! 
Ostrogothie kingdom. Several of his works 
are'extant. 

CASSIOPEA. [Cassiepea.] 
CASSITERIDES. [Bbitaxxia.] 
CASSIUS (-i), the name of one of the most 
distinguished of the Roman gentes, originally ! 
patrician, afterwards rjlebeian. — (1) Sp. Cas- 
sius Yiscelelnus, who was thrice consul, in i 
the years b.c. 502, 493, 486 ; and is distin- | 
guished as having carried the first agrarian 
law at Rome. This law brought upon him I 
the enmity of his fellow-patricians ; they ac- 
cused him of aiming at regal power, and put 
him to death. He left 3 sons ; but as all the 
subsequent Cassii are plebeians, his sons were 
perhaps expelled from the patrician order, or 
may have voluntarily passed over to the ple- 
beians, on account of the murder of their 
father. — (2) C Cass. Loxgixus, the mur- : 
derer of Julius Caesar. In b.c. 53, he was 
quaestor of Crassus, in his campaign against : 
the Parthians, in which, both during his j 
quaestorship and during the two subsequent 
years he greatly disringuished himself, gain- 
ing an important victory over them in 52, ] 
and again in 51. In 49 he was tribune of the 
plebs, joined the aristocratical party in the 
civil war, fled with Pompey from Rome, 
and after the battle of Pharsalia sur- 
rendered to Caesar. He was not only | 
pardoned by Caesar, but in 44 was made 
praetor, and the province of Syria was pro- j 
mised him for the next year. But Cassius ; 
had never ceased to be Caesar's enemy ; it 
was he who formed the conspiracy against 
the dictator's life, and gained over M. Brutus 
fco the plot. After the death of Caesar, on 



[Caesar], Cassius 
Laimed as his pro- 
3 had given it to 
red upon Cassius 
; defeated Dola- 
to his own life ; 



Ask 



; ce with 
Octavia 
u, Cas- 
Brutus, 
e arm* - , 



liis 



ed 



ted 

s a 



the 15th of March, 44 
went to Syria, which he c 
vince, although the senat 
Dolabella, and had confei 
Cyrene in its stead. Hi 
beila, who put an end 
and after plundering Syria and 
unmercifully, he crossed over to G 
Brutus in 42, in order to oppc 
and Antony. At the battle of Phi 
sius was defeated by Antony, whi 
who commanded the other wing oi 
drove Octavian off the field ; bi 
ignorant of the success of Brutus, c 
his freedman to put an end t 
Brutus niourned over his conipan: 
him the last of the Romans. C 
married to Junia Tertia or Tertulla 
of Iff. Brutus. Cassius was well 
with Greek and Roman literature : 
follower of the Epicurean philosophy ; his 
abilities were considerable, but he was vain, 
proud, and revengeful. — (3) C Cass. Loxgi- 
nus, the celebrated jurist, governor of Syria, 
a.d. 50, in the reign of Claudius. He was 
banished by Nero in a.d. 66, because he had, 
among his ancestral images, a statue of Cas- 
sius, the murderer of Caesar. He was re- 
called from banishment by Vespasian. Cassius 
wrote 10 books on the civil law. and some 
other works ; was a follower of the school of 
Ateius Capito ; and as he reduced the prin- 
ciples of Capito to a more scientific form, the 
adherents of this school received the name of 
Casskini. — (4) Cass. Pakmensis, so called 
from Parma, his birth-place, 
murderers of Caesar, b.c. 43 ; t( 
part in the civil wars that follow 
and after the battle of Actram, 
death by the command of Oeta\ 
Cassius was a poet, and his prod 
prized by Horace. — (5) Cass. 
poet censured by Horace [Sat 
must not be confounded with No. 4. — (6) 
Cass. Avrorus, an able general of Iff. Ame- 
lias, was a native of Syria. In the Parthian 
war ^a.d. 162 — 165), he commanded the 
Roman army as the general of Veins ; 'was 
afterwards appointed governor of all the 
Eastern provinces, and discharged his trust 
for several years with fidelity ; but in a.d. 
175 he proclaimed himself emperor. He 
reigned only a few months, and was slain by 
his own officers, before Iff. Aurelius arrived 
in the East. [Adkexius.] — [71 Cass. Dion. 
[Dion Cassius.] 

a British chief, 
. of the Tamesis 
?d by the Britons 
t the supreme command on Caesar's 
invasion of Britain, b.c 54. He was de- 



as one of the 



10 



51 



FELAUNUi 



CASTALIA. 



101 



CATC 



feated by Caesar, and was obliged to sue for 
peace. 

CASTALIA (-ae), a celebrated fountain 
on Mt. Parnassus, in which the PytMa 
used to bathe ; sacred to Apollo and the 
Muses, who were hence called Castalides. 

CASTOR (-oris), brother of Pollux. ^Dios- 
curi." 

CASTRO! (-i). (1) Intji, a town of the 
Rutuli, on the coast of Latiuni, confounded 
by some writers with No. 2. — (2) Novum 
{Torre di Chiaruecia), a town in Etruria, and 
a Roman colony on the coast. — (3) Novum 
[Giulia Nova), a town in Picenum, probably 
at the mouth of the small river Batinum 
(Salinello). 

CASTULO (-onis : Cazlona), a town of 
the Oretani in Hispania Tarraconensis, on 
the Baetis, and under the Romans an im- 
portant place. In the mountains in the 
neighbourhood were silver and lead mines. 
The wife of Hannibal was a native of 
Castulo. 

CATABATHMUS MAGNUS [i.e. great 
descent] , a mountain and sea port, at the 
bottom of a deep bay on the N. coast of 
Africa, considered the boundary between 
Egypt and Cyrenaiea. 

CATADUPA (-oruni) or -I (-orum] , a name 
given to the cataracts of the Nile, and also 
to the parts of Aethiopia in their neighbour- 
hood. [Nzlus.] 

CATELAUNI (-orum: Chalons sur Marne) , 
a town in Gaul, near which Attala was 
defeated by Aetius and Theodoric, a.d. 
4.31. 

CATAMITES. "Ganymedes.] 

CAT AN A or CATENA (-ae : Catania), an 
important town in Sicily, at the foot of Mt. 
Aetna, founded b.c. 730 by Naxos. In b.c. 
476 it was taken by Hiero I., who removed 
its inhabitants to Leontini, and settled 5000 
Syracusans and 5000 Peloponnesians in the 
town, the name of which he changed into 
Aetna. The former inhabitants again ob- 
tained possession of the town soon after the 
death of Hiero, and restored the old name. 
Catana was afterwards subject to various 
reverses, and finally in the 1st Punic war 
fell under the dominion of Rome. 

CATAONIA (-ae}, a fertile district in the 
S.E. part of Cappadocia, to which it was first 
added under the Romans, with Melitene, 
which lies E. of it. 

CATAERHACTES (-ae). (1) A river of 
Pamphylia, which descends from the moun- 
tains of Taurus, in a great broken waterfall, 
(whence its name). — (2) The term is also 
applied, first by Strabo, to the cataracts of 
the Nile, which are distinguished as C. 
Major and C. Minor. [Nilus.] 



CATHAEI (-orum), a great and warlike 
people of India intra Gangein, upon whom 
Alexander made war. 

CATILINA (-ae), L. SERGIUS (-i), the 
descendant of an ancient patrician family 
which had sunk into poverty. His youth 
and early manhood were stained by every 
vice and crime. He first appears in history 
as a zealous partisan of Sulla, taking an 
active part in the horrors of the proscription. 
His private life presents a compound of 
cruelty and intrigue, but notwithstanding 
| these things he obtained the dignity of 
! praetor in b.c. 68, and sued for the consul- 
! ship in 66. Eor this office however he had 

■ been disqualified for becoming a candidate, 
in consequence of an impeachment for op- 

j pression in his province, preferred by P. 
: Clodius Pulcher, afterwards so celebrated as 
the enemy of Cicero. His first plot was to 

■ murder the two consuls that had been 
I elected, a design which was frustrated only 

by his own impatience. He now organised 
a more extensive conspiracy. Having been 
j acquitted in 65 upon his trial for extortion, 
he was left unfettered to mature, his plans. 
The time was propitious to his schemes. 
The younger nobility and the veterans of 
| Sulla were desirous of some change, to 
•: relieve them from their wants ; while the 
j populace were restless and discontented, 
\ ready to follow the bidding of any demagogue. 
| The conspiracy came to a head in the consul- 
! ship of Cicero, b.c 63. But the vigilance of 
• Cicero baffled all the plans of Catiline. He 
! compelled Catiline to leave Rome (Nov. 8 — 
I 9) ; and shortly afterwards, by the inter- 
' ception of correspondence between the other 
leaders of the conspiracy and the ambassa- 
dors of the Allobroges, he obtained legal 
; evidence against Catiline's companions. This 
done, Cicero instantly summoned the leaders, 
I conducted them to the senate, where they 
were condemned to death, and executed 
them the same night in prison. (Dec. 5, 63). 
I The consul Antonius was then sent against 
' Catiline, and the decisive battle was fought 
! early in 62. Antonius, however, unwilling 
! to fight against his former associate, gave the 
i command on the day of battle to his legate, 
j M. Petreius. Catiline fell in the engagement, 
! after fighting with the most daring valour. — 
The history of Catiline's conspiracy has been 
; written by Sallust. 

CATO (-onis), the name of a celebrated 
family of the Porcia gens. (1) M. Porcius 
Cato, frequently surnamed Cexsorius or 
Censor, also Cato Major, to distinguish 
him from his great-grandson Cato Eticensis 
[No. 2.] Cato was born at Tusculum, b.c. 
234, and was brought up at his father's 



CATO. 



102 



CATULUS, 



farm, situated in the Sabine territory. In 
217 he served his first campaign in his 
17 th year. During the first 26 years of his 
public life (217 — 191) he gave his energies 
to military pursuits, and distinguished him- 
self on many occasions — in the 2nd Punic 
war, in Spain, and in the campaign against 
Antiochus in Greece. With the victory over 
Antiochus at Thermopylae in 1 9 1 his military 
career came to a close. He now took an 
active part in civil affairs, and distinguished 
himself by his vehement opposition to the 
Ronian nobles, who were introducing into 
Eome Greek luxury and refinement. It was 
especially against the Scipios that his most 
violent attacks were directed, and whom 
he pursued with the bitterest animosity. 
[Scipio.] In 184 he was elected censor with 
L. Valerius Flaccus. His censorship was a 
great epoch in his life. He applied himself 
strenuously to the duties of his office, regard- 
less of the enemies he was making ; but all 
his efforts to stem the tide of luxury which 
was now setting in proved unavailing. His 
strong national prejudices appear to have 
diminished in force as he grew older and 
wiser. He applied himself in old age to the 
study of Greek literature, with which in 
youth he had no acquaintance, although he 
was not ignorant of the Greek language. 
He retained his bodily and mental vigour in 
his old age. In the year before his death he 
was one of the chief instigators of the third 
Punic war. He had been one of the Roman 
deputies sent to Africa to arbitrate between 
Masinissa and the Carthaginians, and he was 
so struck with the flourishing condition of 
Carthage that on his return home he main- 
tained that Eome would never be safe as long 
as Carthage was in existence, From this 
time forth, whenever he was called upon for 
his vote in the senate, though the subject of 
debate bore no relation to Carthage, his words 
were Delenda est Carthago. He died in 149, 
at the age of 85. Cato wrote several works, 
of which only the De Re Rustica- has come 
down to us.' — (2) M. Porcius Cato, great- 
grandson of Cato the Censor, and surnamed 
Uticexsis from Utica, the place of his death, 
was born 95. In early childhood he lost 
both his parents, and was brought up in the 
house of his mother's brother, M. Livius 
Drusus, along with his sister Porcia and the 
children of his mother by her second hus- 
band, Q. Servilius Caepio. In early years he 
discovered a stern and unyielding character ; 
he applied himself with great zeal to the 
study of oratory and philosophy, and be- 
came a devoted adherent of the Stoic school ; 
and among the profligate nobles of the age 
he soon became conspicuous for his rigid 



morality. In 63 he was tribune of the plebs, 
and supported Cicero in proposing that the 
Catilinarian conspirators should suffer death. 
He now became one of the chief leaders of 
the aristocratical parry, and opposed with the 
utmost vehemence the measures of Caesai\ 
Pompey, and Crassus. He joined Pompey on 
the breaking out of the civil war (49). After 
the battle of Pharsalia he went first to Corcyra, 
and thence to Africa, where he joined Me* 
j tellus Scipio. "When Scipio was defeated at 
i Thapsus, and all Africa with the exception of 
Utica submitted to Caesar, he resolved to die 
rather than fall into his hands. He there- 
: fore put an end to his own life, after spending 
the greater part of the night in perusing 
Plato's Phaedo on the immortality of the 
soul. Cato soon became the subject of bio- 
graphy and panegyric. Shortly after his 
death appeared Cicero's Cato, which provoked 
Caesar's Antieato. In Lucan the character 
of Cato is a personification of godlike virtue. 
In modern times, the closing events of his 
life have been often dramatised ; and few 
dramas have gained more celebrity than the 
Cato of Addison. 

CATTI or CHATTI (-orum), one of the 
most important nations of Germany, bounded 
by the Yisurgis {Weser) on the E., the Agri 
Decumates on the S., and the Rhine on the 
j W, 3 in the modern Hesse and the adjacent 
countries. They were a branch of the Her- 
miones, and are first mentioned by Caesar 
under the erroneous name of Suevi. They 
were never completely subjugated by the 
Romans ; and their power was greatly aug- 
mented on the decline of the Cherusci. Their 
capital was j\Iattium. 

CATULLUS, VALERIUS (-i), a Roman 
poet, born at Verona or in its immediate 
vicinity, b.c. 87. Catullus inherited consi- 
derable property from his father, who was 
the friend of Julius Caesar : but he squan- 
dered a great part of it by indulging freely 
in the pleasures of the metropolis. In order 
to better his fortunes, he went to Bithynia 
in the train of the praetor Mernmius, but it 
appears that the speculation was attended 
with little success. He probably died about 
b.c. 47. The extant works of Catullus con- 
sist of 116 poems, on a variety of topics, and 
composed in different styles and metres. 
Catullus adorned all he touched, and his 
shorter poems are characterised by original 
j invention and felicity of expression. 

CATUIXS, the name of a distinguished 
I family of the Lutatia gens. (1) C. Lutatius 
Catttll's, consul b.c 242, defeated as pro- 
j consul in the following year the Carthaginian 
j fleet off the Aegates islands, and thus brought 
| the first Punic war to a close, 241. — (2) Q. 



CATUBIGES. 



CELAEXAE. 



LrTATirs Catulus, consul 102 with C. Marina j town in Bruttium, X.E. of Locri, originally 
IV., and as proconsul next year gained j called Aulon or Aulonia, founded by the in- 
along with Marius a decisive victory over the ; habitants of Croton, or by the Achaeans. 
Cimbri near Yercellae (Vercelli), in the X. j CAUXUS (-i), one of the chief cities of 
of Italy. Catulus belonged to the aristo- Caria, on its S. coast, in a very fertile but 
cratical party ; he espoused the cause of unhealthy situation. It was founded by the 
Sulla ; was included by Marius in the pro- ; Cretans. Its dried figs (Cauneae ficusj were 
scription of 87 ; and as escape was impos- highly celebrated. The painter Protogenes 
sible, put an end to his life by the vapours | was born here. 

of a charcoal fire. Catulus was well ac- CAERUS (-i), the Argestes of the Greeks, 
quainted with Greek literature, and the , the N.W. wind, is in Italy a stormy wind, 
author of several works, all of which are ; CAYSTER (-tri] , and CAYSTRES (-i] , a 
lost. — (3) Q. LrTATirs CATrLrs, son of No. 2, ! celebrated river of Lydia and Ionia, flowing 
a distinguished leader of the aristocracy, also t between the ranges of Tmolus and Messogis 
won the respect and confidence of the people . into the Aegean, a little N.W- of Ephesus. 
by his upright character and conduct. He j To this day it abounds in swans, as it did in 
was consid in 78 and censor in 65. He Homer's time. The valley of the Caystrus 
opposed the Gabinian and Manilian laws is called by Homer "the Asian meadow," 
which conferred extraordinary powers upon ] and is probably the district to which the 
Pompey (67 and 66). ; name of Asia was first applied. 

CATERIGES (-uni), a Ligurian people in CEA. ~Ceos.~^ 
Gallia Xarbonensis, near the Cottian Alps. CEBEXXA, GEBEXXA f-ae : Cevennes), a 

CAUCASLAE PYLAE. CArcAsrs." j range of mountains in the S. of Gaul, ex- 

CAUCASUS (-i), CAECA.SII MONTES tending X. as far as Lugdunum, and sepa- 
[Caucasus], a great chain of mountains in rating the Arverni from the Helvii. 
Asia, extending from the E. shore of the j CEBES (-etis;, of Thebes, a disciple and 
Pontus Euxinus [Black Sea) to the \Y. shore j friend of Socrates, was present at the death of 
of the Caspian. There are two chief passes j his teacher. He wrote a philosophical work, 
over the chain, both of which were known to i entitled Pinax or Table, giving an allegorical 
the ancients ; one near Derbent, was called j picture of human life. It is extant, and has 
Albaniae and sometimes Caspiae Pylae ; the J been exceedingly popular, 
other, nearly in the centre of the range, was j CEBREXIS (-idos : acc. ida), daughter of 
called Caucasiae Pylae [Pass of Lariel). That j Cebren, a river-god in the Troad. 
the Greeks had some vague knowledge of the j CECROPIA. "Athexae." 
Caucasus in very early times, is proved by the | CECROPS (-opis), a hero of the Pelasgic 
myths respecting Prometheus and the Argo- j race, said to have been the first king of 
nauts, from which it seems that the Caucasus | Attica. He was married to Agraulos, 
was regarded as at the extremity of the earth, I daughter of Actaeus, by whom he had a son, 
on the border of the river Oceanus. — \Yhen j Erysichthon, who succeeded him as king of 
the soldiers of Alexander advanced to that j Athens, and 3 daughters, Agraulos, Herse, 
great range of mountains which formed the j and Pandrosos. In his reign Poseidon ( Xep- 
N. boundary of Ariana, the Paropamisus, i tune) and Athena (Minerva) contended for 
they applied to it the name of Caucasus ; the possession of Attica, but Cecrops decided 
afterwards, for the sake of distinction, it \ in favour of the goddess. [Athena.] Cecrops 
was called Caucasus Indicus. [PATiOPA3usrs.] is said to have founded Athens, the citadel of 
CAUCI. [Chavci.] which was called Cecropia after him, to have 

CAECOXES r iim), the name of peoples j divided Attica into 12 communities, and to 
both in Greece and Asia, who had disappeared I have introduced the first elements of civilised 
at later times. The Caucones in Asia Minor j life ; he instituted marriage, abolished bloody 
are mentioned by Homer as allies of the sacrifices, and taught his subjects how to 
Trojans, and are placed in Bithynia and worship the gods. The later Greek writers 
Paphlagonia by the geographers. ; describe Cecrops as a native of Sais in Egypt, 

CAUDITJM (-i), a town in Samnium on j who led a colony of Egyptians into Attica, 
the road from Capua to Beneventum. In the j and thus introduced from Egypt the arts of 
neighbourhood were the celebrated Enter lae : civilised life ; but this account is rejected by 
Caudixae, or Caudine Forks, narrow passes j some of the ancients themselves, and by the 
in the mountains, where the Roman army i ablest modern critics. 

surrendered to the Samnites, and was sent CELAEXAE ( -arum), a great city in S. 
under the yoke, b.c. 321 : it is now called \ Phrygia, situated at the sources of the rivers 
the valley of Arpaia. Maeander and Marsyas. In the midst of it 

CAELOX (-onis), or CAULOXLA (-ae), a was a citadel built by Xerxes, on a precipitous 



CELAENO. 



104: 



GENSOBINUS. 



rock, at the foot of which the Marsyas took 
its rise, and near the river's source was a 
grotto celebrated by tradition as the scene of | 
the punishment of Marsyas by Apollo. The I 
Maeander took its rise in the very palace, and 
flowed through the park and the city, below 
which it received the Marsyas. 

CELAEXO [-us), one of the Harpies. | 
[Hareyeae]. 

CELETBUM (-i), a town in Macedonia on 
a peninsula of the Lacus Castoris. 

CELEUS (4), king of Eleusis, husband of I 
Meranlra, and father of Demophon and Trip- j 
tolemus. He received Denieter (Ceres) with 
hospitality at Eleusis, when she was wander- 
ing in search of her daughter. The goddess, I 
in return, wished to make his son Demophon 
immortal, and placed him in the fire in order 
to destroy his mortal parts ; but Metanira | 
screamed aloud at the sight, and Demophon i 
was destroyed by the flames. Demeter then 
bestowed great favours upon Triptolemus. I 
[Tsiptoee^its.] Celeus is described as the 
first priest and his daughters as the first 
priestesses of Demeter at Eleusis. 

CELSUS, A. CORNELIUS (4), a Roman 
writer on medicine, probably lived under the 
reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, His treatise 
Be JTedicina, in 8 books, has come down to 
us. and has been much valued from the 
earliest times to the present day. 

CELTAE (-arum), a mighty race, which 
occupied the greater part of western Europe 
in ancient times. The Greek and Roman 
writers call them by 3 names, which are pro- 
bably only variations of one name, namely 
Celtae, Gaeatae, and Galli. The most 
powerful part of the nation appears to have 
taken up their abode in the centre of the 
country called after them Gaeeia, between 
the Garivmna in the S. and the Sequana and 
Matrona in the X. Erom this country they 
spread over various parts of Europe. Besides 
the Celts in Gallia, there were 8 other dif- 
ferent settlements of the nation : — 1. Iberian 
Celts, who crossed the Pyrenee- and settled 
in Spain. [Celtibeei.] 2. British Celts, 
the most ancient inhabitants of Britain. 
[Britanxia." 3. Belgic Celts, the earliest 
inhabitants of Gallia Belgica, at a later time 
much mingled with Germans. 4. Italian 
Celt-, who crossed the Alps at different pe- 
riods, and eventually occupied the greater 
part of the X. of Italy, which was called 
after them Gaelia Cisalpixa. 5. Celts in 
the Alps and on the Danube, namely the 
Helvetii, Gothini, Osi, Tindelici, Raeti, 
X'orici, and Cami. 6. Illyrian Celts, who, 
under the name of Scordisci, settled on Mt. 
Scordus. 7. Macedonian and Thracian Celts, 
who had remained behind in Macedonia when 



the Celts invaded Greece, and who are rarely 
mentioned. 8. Asiatic Celts, the Toiistobogi, 
Troenii, and Tectosages, who founded the 
kingdom of Gaeatei. — Some ancient writers 
divided the Celts into two great races, one 
consisting of the Celts in the S. and centre of 
Gaul, in Spain, and in the X. of Italy, who 
were the proper Celts, and the other consist- 
ing of the Celtic tribes on the shores of the 
Ocean and in the E. as far as Scythia, who 
were called Gauls : to the latter race the 
Cimbri belonged, and they are considered by 
some to be identical with the Cimmerii of 
the Greeks. This twofold division of the 
Celts appears to correspond to the two races 
into which the Celts are at present divided 
in Great Britain, namely the Gael and the 
Kyrtiry, who differ in language and customs, 
the Gael being the inhabitants of Ireland and 
the X. of Scotland, and the Kymry of Wales. 
— The Celts are described by the ancient 
writers as men of large stature, of fair com- 
plexion, and with flaxen or red hair. They 
were long the terror of the Bomans : once 
they took Eome, and laid it ashes (e.c. 390). 

CELTIBEEI (-6rum), a powerful people 
I in Spain, consisting of Celts, who crossed the 
Pyrenees at an early period, and became 
1 mingled with the Iberians, the original in- 
habitants of the country. They dwelt chiefly 
in the central part of Spain. Their country 
called Ceetibeeia was mountainous and un- 
productive. They were a brave and warlike 
people, and proved formidable enemies to the 
Romans. They submitted to Scipio Africa- 
nus in the 2nd Punic war, but the oppres- 
sions of the Eoman governors led them to 
rebel, and for many years they successfully 
defied the power of Rome. They were re- 
duced to submission on the capture of Xu- 
mantia by Scipio Africanus the younger (b.c. 
134), but they again took up arms under 
Sertorius, and it was not till his death (72) 
that they began to adopt the Eoman customs 
and language. 

CEXAEUM (4), the X.Y\~. promontory of 
Euboea. opposite Thermopylae, with a temple 
of Zeus Cenaeus. 

CEXCHREAE (-arum), the E. harbour of 
Corinth on the Saronic gulf, important for 
the trade and commerce with the East. 

CEXOMAXI (-drum), a powerful Gallic 
people, crossed the Alps at an early period, 
and settled in the X'. W. of Italy, in the country 
of Brixia, Verona, and Mantua, and extended 
X. as far as the confines of Ehaetia. 

CEXSORIXUS (4), author of an extant 
treatise, entitled Be Bie Natal i, which treats 
of the generation of man, of his natal hour, of 
the influence of the stars and genii upon Ms 



CENTAURI. 



105 



CEPHALOEDIUM. 



career, and discusses the various methods em- 
ployed for the division and calculation of time. 

CENTAURI (-orum), that is the bull- 
killers, were an ancient race, inhabiting 
Mount Pelion in Thessaly. They led a wild 
and savage life, and are hence called 
or S^fs?, i. e., savage-beasts, in Homer. In 
later accounts they were represented as half- 
horses and half men, and are said to have 
been the offspring of Ixion and a cloud. The 
Centaurs are celebrated in ancient story for 
their fight with the Eapithae, which arose at 
the marriage feast of Pirithous. This fight 
is sometimes placed in connexion with a com- 
bat of Hercules with the Centaurs. [Her- 
cules.] It ended by the Centaurs being 



expelled from their country, and taking refuge 
on mount Pindus, on the frontiers of Epirus. 
Chiron is the most celebrated among the 
Centaurs. [Chiron.] We know that hunt- 
j ing the bull on horseback was a national 
custom in Thessaly, and that the Thessalians 
were celebrated riders. Hence may have 
arisen the fable that the Centaurs were 
half-men and half-horses, just as the Ameri- 
cans, when they first saw a Spaniard on 
horseback, believed horse and man to be one 
being. The Centaurs are frequently repre- 
sented in ancient works of art, and generally, 
as men from the head to the loins, while the 
remainder of the body is that of a horse with 
its 4 feet and tail. 




CENTRITES, a small river of Armenia, 
which it divided from the land of the Cardu- 
chi, N. of Assyria. 

CENTUM CELL AE (-arum: CintaVecchia), 
a sea-port town in Etruria, first became a 
place of importance under Trajan, who built 
a villa here, and constructed an excellent 
harbour. 

CENTUEIPAE (-arum), an ancient town 
of the Siculi, in Sicily, at the foot of 3It. 
Aetna, and not far from the river Symae- 
thus. Under the Eomans it was one of the 
most nourishing cities in the island. 

CEOS (-i), or CEA (-ae), an island in the 
Aegean Sea, one' of the Cyclades, between 



the Attic promontory Sunium and the island 
Cythnus, celebrated for its fertile soil and 
its genial climate. Its chief town was 
Iulis, the birth-place of Simonides, whence 
we read of the Ceae munera neniae. 

CEPHALLENIA (-ae : Cephalonia), called 
by Homer Same or Samos, the largest island 
in the Ionian sea, separated from Ithaca by a 
narrow channel. The island is very moun- 
tainous ; its chief towns were Same, Pale, 
Cranii, and Proni. It never obtained poli- 
tical importance. It is now one of the 7 
Ionian islands under the protection of Great 
Britain. 

CEPHALOEDIUM (-i), a town on the 



CEPHALUS. 



106 



CERCYOX. 



N. coast of Sicily in the territory of Hi- 
mera. 

CEPHALUS (-i), son of Deion and Dioinede, 
and husband of Procris or Procne. He was 
beloved by Eos (Aurora), but as he rejected 
her advances from love to his vrife, she ad- 
vised him to try the fidelity of Procris. 
The goddess then metamorphosed him into a 
stranger, and sent him with rich presents to 
his house. Procris was tempted by the 
brilliant presents to yield to the stranger, 
who then discovered himself to be her hus- 
band, whereupon she fled in shame to Crete. 
Artemis (Diana) made her a present of a dog 
and a spear, which were never to miss their 
object, and sent her back to Cephalus in the 
disguise of a youth. In order to obtain this 
dog and spear, Cephalus promised to love the 
youth, who thereupon made herself known 
to him as his wife Procris. This led to a 
reconciliation between them. Procris how- 
ever still feared the love of Eos, and there- 
fore jealously watched Cephalus when he 
went out hunting, but on one occasion he 
killed her by accident with the never-erring 
spear. A somewhat different version of the 
same story is given by Ovid. 

CEPHEUS (-eos or ei). (1) King of Ethi- 
opia, son of Belus, husband of Cassiopea, 
and father of Andromeda, was placed among 
the stars after his death. — (2) Son of Aleus, 
one of the Argonauts, was king of Tegea in 
Arcadia, and perished with most of his sons 
in an expedition against Hercules. 

CEPHISUS or CEPHISSUS (-i). (1) A 
river flowing through a fertile valley, in 
Phocis and Boeotia, and falling into the lake 
Copais, which is hence called Cephisis in the 
Iliad. [Copais.] — (2) The largest river in 
Attica, rising in the W. slope of Mt. Penteli- 
cus, and flowing past Athens on the W. into 
the Saronie gulf near Phalerum. 

CERAMUS (-i), a Dorian sea-port town on 
the X. side of the Cnidian Chersonesus on the 
coast of Caria, from which the Ceramic gulf 
took its name. 

CERASUS (-i) ,a flourishing colony of Sinope, 
on the coast of Pontus, at the mouth of a 
river of the same name ; chiefly celebrated 
as the place from which Europe obtained 
both the cherry and its name. Lucullus is 
said to have brought back plants of the cherry 
with him to Pome, but this refers probably 
only to some particular sorts, as the Romans 
seem to have had the tree much earlier. Ce- 
rasus fell into decay after the foundation of 
Pharnacia. 

CERAUXil MOXTES (Khimara), a range 
of mountains extending from the frontier of 
Illyriciun along the coast of Epirus, derived 
their name from the frequent thunder- 



storms which occurred among them {y,t.o a v\oi). 
These mountains made the coast of Epirus 
dangerous to ships. They were also called 
Acroceraunia, though this name was properly 
applied to the promontory separating the 
Adriatic and Ionian seas. The inhabitants 
of these mountains were called Ceraunii. 

CERBERUS (-i), the dog that guarded the 
entrance of Hades, is called a son of Typhaon 
and Echidna. Some poets represent him 
with 50 or 100 heads ; but later writers 
describe him as a monster with only 3 heads, 
with the tail of a serpent and with serpents 
round his neck. His den is usually placed 
on the further side of the Styx, at the spot 
where Charon landed the shades of the 
departed. 




Cerberus. (From a Bronze Statue.) 

CERCASORUM (-i), a city of Lower Egypt, 
I on the W. bank of the Nile, at the point 
, where the river divided into its 3 principal 
branches_. 

CERCIXA (-ae) and CERCIXITIS, two low 
! islands off the X. coast of Africa, in the mouth 
| of the Lesser Syrtis, united by a bridge, and 
j possessing a fine harbour. 

CERCOPES (-um), droll and thievish 
gnomes, who robbed Hercules in his sleep. 
Some place them at Thermopylae ; others at 
Oechalia in Euboea, or in Lydia. 

CERCYOX (-onis), son of Poseidon (Xep- 
tune) or Hephaestus (Vulcan), a cruel tyrant 
at Eleusis, put to death his daughter Alope, 



CERES. 



CHALCIS. 



and killed all strangers whom he overcame 
in wrestling ; he was in the end conquered 
and slain by Theseus. 

CERES. [Demeter.] 

CERES, the personified necessity of death, 
are described by Homer as formidable, dark, 
and hateful beings, because they carry off 
men to the joyless house of Hades. According 
to Hesiod, they are the daughters of Night, 
and sisters of the Moerae, and punish men 
for their crimes. 

CERIXTHUS (-i), a town on the E. coast 
of Euboea, on the River Budorus. 

CERRETAXI (-drum), an Iberian people in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, inhabited the modern 
Cerdagne in the Pyrenees ; they were cele- 
brated for their hams. 

CERTOXIUM (-i), a town in Mysia. 

CETEI (-orum), a people of Mysia, the old 
inhabitants of the country about Pergamus, 
and upon the Cetius, mentioned by Homer. 

CETHEGUS (-i), the name of an ancient pa- 
trician family of the Cornelia gens. They seem 
to have kept up an old fashion of wearing their 
arms bare, to which Horace alludes in the 
words cinctuti Cethegi. — (I) M. Cobnelius 
Cetheges, censor b.c. 209, and consul 204, | 
distinguished for his eloquence, and his cor- 
rect use of Latin words, is quoted by Ennius 
and Horace with approbation ; died 196 — 
(2) C. Corxelies Cetheges, one of Catiline's 
crew, was a profligate from his early youth. 
'When Catiline left Rome, 63, after Cicero's 
first speech, Cethegus stayed behind under j 
the orders of Lentulus. His charge was to 
murder the leading senators ; but the tardi- 
ness of Lentulus prevented anything being 
done. Cethegus was arrested and condemned 
to' death with the other conspirators. 

CETIUS (-i), a small river of Mysia, falling 
into the Cai'cus close to Pergamus. 

CEYX. [Alcyone.] 

CHABORAS, the same as the Abokrhas. 

CHABRIAS (-ae), a celebrated Athenian 
general. In b.c. 378 he was one of the com- 
manders of the forces sent to the aid of 
Thebes against Agesilaus, when he adopted 
for the first time that manoeuvre for which 
he became so celebrated, — ordering his J 
men to await the attack with their spears 
pointed against the enemy and their shields 
resting on one knee. A statue was after- 
wards erected at Athens to Chabrias in this 
posture. At the siege of Chios (357) he fell 
a sacrifice to his excessive valour. 

CHAEREA (-ae), C. CASSIUS (-i), tribune 
of the praetorian cohorts, formed the con- 
spiracy by which the emperor Caligula was 
slain, a.d. 41. Chaerea was put to death by 
Claudius upon his accession. 

CHAEROXEA (-ae), a town in Boeotia on | 



the Cephisus near the frontier of Phocis, 
memorable for the defeat of the Athenians by 
the Boeotians, b.c. 447, still more for Philip's 
victory over the Greeks, 338, and for Sulla's 
victory over the army of Mithridates, 86. 
Chaeronea was the birthplace of Plutarch. 
Several remains of the ancient city are to be 
seen at Ccqmrna, more particularly a theatre 
excavated in the rock, an aqueduct, and the 
marble lion (broken in pieces), which adorned 
the sepulchre of the Boeotians who fell at the 
battle of Chaeronea. 

CHALAEUM (-i), a port town of the Locri 
Ozolae on the Crissaean gulf, on the frontiers 
of Phocis. 

CHALASTRA (-ae), a town in Mygdonia 
in Macedonia, at the mouth of the river 
Axius. 

CHALCE (-es), or CHALCIA (-ae), an island 
of the Carpathian sea, near Rhodes. 

CHALCEDOX (-onis), a Greek city of 
Bithynia, on the coast of the Propontis, at 
the entrance of the Bosporus, nearly oppo- 
site to Byzantium, was founded by a colony 
from Megara in e.c 685. After a long 
period of independence, it became subject to 
the kings of Bithynia, and most of its in- 
habitants were transferred to the new city of 
Xicomedia (b c. 140). 

CHALCIDICE (-es), a peninsula in Mace- 
donia, between the Thermaic and Strymonic 
gulfs, runs out into the sea like a 3-pronged 
fork, temrmating in 3 smaller peninsulas, 
Paeeexe, Sithoxla., and Acte or Athos. It 
derived its name from Chalcidian colonists. 
[Chaecis, Xo. 1.] 

CHALCIS (-idis). (1) {Egripo or Xegro- 
ponte), the principal town of Euboea, situated 
on the narrowest part of the Euripus, and 
united with the mainland by a bridge. It 
was a very ancient town, originally inhabited 
by Abantes or Curetes, and colonised by Attic 
Ionians. Its flourishing condition at an 
early period is attested by the numerous 
colonies which it planted in various parts of 
the Mediterranean. It founded so many 
cities in the peninsula in Macedonia, between 
the Strymonic and Thermaic gulfs, that the 
whole peninsula was called Chalcidice. In 
Italy it founded Cunia, and in Sicily Xaxos. 
Chalcis was usually subject to Athens during 
the greatness of the latter city. The orator 
Isaeus and the poet Lycophron were born at 
Chalcis, and Aristotle died here. — (2) A 
town in Aetolia, at the mouth of the Evenus, 
situated at the foot of the mountain Chalcis, 
and hence also called Hupochalcis. — (3) A 
city of Syria, in a fruitful plain, near the 
termination of the river Chalus ; the chief 
city of the district of Chalcidice, which lay to 
the E. of the Orontes. 



CHALDAEA. 



108 



CHAEITES. 



CHALDAEA (-ae), in the narrower sense, 
was a province of Babylonia, about the lower ! 
course of the Euphrates, the border of the 
Arabian Desert, and the head of the Persian 
Gulf. It was intersected by numerous canals, 
and was extremely fertile. In a wider sense, 
the term is applied to the whole of Babylo- 
nia, and even to the Babylonian empire, on 
account of the supremacy which the Chal- 
daeans acquired at Babylon. [Babylon." 
Xenophon mentions Chaldaeans in the moim- 
t.iins N. of Mesopotamia. Their original seat 
was most probably in the mountains of Ar- 
menia and Kurdistan, whence they descended 
into the plains of Mesopotamia and Babylonia. 
Respecting the Chaldaeans as the ruling class 
in the Babylonian monarchy, see Babylon. 

CHALYBES (-um), a remarkable Asiatic 
people, dwelling on the 3. shore of the Black 
Sea, and occupying themselves in the work- 
ing of iron. Xenophon mentions Chalybes 
in the mountains on the borders of Armenia 
and Mesopotamia, who seem to be the same 
people that he elsewhere calls Chaldaeans ; and 
several of the ancient geographers regarded 
the Chalybes and Chaldaei as originally the 
same people. 

CHALYBOX (0. T., Helbon), a consider- 
able city of X. Syria, probably the same as 
Beroea. 

CHAMAYI (-drum), a people in Germany, 
who first appear in the neighbourhood of the 
Rhine, but afterwards migrated E., defeated 
the Bructeri, and settled between the TTeser 
and the JIarz. 

CHAOXES, a Pelasgian people, one of the 
3 peoples which inhabited Epirus, were at an 
earlier period in possession of the whole of 
the country, but subsequently dwelt along 
the coast from the river Thyamis to the Acro- 
ceraunian promontory, which district was 
therefore called Chaonia. By the poets 
Chaonius is used as equivalent to Epirot. 

CHAOS [ahl. Chad), the vacant and infinite 
space which existed according to the ancient 
cosmogonies previous to the creation of the 
world, and out of which the gods, men, and 
all things arose. Chaos was called the mother 
of Erebos and Xight. 

CHAR ADR A (-ae), a town in Phocis, on 
the river Charadrus, situated on an eminence 
not far from Lilaea, 

CHARAX (i.e., a palisaded cam})), the 
name of several cities, which took their 
oriain from military stations. The most re- 
markable of them stood at the mouth of the 
Tigris. [Alexandria, Xo. 4.] 

CHARES (-etis). — (1) An Athenian general, 
who for many years contrived, by profuse j 
corruption, to maintain his influence with ; 
the people, in spite of his very disreputable | 



character. In the Social war, b.c. 356, 
he accused his colleagues, Iphicrates and 
Timotheus, to the people, and obtained the 
sole command. After which he entered into 
the service of Artabazus, the revolted satrap 
of Western Asia, but was recalled by the 
Athenians on the complaint of Artaxerxes 
III. He was one of the Athenian com- 
manders at the battle of Chaeronea, 338. — • 
(2) Of Lindus, in Rhodes, a statuary in 
bronze, the favourite pupil of Lysippus, 
flourished b.c. 290. His chief work was the 
statue of the Sun, which, under the name of 
" The Colossus of Rhodes," was celebrated as 
one of the 7_wonders of the world. 

CHARILAUS, or CHARILLUS, (-i), king of 
Sparta, son of Polydectes, is said to have re- 
ceived his name from the general joy excited 
by the justice of his uncle Lycurgus, when he 
placed him, yet a new-born infant, on the 
royal seat, and bade the Spartans acknow- 
ledge Mm for their king. 

CHARITES (-um), called GRATIAE by 
the Romans, and by us the GRACES, were 
the personification of Grace and Beauty. In 
the Iliad, Charis is described as the wife of 
Hephaestus (Yulcan) ; but in the Odyssey 
Aphrodite (Yenus) appears as the wife of 
Hephaestus ; from which we may infer, if 
not the identity of Aphrodite and Charis, at 
least a close connection in the notions enter- 
tained about the 2 divinities. The idea of 
personified grace and beauty was at an early 
period divided into a plurality of beings ; and 
even in the Homeric poems the plural Cha- 
rites occurs several times. The Charites are 
usually described as the daughters of Zeus 
(Jupiter), and as 3 in number, namely, Eu- 
phrosyne, Aglaia, and Thalia. The names of 




Charites (the Graces). (From a Coin of Germa.) 

the Charites sufficiently express their cha- 
racter. They were the goddesses who en- 
hanced the enj oyments of life by refinement 
and gentleness. They are mostly described 
as in the service of other divinities, and they 



CHARM ANDE . 



109 



CHEPHREN, 



lend their grace and beauty to every thing" 
that delights and elevates gods and men. 
Poetry, however, is the art which is espe- 
cially favoured by them ; and hence they are 
the friends of the Muses, with whom they 
live together in Olympus. In early times the 
Charites were represented dressed, but after- 
wards their figures were without clothing : 
specimens of both representations of the 
Charites are still extant. They appear un- 
suspicious maidens, in the full bloom of life ; 
and they usually embrace each other. 




Charon, Ilermes or Mei cury, and Soul. (From a 
Roman Lamp.) 



in his boat the shades of the dead across the 



rivers of the lower world. For this service 
he was paid with an obolus or danace, which 
coin was placed in the mouth of every corpse 
previous to its burial. He is represented as 
an aged man, with a dirty beard and a mean 
dress. 

CHAROXDAS (-ae), a lawgiver of Catana, 
| who legislated for his own and the other 
cities of Chalcidian origin in Sicily and Italy. 
His date is uncertain, but he lived about 
b.c. 500. A tradition relates that Charondas 
one day forgot to lay aside his sword before 
he appeared in the assembly, thereby vio- 
lating one of his own laws ; and that, 
on being reminded of this by a citizen, he 
exclaimed, "By Zeus (Jupiter), I will esta- 
blish it," and immediately stabbed himself. 
The laws of Charondas were probably in 
verse. 

CHAHYBDIS. [Sctlla.j 

CHASf API, or CHASUARII, or CHATTT- 
ARII (-orum), a people of Germany, allies or 
dependents of the Cherusci. They dwelt X. 
of the Chatti ; and in later times they appear 
between the Rhine and the Maas, as a part of 
the Franks. 

CHATTI. [Catti.] 

CHAUCT or CAUCI (-orum), a powerful 
people in the X.E. of Germany, between the 
A mi si a (Urns) and the Albis (Ulbe), divided 
' by the Yisurgis (Weser), which flowed 
through their territory, into Majores and 
Alinores, the former W., and the latter E. of 
the river. They are described by Tacitus as 
the noblest and the justest of the German 
tribes. They are- mentioned for the last 
time in the 3rd century, when they devas- 
tated Gaul ; but their name subsequently 
became merged in the general name of 
Saxons. 

CHELIDOXIAE IXSTJLAE [i.e., Swallow 
Islands), a group of small islands, surrounded 
by dangerous shallows, off the promontory 
called Hiera or Chelidonia, on the S. coast of 
Lycia. 

CHELOXATAS {C. Tomesc), a promontory 
in Elis, opposite Zacynthus, the most 
westerly point of the Peloponnesus. 

CHEaIMIS, aft. PAXOPOLIS, a great city 
of the Thebais, or Upper Egypt, on the E. 
bank of the Xile, celebrated for its manu- 
facture of linen, its stone-quarries, and its 
temples of Pan and Perseus. 

CHEOPS (-pis), an early king of Egypt, 
godless and tyrannical, reigned 50 years, and 
built the first and largest pyramid by the 
compulsory labour of his subjects. 

CHEPIIREX (-enos), king of Egypt, 
brother and successor of Cheops, whose 
example of tyranny he followed, reigned 56 
years, and built the second pyramid. 



CHERSOXESUS, 



no 



CHIMAERA. 



CHERSOXESUS (-i), "a land-island," 
that is, "a peninsula" (from xh ff °s, "land," 
and vvjo-oz, "island"). (1) Chersonesus 
Thracica [Peninsula of the Dardanelles or of 
Gallipoli), usually called at Athens " The 
Chersonesus," without any distinguishing 
epithet, the narrow slip of land, 420 stadia 
in length, running "between the Hellespont 
and the Gulf of Melas, and connected with 
the Thracian mainland by an isthmus, which 
was fortified by a wall, 36 stadia across, near 
Cardia. The Chersonese was colonised by the 
Athenians under Miltiades, the contemporary 
of Pisistratus. — (2) Chersoxestjs Taerica or 
Scythica [Crimea), the peninsula between 
the Pontus Euxinus, the Cimmerian Bospo- 
rus, and the Palus Alaeotis, united to the 
mainland by an isthmus, 40 stadia in width. 
It produced a great quantity of corn, which 
was exported to Athens and other parts of 
Greece. [Bosporus.] — (3) Cimbrica [Jut- 
land), See Ceubri. 



I CHERUSCI (-orum), the most celebrated 
of all the tribes of ancient Germany. The 
ancients extended this name also to the 

I nations belonging to the league of which 
the Cherusci were at the head. The Cherusci 
proper dwelt on both sides of the Vi- 
surgis [Weser), and their territories ex- 
tended to the Harz and the Elbe. Under 
their chief Arminius they destroyed the 
army of Tarus, and drove the Romans be- 
yond the Rhine, a.d. 9. In consequence of 
internal dissensions among the German 
tribes, the Cherusci soon lost their influ- 
ence. Their neighbours, the Catti, suc- 
ceeded to their power. 

CHILOX (-onis), of Lacedaemon, son of 
Damagetus, and one of the Seven Sages, 
flourished b.c. 590. 

CHIMAERA (-ae), a fire-breathing mon- 
ster, the fore part of whose body was that of 
a lion, the hind part that of a dragon, and 
the middle that of a goat. She made great 




havoc in Lycia and the surrounding countries, 
and was at length killed by Bellerophon. [Bel- 
lerophox,] The origin of this fire-breathing 



monster must probably be sought for in the 
volcano of the name of Chimaera, near Pha- 
selis, in Lycia. In the works of art recently 



CHIONE. 



Ill 



CHLORIS. 




CHIOXE (-es). — (1) Daughter of Boreas 
and Orithyia, and mother of Eumolpus, who 
is hence called CMonides. — {2) Daughter of 
Daedalion, mother of Autolycus, hy Hermes 
(Mercury), and of Philammon, hy Apollo. 
She was killed hy Artemis (Diana) for having 
compared her beauty to that of the god- 
dess. 

■CHIOS and CHITS [-i: Scio), one of' 
the largest and most famous islands of the 
Aegean, lay opposite to the peninsula of 
Clazomenae, on the coast of Ionia. It was j 
colonised by the Ionians at the time of their ! 
great migration, and remained an independ- 
ent and powerful maritime state, till the 
defeat of the Ionian Greeks hy the Persians, 
b.c. 494, after which the Chians were sub- 
jected to the Persians. The battle ofMycale, 
479, freed Chios from the Persian yoke, and 
it became a member of the Athenian league, 
in which it was for a long time the closest 
and most favoured ally of Athens ; but an 
unsuccessful attempt to revolt, in 412, led to 
its conquest and devastation. Chios was cele- 
brated for its wine and marble. Of all the 
states which aspired to the honour of being 
the birthplace of Homer, Chios was generally 
considered by the ancients to have the best 
claim ; and it numbered among its natives 
the historian Theopompus, the poet Theo- 
critus, and other eminent men. Its chief I 



city, Chios (Khio), stood on the E. side of the 
island^ 

CHIRISOPHTS (-i), a Lacedaemonian, was 
sent by the Spartans to aid Cyrus in his ex- 
pedition against his brother Artaxerxes, b. c. 
401. After the battle of Cunaxa and the sub- 
sequent arrest of the Greek generals, Chiri- 
sophus was appointed one of the new generals, 
and, in conjunction with Xenophon, had the 
chief conduct of the retreat. 

CHIRON (-onis), the wisest and justest of 
all the Centaurs, son of Cronos (Saturn) and 
Philyra (hence called Philyrides), lived on 
Mount Pelion. He was instructed by Apollo 
and Artemis (Diana), and was renowned for 
his skill in hunting, medicine, music, gym- 
nastics, and the art of prophecy. All the most 
distinguished heroes of Grecian story, as 
Peleus, Achilles, Diomedes, &c, are described 
as the pupils of Chiron in these arts. He 
saved Peleus from the other Centaurs, who 
were on the point of killing him, and he also 
restored to him the sword which Acastus had 
concealed. [AcAsxrs.] Hercules, too, was his 
friend ; but while fighting with the other Cen- 
taurs, one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules 
struck Chiron, who, although immortal, would 
not live any longer, and gave his immortality 
to Prometheus. Zeus placed Chiron among 
the stars as Sagittarius. 

CHLORIS (-idos).— (1) Daughter of the 



CHOASPES. 



112 



CICERO. 



Thebaii Amphion and Niobe : she and her 
brother Amyclas were the only children of 
Niobe not killed by Apollo and Artemis 
(Diana). She is often confounded with No. 2. 
— (2) Daughter of Amphion of Orchomenos, 
wife of Neleus, king of Pylos, and mother of 
Nestor. — (3) Wife of Zephyrus, and god- 
dess of flowers, identical with the Roman 
Flora. 

CHOASPES (-is).— (1) {Kerah or Kara-Su), 
a river of Susiana, falling into the Tigris. Its 
water was so pure that the Persian kings 
used to carry it with them in silver vessels, 
when on foreign expeditions. — (2) (Attock), 
a river in the Paroparnisus, in India, falling 
into the Cophes (Cctbul). 

CHOERILUS (-i), of Iasos, a worthless epic 
poet in the train of Alexander the Great, is 
said to have received from Alexander a gold 
stater for every verse of his poem. 

CHONIA (-ae), the name in early times 
of a district in the S. of Italy, inhabited by 
the Chones, an Oenotrian people. Chonia 
appears to have included the S. E. of Lucania 
and the whole of the E. of Bruttium as far as 
the promontory of Zephyrium. 

CHORASMII (-drum) * a people of Sogdiana, 
who inhabited the banks and islands of the 
lower course of the Oxus. They were a branch 
of the Sacae or Massagetae. 

CHRYSA (-ae) or -E (-es), a city on the coast 
of the Troad, near Thebes, with a temple of 
Apollo Smintheus ; celebrated by Homer. 

CHRYSETS (-idis or -idos), daughter of 
Chryses, priest of Apollo at Chryse, was taken 
prisoner by Achilles at the capture of Lyr- 
nessus or the Hypoplacian Thebe. In the 
distribution of the booty she was given to 
Agamemnon. Her father Chryses came to 
the camp of the Greeks to solicit her ransom, 
but was repulsed by Agamemnon with harsh 
words. Thereupon Apollo sent a plague into 
the camp of the Greeks, and Agamemnon was 
obliged to restore her to her father to appease 
the anger of the god. Her proper name was 
Astynome. 

CHRYSES. [Chryseis]. 

CHRYSIPPUS (-i), a celebrated Stoic phi- 
losopher, born at Soli in Cilicia, b. c. 280, and 
studied at Athens under the Stoic Cleanthes. 
Disliking the Academic scepticism, he became 
one of the most strenuous supporters of the 
principle, that knowledge is attainable and 
may be established on certain foundations. 
He died_207, aged 73. 

CHRYSOGON US, L. CORNELIUS (-i), a 
favourite freedman of Sulla, and a man of pro- 
fligate character, was the false accuser of Sex. 
Roscius, whom Cicero defended, b. c. 80. 

CHRYSOPOLIS (-is), a fortified place'on the 
Bosporus, opposite to Byzantium, at the spot 



where the Bosporus was generally crossed. 
It was originally the port of Chalcedon. 

CIBYRA (-ae).— (1) Magna, a great city of 
Phrygia Magna, on the borders of Caria. said 
to have been founded by the Lydians, but 
afterwards peopled by the Pisidians. Under 
its native princes, the city ruled over a large 
district called Cibyratis. In b. c. 83, it was 
added to the Roman empire. It was celebrated 
for its manufactures, especially in iron. — 
(2) Parva, a city of Pamphylia, on the bor- 
ders of Cilicia. 

CICERO (-onis), a family name of the 
Tullia gens. — (1) M. Ttjllius Cicero, the 
orator, was born on the 3rd of January, b. c. 
106, at the family residence, in the vieinity 
of Arpinum. He was educated along with 
his brother Quintus, and the two brothers 
displayed such aptitude for learning that his 
father removed with them to Rome, where 
they received instruction from the best 
teachers in the capital. One of their most 
celebrated teachers was the poet Archias, of 
Antioch. After receiving the manly gown 
(91), the young Marcus studied under Q. Mu- 
cius Scaevola, and in later years, during the 
civil war, under Phaedrus the Epicurean, 
Philo, chief of the New Academy, Diodotus 
the Stoic, and Molo the Rhodian. Having 
carefully cultivated his powers, Cicero came 
forward as a pleader in the forum, as soon as 
tranquillity was restored by the final over- 
throw of the Marian party. His first extant 
speech was delivered in 81, when he was 26 
years of age, on behalf of P. Quintius. Next 
year 80, he defended Sex Roscius of Ameria, 
charged with parricide by Chrysogonus, a 
favourite freedman of Sulla. In 79 he went 
to Greece, partly that he might avoid Sulla, 
whom he had offended, but partly also that 
he might improve his health and complete his 
course of study. At Athens he formed the 
friendship with Pomponius Attieus which 
lasted to his death, and at Rhodes he once 
more placed himself under the care of Molo. 
After an absence of 2 years, Cicero returned 
to Rome (7 7), with his health firmly esta- 
blished and his oratorical powers greatly im- 
proved. He again came forward as an orator 
in the forum, and soon obtained the greatest 
distinction. His success in the forum paved 
for him the way to the high offices of state. 
In 7 5 he was quaestor in Sicily, returned to 
Rome in 74, and for the next 4 years was 
engaged in pleading causes. In 70 he distin- 
guished himself by the impeachment of 
Verres, and in 69 he was curule aedile. In 
66 he was praetor, and while holding this 
office he defended Cluentius in the speech 
still extant, and delivered his celebrated ora- 
tion in favour of the Manilian law, which 



CICERO. 



113 



CICERO. 



appointed Pompey to the command of the 
Mithridatic War. Two years afterwards he 
gained the great object of his ambition, and 
although a novus homo was elected consul, 
with C. Antonius as a colleague. He entered 
upon the office on the 1st of January, 63. 
Not having any real sympathy with the popu- 
lar party, he nov deserted his former friends, 
and connected himself closely with the aris- 
tocracy. The consulship of Cicero was dis- 
tinguished by the outbreak of the conspiracy 
of Catiline, which was suppressed and finally 
crushed by Cicero's prudence and energy. 
[Catilina.] For this service Cicero received 
the highest honours ; he was addressed as 
" father of his country," and thanksgivings 
in his name were voted to the gods. But as 
soon as he had laid down the consulship, he 
had to contend with the popular party, and 
especially with the friends of the conspirators. 
He also mortally offended Clodius, who, in 
order to have his revenge, brought forward a 
bill banishing any one who should be found 
to have put a Roman citizen to death untried. 
[Clodius.] The triumvirs, Caesar, Pompey, 
and Crassus, left Cicero to his fate ; Cicero's 
courage failed him ; he voluntarily retired 
from Rome before the measure of Clodius 
was put to the vote, and crossed over to 
Greece. Here he gave way to unmanly de- 
spair and excessive sorrow. Meanwhile his 
friends at Rome were exerting themselves on 
his behalf, and obtained his recal from banish- 
ment in the course of next year (55). Taught 
by experience, Cicero would no longer join 
the senate in opposition to the triumvirs, and 
retired to a great extent from public life. In 
52 he was compelled, much against his will, 
to go to the East as governor of Cilicia. He 
returned to Italy towards the end of 50, and 
arrived in the neighbourhood of Rome on the 
4th of January, 49, just as the civil war be- 
tween Caesar and Pompey broke out. After 
long hesitating which side to join, he finally 
determined to throw in his lot with Pompey, 
and crossed over to Greece in June. After 
the battle of Pharsalia (48), Cicero was not 
only pardoned by Caesar, but, when the latter 
landed at Brundusium in September, 47, he 
greeted Cicero with the greatest kindness and 
respect, and allowed him to return to Rome. 
Cicero now retired into privacy, and during 
the next 3 or 4 years composed the greater 
part of his philosophical and rhetorical works. 
The murder of Caesar on the loth of March, 44, 
again brought Cicero into public life. He put 
himself at the head of the republican party 
and in his Philippic orations attacked M. 
Antony with unmeasured vehemence. But 
this proved his ruin. On the formation of 
the triumvirate between Octavian, Antony, 



and Lepidus (27th of November, 43), Cicero's 
name was in the list of the proscribed. He 
endeavoured to escape, but was overtaken 
by the soldiers near Formiae. His slaves 
were ready to defend their master with their 
lives, but Cicero commanded them to desist, 
and offered his neck to the executioners. 
They instantly cut off his head and hands, 
which were conveyed to Rome, and, by 
the orders of Antony, nailed to the Rostra. 
Cicero perished on the 7 th of December, 
43, when he had nearly completed his 64th 
year. — By his first wife Terentia, Cicero 
had 2 children, a daughter Tullia, whose 
death in 45 caused him the greatest sor- 
row, and a son Marcus (No. 3). His wife 
Terentia, to whom he had been united for 
30 years, he divorced in 46, and soon after- 
wards he married a young and wealthy maiden, 
Pubilia, his ward, but this new alliance was 
speedily dissolved. As a statesman and a citi- 
zen, Cicero was weak, changeful, and exces- 
sively vain. His only great work was the sup- 
pression of Catiline's conspiracy. It is as an 
author that he deserves the highest praise. 
In his works the Latin language appears in 
the greatest perfection. They may be divided 
into the following subjects : — I. Rhetorical 
Works. Of these there were seven, which have 
come down to us more or less complete. The 
best known of these is the " De Or atore," writ- 
ten at the request of his brother Quintus ; it 
is the most perfect of his rhetorical works. — 
II. Philosophical Works. 1. Political Phi-. 
losop>hy. Under this head we have the " De 
Republica" and " De Legibus," both of which 
are written in the form of a dialogue. A large 
portion of both works is preserved. — 2. Philo- 
sophy of Morals. In his work " De Officiis," 
which was written for the use of his son 
Marcus, at that time residing at Athens, the 
tone of his teaching is pure and elevated. He 
also wrote " De Senectute" and " De Aniicitia," 
which are preserved. — 3. Speculative Philoso- 
phy. Under this head the most noted of his 
works are the " De Einibus," or inquiry into 
"the chief good," and the " Tusculan Disputa- 
tions."' — 4. Theology. In the " De Natura 
Deorum" he gives an account of the specula- 
tions of the ancients concerning a Divine 
Being, which is continued in the " De Divi- 
natione." — III. Orations. Of these 56 have 
come down to us. — IV. Epistles. Cicero 
during the most important period of his life 
maintained a close correspondence with 
Atticus, and with a wide circle of literary and 
political friends and connexions. We now 
have upwards of S00 letters, undoubtedly 
genuine, extending over a space of 26 years, 
and commonly arranged under "Epistolae ad 
Eamiliares s. ad Diversos," " Ad Atticum,"- 
i 



CICOXES. 



1U 



CIMBRI. 



and"AdQuintumFratrem." — (2) Q. Tullrts 
Cicero, brother of the orator, was "born about 
102, and was educated along with his brother. 
In 67 he was aedile, in 62 praetor, and for the 
next 3 years governed Asia as propraetor. 
In 55 he went to Ganl as legatus to Caesar, 
whose approbation he gained by his military 
abilities and gallantry ; in 51 he accompanied 
his brother as legate to Cilicia ; and on the 
breaking ont of the civil war in 49 he joined 
Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalia, he 
was pardoned by Caesar. He was proscribed 
by the triumvirs, and was put to death in 43. 
■ — (3) M. Thelitis Cicero, only son of the 
orator and his wife Terentia, was born 65. 
On the death of Caesar (44) he joined the 
republican party, served as military tribune 
under Brutus in Macedonia, and after the 
battle of Philippi (42) fled to Sex, Pompey in 
Sicily. When peace was concluded between 
the triumvirs and Sex. Pompey in 39, Cicero 
returned toKome, and was favourably received 
by Oetavian, who at length assumed him as 
his colleague in the consulship (b. c. 30, from 
13th Sept.). By a singular coincidence, the 
despatch announcing the capture of the fleet 
of Antony, which was immediately followed 
by his death, was addressed to the new consul 
in his official capacity. — (4) Q. Tuleius Cicero, 
son of No. 2, and of Pomponia, sister of 
Atticus, was born 66 or 67, and perished with 
his father in the proscription, 43. 

CICONES (-urn), a Thracian people on the 
Hebrus, and near the coast. 

CILICIA (-ae), a district in the S. E. of Asia 
Minor, bounded by the Mediterranean on 
the S., M. Amanus on the E., and M. Taurus 
on the N. The W. part of Cilicia is inter- 
sected by the offshoots of the Taurus, while 
in its E. part the mountain chains enclose 
much larger tracts of level country ; and 
hence arose the division of the country into 
C. Aspera or Trachea, and C. Campestris ; 
the latter was also called Cilicia Propria. The 
first inhabitants of the country are supposed 
to have been of the Syrian race. The my- 
thical story derived their name from Cilix, 
the son of Agenor, who started with his 
brothers, Cadmus and Phoenix, for Europe, 
but stopped short on the coast of Asia Minor, 
and peopled with his followers the plain of 
Cilicia. The country remained independent 
till the time of the Persian Empire, under 
which it formed a satrapy, but it appears to 
have been still governed by its native princes. 
Alexander subdued it on his march into 
Upper Asia ; and, after the division of his 
empire, it formed a part of the kingdom of 
the Seleucidae : its plains were settled by 
Greeks, and the old inhabitants were for the 
most part driven back into the mountains of 



C. Aspera, where they remained virtually in- 
dependent, practising robbery by land and 
piracy by sea, till Pompey drove them from 
the sea in his war against the pirates ; and 
having rescued the level country from the 
power of Tigranes, who had overrun it, he 
erected it into a Roman province, b.c. 67 — 66. 
The mountain country was not made a pro- 
vince till the reign of Yespasian. The Cilicians 
bore a low character among the Greeks and 
Romans. The Carians, Cappadocians, and 
Cilicians, were called the 3 bad K's. 

CILICIAE PYLAE or PORTAE, the chief 
pass between Cappadocia and Cilicia, through 
the Taurus, on the road from Tyana to Tarsus. 

CILICIUM MARE, the N.E. portion of the 
Mediterranean, between Cilicia and Cyprus, 
as far as the Gulf of Issus. 

CILIX. [Cilicia.] 

CILLA (-ae), a small town in the Troad, 
celebrated for its temple of Apollo surnamed 
Cilia eus.^ 

CILNII (-orum), a powerful Etruscan 
family in Arretium, driven out of their 
native town in b.c. 301, but restored by the 
Romans. The Cilnii were nobles or Lucu- 
mones in their state, and some of them in 
ancient times may have held even the kingly 
dignity. The name has been rendered chiefly 
memorable by C. Cilnius Maecenas [Mae- 
cenas.] 

CIMBER (-ri), L. TILLIUS (4), (not Tul- 
lius), a friend of Caesar, who gave him the 
province of Bithynia, but subsequently one of 
Caesar's murderers, b.c. 44. 

CIMBRI (-orum), a Celtic people, probably 
of the same race as the Cymry [Celtae]. 
They appear to have inhabited the peninsula, 
which was called after them Chersoxesus 
Cimbrica [Jutland). In conjunction with 
the Teutoni and Ambrones, they migrated S., 
with their wives and children, towards the 
close of the 2nd century b.c. ; and the whole 
host is said to have contained 300,000 
fighting men. They defeated several Ro- 
man armies, and caused the greatest alarm 
at' Rome. In b.c. 113 they defeated the 
consul Papirius Carbo, near Noreia, and 
then crossed over into Gaul, which they 
ravaged in all directions. In 109 they de- 
feated the consul Junius Silanus ; in 107, the 
consul Cassius Longinus, who fell in the 
battle; and in 105 they gained their most 
brilliant victory, near the Rhone, over the 
united armies of the consul Cn. Mallius and 
the proconsul Servilius Caepio. Instead of 
crossing the Alps, the Cimbri, fortunately for 
Rome, marched into Spain, where they re- 
mained two or three years. The Romans, 
meantime, had been making preparations to 
resist their formidable foes, and had placed 



CIMENUS. 



115 



CIXGETOBIX. 



their troops under the command of Marius. 
The "barbarians returned to Gaul in 102. In 
that year the Teutoni were defeated and cut 
to pieces by Marius, near Aquae Sextiae (Aix) 
in Gaul ; and next year (101) the Cimbri 
and their allies -were likewise destroyed by 
Marius and Catulus, in the decisive battle of 
the Campi Baudii, near Verona, in the N. of 
Italy. 

CIMIXUS or CIMINITJS MOXS, a range of 
mountains in Etruria, thickly covered with 
wood (Saltus Ciminius, Silva Ciminia), near 
a lake of the same name, N.W. of Tar- 
quinii, between the Lacus Yulsiniensis and 
Soracte. 

CIMMEBII (-orum), the name of a my- 
thical and of a historical people. The mythical 
Cimmerii, mentioned by Homer, dwelt in the 
furthest W. on the ocean, enveloped in con- 
stant mists and darkness. Later writers 
sought to localise them, and accordingly 
placed them, either in Italy near the lake 
Avernus, or in Spain, or in the Tauric Cher- 
sonesus. — The historical Cimmerii dwelt on 
the Palus Maeotis [Sea of Azov), in the 
Tauric Chersonesus, and in Asiatic Sarmatia. 
Driven from their abodes by the Scythians, 
they passed into Asia Minor on the N.E., and 
penetrated W. as far as Aeolis and Ionia. 
They took Sardis b.c. 635 in the reign of 
Ardys, king of Lydia ; but they were ex- 
pelled from Asia by Alyattes, the grandson of 
Ardys. 

CIMMERIUS BOSPORUS. [Bospoexs.] 
CIMOLUS (-i), an island in the Aegaean 
sea, one of the Cyclades, between Siphnos and 
Melos, celebrated for its fine white earth, 
used_by fullers for cleaning cloths. 

CTMOX (-onis). (1} Eather of the cele- 
brated Miltiades, was secretly murdered by 
order of the sons of Pisistratus. — (2) Grand- 
son of the preceding, and son of Miltiades. 
On the death of his father (b.c. 489), he was 
imprisoned because he was unable to pay his 
fine of 50 talents, which was eventually paid j 
by Callias on his marriage with Elpinice, 
Cimon's sister. Cimon frequently commanded 
the Athenian fleet in their aggressive war 
against the Persians. His most brilliant suc- 
cess was in 466, when he defeated a large 
Persian fleet, and on the same day landed and 
routed their land forces also on the river 
Eurymedon in Pamphylia. The death of Aris- I 
tides and the banishment of Themistocles left | 
Cimon without a rival at Athens for some j 
years. But his influence gradually declined ! 
as that of Pericles increased. In 461 he was j 
ostracized through the influence of the popular j 
party in Athens, who were enraged with him | 
and with the Spartans. He was subsequently 
recalled, and through his intervention a 5 



years' truce was made between Athens and 
Sparta, 450. In 449 the war was renewed 
with Persia, Cimon received the command, 
and with 200 ships sailed to Cyprus ; here, 
while besieging Citium, illness or the effects 
of a wound carried him off. — Cimon was of a 
cheerful convivial temper ; frank and affable 
I in his manners. Having obtained a great 
i fortune by his share of the Persian spoils, he 
j displayed unbounded liberality. His orchards 
and gardens were thrown open ; his fellow 
j demesmen were free daily to his table, 
and his public bounty verged on osten- 
; tation. 

CIXABA (-ae) , a small island in the 
I Aegaean sea, E. of Xaxos, celebrated for its 
artichokes [xivccooi), 

CIXCIXXATUS, L. QEIXTIES (-i), a 
favourite hero of the old Boman republic, 
and a model of old Boman frugality and in- 
tegrity. He lived on his farm, cultivating 
the land with his own hand. In b.c 458 he 
was called from the plough to the dictatorship, 
in order to deliver the Boihan consul and 
army from the perilous position in which they 
had been placed by the Aequians. He saved 
the Boman army, defeated the enemy, and, 
after holding the dictatorship only 16 clays, 
returned to his farm. In 439, at the age of 
SO, he was a 2nd time appointed dictator to 
oppose the alleged machinations of Sp. Mae- 
lius. 

CIXEAS (-ae), a Thessalian, the friend and 
minister of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He 
was the most eloquent man of his day, and 
Pyrrhus prized his persuasive powers so 
highly, that " the words of Cineas " (he was 
wont to say) " had won him more cities than 
his own arms." The most famous passage in 
his life is his embassy to Borne, with propo- 
sals for peace from Pyrrhus, after the battle 
of Heraclea (b.c 280). Cineas spared no 
arts to gain favour. Thanks to his won- 
derful memory, on the day after his ar- 
rival he was able (we are told) to address 
all the senators and knights by name. 
The senate, however, rejected his propo- 
sals mainly through the dying eloquence 
of old App. Claudius Caecus. The am- 
bassador returned and told the king that 
there was no people like that people, — 
their city was a temple, their senate an as- 
sembly of kings. 

CIXGA (-ae : Cinca), a river in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, falling with the Sicoris into 
the Iberus. 

CIXGETOBIX (-igis), a Gaul, one of the 
first men in the city of the Treviri (Trtves, 
Trier), attached himself to the B omens, 
though son-in-law to Indutiomarus, the head 
of the independent party. 



CINGULUM. 



116 



CIRTA. 



CINGULUM (-i), a town in Picenum on a 
rock, built by Labienus, shortly before the 
breaking out of the civil war, b.c. 49. 

CINNA (-ae). (l) L. Cornelius Cixxa, 
the famous leader of the popular party during 
the absence of Sulla in the East. (b.c. 87 — 
84.) In 87 Sulla allowed China to be elected 
consul with Cn. Octavius, on condition of his 
taking an oath not to alter the constitution 
as then existing, But as soon as Sulla had 
left Italy, he began his endeavour to over- 
power the senate, and to recal Marius and 
his party. He was, however, defeated by his 
colleague Octavius in the forum, was obliged 
to fly the city, and was deposed by the senate 
from the consulate. But he soon returned, 
and with the aid of Marius took possession of 
Rome, massacred Sulla's friends, and for three 
successive years 86, 85, 84, was elected 
consul. [Marius]. In 84 Sulla prepared to 
return from Greece ; and Cinna was slain by 
his own troops, when he ordered them to 
cross over from Italy to Greece, where he 
intended to encounter Sulla,— (2) L. Corne- 
lius Cixxa, son of No, 1., joined M. Lepidus 
in his attempt to overthrow the constitution 
of Sulla, 78. Caesar made him Praetor, yet he 
approved of Caesar's assassination.— (3) Hel- 
vrus Cixxa, a poet of considerable renown, the 
friend of Catullus. In b.c. 44 he was tribune 
of the plebs, when he was murdered by the 
mob, who mistook him for his namesake Cor- 
nelius Cinna. 

CINYPS (-yphis: Wad-Kliakan or Kinifo) , 
a small river on the N. coast of Africa, be- 
tween the Syrtes, forming the E. boundary of 
the proper territory of the African Tripolis. 
The district about it was called by the same 
jiame, and was famous for its fine-haired 
goats, The Roman poets use the adjective 
Cinyphius in the general sense of Libyan or 
African. 

CINYRAS (-ae), son of Apollo, king of 
Cyprus, and priest of the Paphian Aphrodite 
(Venus). By his own daughter Myrrha or 
Smyrna, he became the father of Adonis. 
[Adoxis] . Hence we find in the poets Myrrha 
called Cinyreia virgo and Adonis Cinyreius 
juvenis. 

CIRCE (-es), daughter of Helios (the Sun) 
by Perse, and sister of Aeetes, distinguished 
for her magic arts. She dwelt in the island 
of Aeaea, upon which Ulysses was east. 
His companions, whom he sent to explore 
the land, tasted of the magic cup which 
Circe offered them, and were forthwith 
changed into swine, with the exception of 
Eurylochus, who brought the sad news to 
Ulysses. The latter, having received from 
Hermes (Mercury) the root moly, which for- 
tified him against enchantment, drank the 



magic cup without injury, and then com- 
pelled Circe to restore his companions to 




ETAIPOT KjlPKH OA12ZEIYZ 

TE9 HPf-fiM £ — 



Circe and Ulrsses, and his Companions. 
(From an ancient Basrelief.) 

their former shape. After this he tarried a 
whole year with her, and she became by him 
the mother of Telegonus, the reputed founder 
of Tusculum, 




Circe offering the Cup. (Gell's Pompeiana, pi. 72.) 



CIRCEII (-orum), an ancient town of 
Latium on the promontory Circeium, said by 
the Roman poets to have been the abode of 
Circe. 

CIRCESIUM (-i), a city of Mesopotamia, 
on the E. bank of the Euphrates, at the 
mouth of the Aborrhas. 

CIRCUS. [Roma.] 

CIRRHA (-ae). [Crissa.] 

CIRTA (-ae), aft. CONST ANTINA (-ae) 
{Constantineh, Ru.), a city of the Massy lii 
in Numidia, 50 Roman miles from the sea ; 
the capital of Syphax, and of Masinissa and 
his successors. Its position on a height, 
surrounded by the river Ampsagas, made it 
almost impregnable, as the Romans found in 
the Jugurthine, and the French in the Alge- 
rine, wars. It was restored by Constantine 
the Great, in honour of whom it received 
its later name. 



CISSEUS. 



117 



CLAUDIUS. 



CISSEUS (-60s or -ei), a king in Thrace, 
and father of Theano, or, according- to others, 
of Kecuha, who is hence called Cisseis, 

CISSIA (-ae), a very fertile district of Su- 
siana, on the Choapses. The inhabitants, 
Cissii, were a wild free people, resembling 
the Persians in their manners. 

CITHAERON (-onis), a lofty range of 
mountains, separating Boeotia from Megaris 
and Attica. It was sacred to Dionysus 
(Bacchus) and the Muses, and was celebrated 
for the death of Pentheus and Actaeon. 

C1TIUM C-i). (1) A town in Cyprus, 200 
stadia from Salamis, near the mouth of the 
Tetius : here Cimon, the celebrated Athe- 
nian, died, and Zeno, the founder of the 
Stoic school, was horn. — (2) A town in Mace- 
donia, N. W. of Beroea. 

CIUS (-i), an ancient city in Bithynia, on 
a bay of the Propontis called Cianus Sinus, 
was colonized by the Milesians. It was de- 
stroyed by Philip ILL, king of Macedonia ; 
but was rebuilt by Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
from whom it was called Prusias. 

CLANIS (-is). (1) A river of Etruria, 
forming 2 small lakes near Clusium, and 
flowing into the Tiber E. of Yulsinii. — (2) 
The more ancient name of the Liris. 

CLANIUS. [Literal's. ] 

CLARUS or CLAROS (-i), a small town on 
the Ionian coast, near Colophon, with a cele- 
brated temple and oracle of Apollo, surnamed 
Clarius. 

CLASTIDIUM (-i), a fortified town of the 
Ananes, in Gallia Cispadana, not far from 
the Po. 

CLAUDIA QUINTA (-ae), a Roman ma- 
tron, not a Vestal Virgin, as is frequently 
stated. VThen the vessel conveying the 
image of Cybele from Pessinus to Pome, had 
stuck fast in a shallow at the mouth of the 
Tiber, the soothsayers announced that only a 
chaste woman could move it. Claudia, who 
had been accused of incontinency, took hold 
of the rope, and the vessel forthwith followed 
her, b.c. 204. 

CLAUDIA GENS, patrician and plebeian. 
The patrician Claudii were of Sabine origin, 
and came to Pome in b.c. 504, when they 
were received among the patricians. [Clau- 
dius, No. 1.] They were noted for their 
pride and haughtiness, their disdain for the 
laws, and their hatred of the plebeians. They 
bore various surnames, which are given under 
Claudius, with the exception of those with 
the cognomen Nero, who are better known 
under the latter name. The plebeian Claudii 
were divided into several families, of which 
the most celebrated was that of Marcellus. 

CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS (-i), the last 
of the Latin classic poets, flourished under 



Thcodosius and his sons Arcadius and Hono- 
rius. He was a native of Alexandria, and 
removed to Rome, where he enjoyed the 
patronage of the all-powerful Stilicho. He 
was a heathen, and wrote a large number of 
poems, many of which are extant, and are 
distinguished by purity of language and 
poetical genius. He died about a.d. 408. 

CLAUDIUS (-i), patrician. See Claudia 
Gexs. (1) App. Claudius Sabinus Regil- 
lexsis, a Sabine, of the town of Pegillum or 
Pegilli, who in his own country bore the 
name of Attus Clausus, being the advocate of 
peace with the Romans, when hostilities 
broke out between the two nations, withdrew 
with a large train of followers to Pome, b.c. 
504. He was received into the ranks of the 
patricians, and lands beyond the Anio were 
assigned to his followers, who were formed 
into a new tribe, called the Claudian. He 
exhibited the characteristics which marked 
his descendants, and showed the most bitter 
hatred towards the plebeians. He was consul 
495 ; and his conduct towards the plebeians 
led to their secession to the Mons Sacer, 
494. — (2) App. Claudius Pegill. Sab., 
the decemvir, 451 and 450. In the latter 
year his character betrayed itself in the most 
tyrannous conduct towards the plebeians, till 
his attempt against Virginia led to the over- 
throw of the decemvirate. App. was im- 
peached by Virginius, but did not live to 
abide his trial. He either killed himself, or 
was put to death, in prison, by order 
of the tribunes.. — (3) App. Claudius 
Caecus became blind before his old age. In 
his censorship (312), to which he was elected 
without having been consul previously, he 
built the Appian aqueduct, and commenced 
the Appian road, which was continued to 
Capua. He retained the censorship 4 years, 
in opposition to the law, which limited the 
length of the office to 18 months. In his old 
age, Appius, by his eloquent speech, induced 
the senate to reject the terms of peace which 
Cineas had proposed on behalf of Pyrrhus. 
Appius was the earliest Roman writer in 
prose and verse whose name has come down 
to us. — (4) App. Cl. Pulcher, brother of 
the celebrated tribune, whom he joined in 
opposing the recall of Cicero from banish- 
ment. He preceded Cicero as proconsul in 
Cilicia (53), fled with Pompey from Italy, 
and died before the battle of Pharsalia. — (5) 
P. Cl. Pulcher, usually called Clodius, and 
not Claudius, brother of the preceding, the 
notorious enemy of Cicero, and one of the 
most profligate characters of a profligate age. 
In 62 he profaned the mysteries of the Bona 
Dea, which were celebrated by the Roman 
matrons in the house of Caesar ; was dis- 



CLAUDIUS. 



US 



CLEOBULUS, 



covered; and next year, 61, "when quaestor, 
was brought to trial, but obtained an acquit- 
tal by bribing- the judges. He had attempted 
to prove an alibi ; but Cicero's evidence 
showed that Clodius was with him in Rome 
only 3 hours before he pretended to have been 
at Inter anrna. In order to revenge himself 
upon Cicero, Clodius was adopted into a ple- 
beian family, that he might obtain the for- 
midable power of a tribune of the plebs. He 
was tribune 58, and, supported by the trium- 
virs Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus, drove 
Cicero into exile ; but notwithstanding all his 
efforts, he was unable to prevent the recal of 
Cicero in the following year. [Cicero.] In 
56 Clodius was aedile, and attempted to 
bring his enemy Milo to trial. Each had a 
large gang of gladiators in his pay, and fre- 
quent fights took place in the streets of Rome 
between the two parties. In 53, when Clo- 
dius was a candidate for the praetorship, and 
Milo for the consulship, on the 20th of 
January, 52, on the Appian road, near Bo- 
villae, an affray ensued between their 
followers, in which Clodius was murdered. 
The mob was infuriated at the death of their 
favourite ; and such tumults followed at the 
burial of Clodius, that Pompey was appointed 
sole consul, in order to restore order to the 
state. Eor the proceedings which followed, 
see Milo. ^ 

CLALT)IUS (-i) I., Roman emperor a.d. 
41 — 54. His full name was Tib. Claudius 
Druses Xero Germaxicxs. He was the 
younger son of Drusus, the brother of the 
emperor Tiberius, and of Antonia, and was 
born on August 1st, b.c 10, at Lyons in Gaul. 
"When he grew up he devoted the greater part 
of his time to literary pursuits, but was not 
allowed to take any part in public affairs. 
He had reached the age of 50, when he was 
suddenly raised by the soldiers to the im- 
perial throne after the murder of Caligula. 
Claudius was not cruel, but the weakness of 
his character made him the slave of his wives 
and freedmen, and thus led him to consent to 
acts of tyranny which he would never have 
committed of his own accord. He was 
married 4 times. At the time of his acces- 
sion he was married to his 3rd wife, the 
notorious Valeria Messalina, who governed 
him for some years, together with the freed- 
men Narcissus, Pallas, and others. After the 
execution of Messalina, a.d. 48, a fate which 
she richly merited, Claudius was still more 
unfortunate in choosing for his wife his niece 
Agrippina. She prevailed upon him to set 
aside his own son, Britannicus, and to adopt 
her son, Xero, that she might secure the suc- 
cession for the latter. Claudius soon after 
regretted this step, and was in consequence 



poisoned by Agrippina, 54. In his reign the 

j southern part of Britain was made a Roman 
province, and Claudius himself went to 

! Britain in 43, where he remained, however, 
only a short time, leaving the conduct of the 

i war to his generals. 

CLAUDIUS II. (M. Ax-relies Claudius), 

| Roman emperor a.d. 26S — 270, was descended 

i from an obscure family in Dardania or Illyria, 
and succeeded to the empire on the death of 

j Gallienus (268). He defeated the Alemanni 
and Goths, and received in consequence the 
surname Gothicus. He died at Sirniium in 
270, and was succeeded by Aurelian. 

j CLAZOMEXAE (-arum), an important city 
of Asia Minor, and one of the 12 Ionian 
cities, lay on the N. coast of the Ionian pe- 
ninsula, upon the gulf of Smyrna. It was 
the birthplace of Anaxagoras. 

CLEAXTHES (-is), a Stoic philosopher, 
born at Assos in Troas about b.c 300. He 
first placed himself under Crates, and then 
under Zeno, whose disciple he continued for 

j 19 years. Ln order to support himself, he 
worked all night at drawing water from 
gardens ; but as he spent the whole day in 
philosophical pursuits, and had no visible 
means of support, he was summoned before 

j the Areopagus to account for his way of 

| living. The judges were so delighted by the 
evidence of industry which he produced, that 
they voted him 10 minae, though Zeno would 

| not permit him to accept them. He suc- 
ceeded Zeno in his school b.c 2C3. He died 
about 220, at the age of SO, of voluntary 
starvation. 

CLE ARCHES (-i), a Spartan, distinguished 
himself in several important commands during 
the latter part of the Peloponnesian war, 
and at the close of it persuaded the Spartans 
to send hi-m as a general to Thrace, to pro- 
tect the Greeks in that quarter against the 
Thracians. But having been recalled by the 
Ephors, and refusing to obey their orders, he 
was condemned to death. He thereupon 
crossed over to Cyrus, collected for him a 

! large force of Greek mercenaries, and marched 
with hi-m into Upper Asia, 401, in order to 

| dethrone his brother Artaxerxes, being the 
only Greek who was aware of the prince's 
real object. After the battle of Cunaxa and 
the death of Cyrus, Clearchus and the other 
Greek generals were made prisoners by the 
treachery of Tissaphernes, and were put to 
death. 

CLEOBIS, [Bitox.1 

CLEOBULUS (-i), one of the Seven Sages, 
of Lindus in Rhodes, son of Evagoras, lived 
about b.c 580. He, as well as his daughter, 
Cleobulme or Cleobdle, were celebrated for 
j their skill in riddles. To the latter is 



CLEOMBIIOTUS. 



119 



CLEOPATRA. 



ascribed a well-known one on the subject of 
the year : — " A father has 12 children, and 
each of these 30 daughters, on one side white, 
and on the other side black, and though im- 
mortal they all die." 

CLEOMBROTUS (-i). (1) Son of Anax- 
andrides, king of Sparta, became regent after 
the battle of Thermopylae, b. c. 480, for 
Plistarchus, infant son of Leonidas, but died j 
in the same year, and was succeeded in the 
regency by his son Pausanias. — (2) King of 
Sparta, son of Pausanias, succeeded his 
brother Agesipolis I., and reigned e.g. 380 — 
371. He commanded the Spartan troops 
several times against the Thebans, and fell ] 
at the battle of Leuctra (371), after fighting 
most bravely. — (3) King of Sparta, son-in- 
law of Leonidas II., in whose place he was 
made king by the party of Agis IV-, about 
243. On the return of Leonidas, Cleombrotus i 
was deposed and banished toTegea, about 240. 
— (4) An academic philosopher of Ambracia, 
said to have killed himself, after reading the 
Fhaedo/i of Plato ; not that he had any suf- . 
ferings to escape from, but that he might j 
exchange this life for a better. 

CLE5^IEXES (-is). (1) King of Sparta, I 
son of Anaxandrides, reigned B.C. 520 — 491. \ 
He was a man of an enterprising but wild 
character. In 510 he commanded the forces 
by whose assistance Hippias was driven from i 
Athens, and not long after he assisted Isa- j 
goras and the aristocratical party, against ! 
Clisthenes. By bribing the priestess at 
Delphi, he effected the deposition of his 
colleague Demaeates, 491. Soon afterwards 
he was seized with madness and killed him- 
self. — (2) King of Sparta, son of Cleom- 
brotus I., reigned 370 — 309. — (3) King of I 
Sparta, son of Leonidas II., reigned 236 — i 
222. "While still young he married Agiatis, 
the widow of Agis IT. ; and following the 
example of the latter, he endeavoured to re- 
store the ancient Spartan constitution. He 
succeeded in his object, and put the Ephors j 
to death. He was engaged in a long contest 
with the Achaean League and Antigonus f 
Doson, king of Macedonia, but was at length 
defeated at the battle of SeUasia (222), and 
fled to Egypt, where he put an end to his own 
life, 220. 

CLEON (-5nis), son of Cleeanetus, was origi- J 
nally a tanner, and first came forward in 
public as an opponent to Pericles. On the 
death of this great man, b.c. 429, Cleon be- 
came the favourite of the people, and for 
about 6 years of the Peloponnesian war (428 
— 422) was the head of the party opposed to 
peace. In 427 he strongly advocated in the 
assembly that the Mytilenaeans should be put 
to death. In 424 he obtained his greatest 



glory by taking prisoners the Spartans in the 
island of Sphacteria, and bringing them in 
safety to Athens. Puffed up by this success, 
he obtained the command of an Athenian 
army, to oppose Brasidas in Thrace ; but he 
was defeated by Brasidas, under the walls of 
Amphipolis, and fell in the battle, 422. Aris- 
tophanes and Thucydides both speak of him 
as a vile, unprincipled demagogue. In this 
they were probably too severe. The chief 
attack of Aristophanes upon Cleon was in the 
Knights (424), in which Cleon figures as an 
actual dramatis persona, and, in default of an 
artificer bold enough to make the mask, was 
represented by the poet himself with his face 
smeared with wine lees. 

CLEOXAE (-arum). (1) An ancient town 
in Argolis, on the road from Corinth to Argos. 
on a river of the same name flowing into the 
Corinthian gulf. In its neighbourhood was 
Xemea, where Hercules killed the lion, which 
is accordingly called Cleonaeus Leo by the 
poets. — (2) A town in the peninsula Athos 
in Chalcidice. 

CLEOPATBA (-ae). (1) Xieee of Attalus, 
married Philip b.c. 337, on whose murder she 
was put to death by Olympias. — (2) Daughter 
of Philip and Olympias, and sister of Alex- 
ander the Great, married Alexander, king 
of Epirus, 336. It was at the celebration 
of her nuptials that Philip was murdered 
by Pausanias. — (3> Eldest daughter of 
Ptolemy Auletes, celebrated for her beauty 
and fascination, was 17 at the death of her 
father (51), who appointed her heir of his 
kingdom in conjunction with her younger 
brother, Ptolemy, whom she was to marry. 
She was expelled from the throne by Pothinus 
and Achillas, his guardians ; but having won 
by her charms the support of Caesar, he 
replaced her on the throne in conjunction 
with her brother. She had a son by Caesar, 
called Caesaeiox, and she afterwards fol- 
lowed him to Pome, where she appears to 
have been at the time of his death, 44. She 
then returned to Egypt, and in 41 she met 
Antony in Cilicia. She was now in her 28th 
year, and in the perfection of matured beauty, 
which, in conjunction with her talents and 
eloquence, completely won the heart of An- 
tony, who henceforth was her devoted lover 
and slave. In the war between Octavian and 
Antony, Cleopatra accompanied her lover, and 
was present at the battle of Actium (31), in 
the midst of which she retreated with her 
fleet, and thus hastened the loss of the clay. 
She fled to Alexandria, where she was joined 
by Antony. Seeing Antony's fortunes des- 
perate, she entered into negotiations with 
Augustus, and promised to make away with 
Antony. She fled to a mausoleum she had. 



CLIMAX. 



120 



CNIDUS. 



built, and then caused a report of her death 
to be spread. Antony, resolving not to sur- 
vive her, stabbed himself, and was drawn up 
into the mausoleum, where he died in her 
arms. She then tried to gain the love of Au- 
gustus, but her charms failed in softening his 
colder heart. Seeing that he had determined 
to carry her captive to Rome, she put an end 
to her own life by the poison of an asp. She 
died in the 39th year of her age (b.c. 30), 
and with her ended the dynasty of the 
Ptolemies in Egypt, which was now made a 
Roman, province. 

CLIMAX (-acis), the name applied to the 
W. termination of the Taurus range, which 
extends along the W. coast of the Pamphylian 
Gulf, N. of Phaselis in Lycia. Alexander 
made a road between it and the sea. 

CLIMBERRUM. [Arsci,] 

CLIO. [Mtjsae.] 

CLISTHENES (-is), an Athenian, son of 
Megaeles and Agarista, who was the daughter 
of Clisthenes, the tyrant of Sicyon. He ap- 
pears as the head of the Alcmaeonid clan on 
the banishment of the Pisistratidae. Eind- 
ing. however, that he could not cope with his 
political rival Isagoras except through the 
aid of the commons, he set himself to in- 
crease the power of the latter. The principal 
change which he introduced was the abolition 
of the 4 ancient tribes and the establishment 
of 10 new ones in their stead, b.c. 510. He 
is also said to have instituted ostracism. 
Isagoras and his party called in the aid of 
the Spartans, but Clisthenes and his friends 
eventually triumphed. 

CLITOR (-oris) or CLITORIUM (-i), a 
town in the X. of Arcadia on a river of the 
same name, a tributary of the Aroanius : 
there was a fountain in the neighbourhood, 
the waters of which are said to have given to 
persons who drank of them a dislike for wine. 

CLITUMXUS (-i), a small river in Umbria, 
springing from a beautiful rock in a grove of 
cypress trees, where was a sanctuary of the 
god Clitumnus, and falling into the Tinia, a 
tributary of the Tiber. 

CLITUS (-i), a Macedonian, one of Alex- 
ander's generals and friends, who saved the life 
of the latter at the battle of Granicus, b.c 334. 
In 328 he was slain by Alexander at a banquet, 
when both parties were heated with wine, 
and Clitus had provoked the king's resent- 
ment by insolent language. Alexander was 
inconsolable at his friend's death. 

CLODIUS, another form of the name 
Claudius. [Clatjdtcs.] 

CLODIUS ALBIXUS. [Albints.] 

CLOELIA (-ae), a Roman virgin, one of the 
hostages given to Porsena, who escaped from 
the Etruscan camp, and swam across the 



Tiber to Rome. She was sent back by the 
Romans to Porsena, who was so struck with 
her gallant deed, that he not only set her at 
liberty, but allowed her to take with her a 
part of the hostages. Porsena also rewarded 
her with a horse adorned with splendid trap- 
pings, and the Romans with a statue of a 
female on horseback. 

CLOTA AESTUARIUM {Frith of Clyde], 
on the W. coast of Scotland. 

CLOTHO (-us), one of the Fates. [Moibae.] 
CLUENTIUS HABITUS, A., (-i), of Laril 
num, accused in b.c. 74 his own step-father, 
Statins Albius Oppianicus, of having attempted 
to procure his death by poison. Oppianicus 
was condemned, and it was generally believed 
that the judges had been bribed by Cluentius. 
In 66, Cluentius was himself accused by 
young Oppianicus, son of Statius Albius, who 
had died in the interval, of 3 distinct acts of 
poisoning. He was defended by Cicero in the 
oration still extant. 

CLUPEA or CLYPEA. [Asms.] 
CLUSIUM {Chiusi), one of the most power- 
ful of the 12 Etruscan cities, originally called 
Caniers or Camars, situated on an eminence 
above the river Clanis, and S.W. of the L^crs 
Cixsints (X. dl CJiiusi). It was the royal 
residence of Porsena, and in its neighbour- 
hood was the celebrated sepulchre of this 
king in the form of a labyrinth. Subsequently 
Clusium was in alliance with the Romans, by 
whom it was regarded as a bulwark against 
the Gauls. Its siege by the Gauls, b.c. 391, 
led, as is well known, to the capture of Rome 
itself by the Gauls. In its neighbourhood 
j were warm baths. 

CLUSIUS (-i), a surname of Janus, whose 
I temple was closed in peace. 

CLYMEXE (-es). (1) Daughter of Oceanus 
and Tethys, and wife of Iapetus, to whom 
she bore Atlas, Prometheus, and others. — (2) 
Mother of Phaeton by Helios (the Sun:, 
| whence Phaeton is called Clvmeneius. — (3) 
A relative of Menelaus and a companion 
of Helena, with whom she was carried off by 
Paris. 

CLYTAEMXESTRA (-ae), daughter of 
Tyndareus and Leda, sister of Castor, Pollux, 
j and Helena ; wife of Agamemnon ; and 
I mother of Orestes, Iphigenla, and Electra. 
j During her husband's absence at Troy she 
lived in adultery with Aegisthus, and on his 
I return to Mycenae she murdered him with 
I the help of Aegisthus. [Agamemxox.] She 
: was subsequently put to death by her son 
Orestes, to revenge the murder of his father. 
CLYTIE (-es), a daughter of Oceanus, 
1 changed into the plant heliotropiimi. 

CNIDUS or GXIDUS (-i), a celebrated 
j city of Asia Minor, on the promontory of 



CNOSUS. 



121 



COLLATINGS. 



Triopium on the coast of Caria, was a Lace- 
daemonian colony. It was built partly on 
the mainland and partly on an island joined to 
the coast by a causeway, and had two harbours. 
It had a considerable commerce ; and it was 
resorted to by travellers from all parts of the 
civilised world, that they might see the 
statue of Aphrodite (Yenus) by Praxiteles, 
which stood in her temple here. Among the 
celebrated natives of the city were Ctesias, 
Eudoxus, Sostratus, and Agatharcides. 

CNOSUS or GNOSUS, subsequently CNOS- 
SUS or GNOSSUS (-i), an ancient town of 
Crete, and the capital of king Minos ; situated 
at a short distance from the N. coast ; colo- 
nised at an early time by Dorians. It is 
frequently mentioned by the poets in conse- 
quence of its connexion with Minos, Ariadne, 
the Minotaur, and the Labyrinth ; and the 
adjective Cnossius is used as equivalent to 
Cretan. 

COCALTJS (-i), a mythical king of Sicily, 
who kindly received Daedalus on his flight 
from Crete, and with the assistance of his 
daughters put Minos to death, when the latter 
came in pursuit of Daedalus. 
COCCEIUS NERYA, [Nerva.] 
CO CHE, a city on the Tigris, near Cte- 
siphon, 

COCLES t-ftis), HORATIUS (-i), that is, 
Horatius the " one-eyed," a hero of the old 
Roman lays, is said to have defended the 
Sublician bridge along with Sp. Lartius and 
T. Herminius against the whole Etruscan 
army under Porsena, while the Romans 
broke down the bridge behind them. \Yhen 
the work was nearly finished, Horatius sent 
back his 2 companions. As soon as the 
bridge was quite destroyed, he plunged into 
the stream and swam across to the city in 
safety amid the arrows of the enemy. The 
state raised a statue to his honour, which was 
placed in the comitium, and allowed him as 
much land as he could plough round in one 
day. 

COCOSSATES, a people in Aquitania in 
Gaul, mentioned along with the Tarbelli. 

COCYLIUM (-i), an Aeolian city in Mysia, 
whose inhabitants are mentioned by Xeno- 
phon. 

COCYTUS (-i), a river in Epirus, a tri- 
butary of the Acheron. Like the Acheron, 
the Cocytus was supposed to be connected 
with the lower world, and hence came to be 
described as a river in the lower world. 

CODOMAXNUS. [Darius.] 

CODRUS (-i). (l) Son of Melanthus, and 
last king of Athens. YVhen the Dorians 
invaded Attica from Peloponnesus, an oracle 
declared, that they should be victorious if 
the life of the Attic king was spared. Codrus 



thereupon resolved to sacrifice himself for 
his country. He entered the camp of the 
enemy in disguise, commenced quarrelling 
with the soldiers, and was slain in the 
dispute. YVhen the Dorians discovered the 
death of the Attic king, they returned home. 
Tradition adds, that as no one was thought 
worthy to succeed such a patriotic king, the 
kingly dignity was abolished, and Medon, 
son of Codrus, was appointed archon for life 
instead. — (2) A Roman poet, ridiculed by 
Yirgil. 

COELA, " the Hollows of Euboea," the W, 
coast of Euboea, between the promontories 
Caphareus and Chersonesus, very dangerous 
to ships : here a part of the Persian fleet 
was wrecked b.c. 480. 

COELESYRIA (-ae : i. e. Hollow Syria), 
the name given to the great valley between 
the two ranges of M. Lebanon (Libanus and 
Anti-Libanus), in the S. of Syria, bordering 
upon Phoenicia on the \Y. and Palestine on 
the S. In the wars between the Ptolemies 
and the Seleucidae, the name was applied to 
the whole of the S. portion of Syria, which 
became subject for some time to the kings of 
Egypt. 

COELIUS. [Caelius.] 

COLCHIS (-idos or -idis), a country of Asia, 
bounded on the AY. by the Euxine, on the N. 
by the Caucasus, on the E. by Iberia. The 
land of Colchis (or Aea), and its river Phasis, 
are famous in the Greek mythology. [Argo- 
natjtae.] It was a very fertile country; but 
it was most famous for its manufactures of 
linen, on account of which, and of certain 
physical resemblances, Herodotus supposed 
the Colchians to have been a colony from 
Egypt. The land was governed by its native 
princes, until Mithridates Eupator made it 
subject to the kingdom of Pontus. After the 
Mithridatic war, it was overrun by the Romans, 
but they did not subdue it till the time of 
Trajan.^, 

COLIAS, a promontory on the AY. coast of 
Attica, 20 stadia S. of Phalerum, with a 
temple of Aphrodite (Yenus), where some of 
the Persian ships were cast after the battle of 
Salamis._ 

COLLATIA (-ae), a Sabine town in Latium, 
near the right bank of the Anio, taken by 
Tarquinius Priscus. 

COLLATINUS, L. TARQUINIUS (4), son 
of Egerius, and nephew of Tarquiniiis Priscus, 
derived the surname Collatlnus from the town 
Collatia, of which his father had been ap- 
pointed governor. The violence offered by 
Sex. Tarquinius to his wife Lucretia, led to 
the dethronement of Tarquinius Superbus. 
Collatinus and L. Junius Brutus were the first 
| consuls ; but as the people could not endure 



COLLYTUS. 



122 



COXCORDIA. 



the rule of any of the hated race of the Tar- 
quins, Collatinus resigned his office, and re- 
tired from Eome to LaTinium. 

COLLYTUS (-i), a denius in Attica, in- 
cluded within the walls of Athens. It was 
the denius of Plato and the residence of Timon 
the misanthrope. 

COLON AE, a small town in the Troad. 

COLONIA AGRIPPINA, orAGRIPPINEN- 
SIS {Cologne on the Rhine}, originally the 
chief town of the Ubii, and called Oppidum, 
or Civitas Ubiorum, was a place of smaU im- 
portance till a. d. 51, when a Roman colony 
-was planted in the town by the emperor 
Claudius, at the instigation of his wife Agrip- 
pina, who was bom here, and from whom it 
derived its new name. It soon became a large 
and nourishing city, and was the capital of 
Lower Germany. 

COLONUS -i\ a demus of Attica, 10 stadia, 
or a little more than a mile X. TV. of Athens, 
near the Academy ; celebrated for a temple of 
Poseidon [Neptune), a grove of tbjeEBmenid.es, 
the tomb of Oedipus, and as the birthplace of 
Sophocles, who describes it in his Oedipus 
Coloneus. 

COLOPHON (-onis), one of the 12 Ionian 
cities of Asia Minor, stood about 2 miles from 
the coast, between Lebedus and Ephesus, on 
the river Halesus, which was famous for the 
coldness of its water. Its harbour was called 
Notiuni. Besides claiming to be the birth- 
place of Homer, Colophon was the native city 
of Mimnernius, Herniesianax, and Nicander. 
It was also celebrated for the oracle of Apollo 
Clarius in its neighbourhood. [Clares/ 

COLOSSAE (-arum), once an important city 
of Great Phrygia, on the river Lycus, but so 
reduced subsequently that it might have been 
forgotten but for the epistle written to its 
inhabitants by the apostle Paul. 

COLUMELLA [-ae), L. JUNIUS MODE- 
RATES (-i), a native of Gades, in Spain, and 
a contemporary of Seneca. We have no par- 
ticulars of his life, but Rome appears to have 
been his ordinary residence. He wrote a 
work upon agriculture [Be ReMustica), in 12 
books, which is still extant. His style is 
easy and ornate. 

COLUMN AE HERCULIS. TAbyla; Calpe." 

COM AN A (-orum). (1) A~city of Pontus, 
upon the river Iris, celebrated for its temple 
of Artemis Taurica (Diana}, the foundation of 
which tradition ascribed to Orestes. The high 
priests of this temple took rank next after the 
king, and their domain was increased by 
Pompey after the Mithridatic war. — (2) A 
city of Cappadocia, also celebrated for a 
temple of Artemis Taurica, the foiindation of 
which was likewise ascribed by tradition to 
Orestes. 



COMBREA (-ae), a town in the Macedonian 
district of CrosBaea. 

COMINIUM (-i), a town in Samnium, de- 
stroyed bv the Romans in the Sanmite wars. 

COMMAGENE -es , the N. E. -most district 
of Syria, lying between the Taurus and the 
Euphrates. It formed a part of the kingdom 
of Syria, after the fall of which it maintained 
its independence under a race of kings, the 
family of the Seleucidae, and was not united 
to the Roman empire till the reign of Yes- 
pasian. 

COMMIUS (-i), king of the Atrebates, was 
advanced to that dignity by Caesar. He was 
sent by Caesar to Britain, but he was cast 
into chains by the Britons, and was not re- 
leased till the Britons had been defeated by 
Caesar. In b. c. 52 he joined the other Gauls 
in their great revolt against the Romans, and 
continued in arms, even after the capture of 
Alesia. 

COMMODES, L. AUEELIUS [4), a Roman 
emperor, a. n. 180 — 192, son of M. Aurelius 
and the younger Faustina, was born at Lanu- 
viuni, 161, and was thus scarcely 20 when he 
succeeded to the empire. He was an unwor- 
thy son of a noble father. Notwithstanding 
the great care which his father had bestowed 
upon his education, he turned out one of the 
most sanguinary and licentious tyrants that 
ever disgraced a throne. He sought to gain 
popular applause by fighting with the wild 
beasts in the amphitheatre ; and having slain 
immense numbers of them, demanded worship 
for himself, as being the god Hercules. One 
of his concubines, whom he had determined 
to put to death, administered poison to h im ; 
but as the poison worked slowly, Narcissus, 
a celebrated athlete, was ordered to strangle 
him, Dec._31, 192. 

COMNENA. [Ahita Comxeva/ 

COMPSA {-ae x , a town of the Hirpini, in 
Samnium, near the sources of the Aufidus. 

COMUM (-i : Como), a town in Gallia Cisal- 
pina. at the S. exti-emity of theVT. branch of the 
Lacus Larius (X. di Como). It was originally 
a town of the Insubrian Gauls, and was colo- 
nised by Pompeius Strabo, by Cornelius Scipio, 
and by Julius Caesar. It was the birthplace 
of the younger Pliny. 

CONCORDIA (-ae), a Roman goddess, the 
personification of concord, had several temples 
at Rome. The earliest was built by Camillus, 
in commemoration of the reconciliation be- 
tween the patricians and the plebeians, after 
the enactment of the Licinian rogations, b. c. 
367. In this temple the senate frequently 
met. Concordia is represented on coins as 
a matron, holding in her left hand a cornu- 
copia, and in her right either an olive branch 
or a patera. 



COXDRUSI. 



123 



CONSTANTIUS. 



COXDRUSI (-5rum), a German people in 
Gallia Belgica, the dependents of the Treviri, 
dwelt between the Eburones and the Treviri. 

COXFLUEXTES (-iiun : Coblentz), a town in 
Germany, at the confluence of the Moselle 
and the_ Rhine. 

COXOX (-onis), a distinguished Athenian 
general, held several important commands in 
the Peloponnesian war. After the defeat of 
the Athenians by Lysander at Aegos Potami 
(b.c. 405), Conon, who was one of the gene- 
rals, escaped with 8 ships, and took refuge 
with Evagoras in Cyprus, where he remained 
for some years. In 394 he gained a decisive 
victory over Pisander, the Spartan general, off 
Cnidus. — (2) Of Samos, a distinguished 
mathematician and astronomer, lived in the 
time of the Ptolemies Philadelphus and Euer- 
getes (b.c 283—222). 

COXSEXTES (-ium) DII (-orum), the 12 
Etruscan gods who formed the council of 
Jupiter, consisting of six male and six female 
divinities. We do not know the names of all 
of them, but it is certain that Juno, Minerva, 
Summanus, Yulcan, Saturn, and Mars were 
among them. 

COXSEXTIA (-ae), chief town of the Bruttii 
on the river Crathis ; here Alaric died. 

COXSTAXS (-antis), youngest of the 3 
sons of Constantine the Great and Fausta, re- 
ceived after his father's death (a.d. 337) Illy- 
ricum, Italy, and Africa, as his share of the 
empire. After successfully resisting his 
brother Constantine, who was slain in in- 
vading his territory (310), Constans became 
master of the whole West. His weak and 
profligate character rendered him an object 
of contempt, and he was slain in 350 by the 
soldiers of the usurper Magnentius. 

COXSTAXTIXA, the city. [Cirta.] 

COXSTAXTIXOPOLIS (-is : Constantino- 
pie), built on the site of the ancient Byzantium 
by Constantine the Great, who called it after 
his own name and made it the capital of the 
Roman empire. It was solemnly consecrated 
A.i). 330. It was built over 7 hills, and was 
divided into 14 regiones. Its extreme length 
was about 3 Roman miles ; and its walls in- 
cluded eventually a circumference of 13 or 14 
Roman miles. It continued the capital of the 
Roman empire in the E. till its capture by 
the Turks in 1453. 

COXSTAXTIXES (-i). (I) I. surnamed 
" the Great," Roman emperor, a.d. 306 — 337, 
eldest son of the emperor Constantius Chlorus 
and Helena, was born a.d. 272, at Xaissus, a 
town in Upper Moesia. He was early trained 
to arms, and during a large portion of his 
reign he was engaged in wars. On the death 
of his father at York (306), Constantine laid 
claim to a share of the empire, and was ac- 



knowledged as master of the countries be- 
yond the Alps. In 308 he received the title 
Augustus. He was engaged in a contest with 
Maxentius, who had possession of Italy, 
and defeated him at the village of Saxa 
Rubra near Rome, Oct. 27, 312. Maxen- 
tius tried to escape over the Milvian bridge 
into Rome, but perished in the river. It was 
in this campaign that Constantine is said to 
have been converted to Christianity. On 
his march to Rome, either at Autun in 
Gaul, or near Andernach on the Rhine, or 
at Yerona, he is said to have seen in the sky 
a luminous cross with the inscription, By 
this Conquer ; and on the night before the 
last and decisive battle with Maxentius, a 
vision is said to have appeared to Constantine 
in his sleep, bidding him inscribe the shields 
of his soldiers with the sacred monogram of 
the name of Christ. The tale of the cross 
seems to have grown out of that of the 
vision, and even the latter is not entitled to 
credit. It was Constantine' s interest to gain 
the affections of his numerous Christian sub- 
jects in his struggle with his rivals ; and it 
was probably only self-interest which led him 
at first to adopt Christianity. After the 
death of Maxentius Constantine was engaged 
in a contest with Licinius, who had obtained 
possession of the whole of the East ; the 
struggle ended in the defeat and death of 
Licinius, so that Constantine was now sole 
master of the empire. He removed the seat 
of empire to Byzantium, which he called 
after himself Constantinople, and solemnly 
dedicated it, 330. Constantine reigned in 
peace the rest of his life. He died in May, 
337, and was baptized shortly before his 
death by Eusebius. His three sons Constant 
tine, Constantius, and Constans succeeded 
him in the empire. — (2) II. Roman emperor, 
337 — 340, eldest of the three sons of Con- 
stantine the Great, by Fausta, received Gaul, 
Britain,' Spain, and part of Africa at his 
father's death. Dissatisfied with his share of 
the empire, he made war upon his younger 
brother Constans, who governed Italy, but 
was defeated and slain near Aquileia. 

COXSTAXTIUS (-i). (1) I. sumamed 
Chlobxs, "the pale," Roman emperor a.d. 
305 — 30.6. He was one of the two Caesars 
appointed by Maximian and Diocletian in 
292, and received the government of Britain, 
Gaul, and Spain with Treviri (Treves) as his 
residence. Upon the abdication of Diocletian 
and Maximian, in 305, Constantius and 
Galerius became the Augusti. Constantius 
died 15 months afterwards (July, 306) at 
Eboracum (York) in Britain, on an expedition 
against the Picts : his son Constantine, after- 
wards the Great, succeeded him in his share 



C0NSI7S. 



124 



CORIXTHIACUS SIXUS. 



of the government. — (2) II. Roman emperor, 
337 — 361, third son of Constantine the Great 
by his second wife Fausta. He was suc- 
ceeded by Julian. — (3) III. Emperor of the 
West (a.d. 421), a distinguished general of 
Honorius, who declared him Augustus in 421, 
but he died in the 7 th month of his reign. 

COXSUS (-i), an ancient Roman divinity, 
who was identified in later times with Xep- 
tune. Hence Eivy calls him Xeptunus 
Equestris. He was regarded by some as the 
god of secret deliberations, but he was most 
probably a god of the lower world. 

COXTREBIA (-ae), one of the chief towns 
of the Celtiberi, in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
S.E. of Saragossa. 

COXYEXAE (-arum), a people in Aqui- 
tania, near the Pyrenees, and on both sides 
of the Garumna ; a mixed race, which had 
served under Sertorius, and were settled in 
Aquitania by Pompey. 

COPAE (-arum), an ancient town in 
Boeotia, on the X. side of the lake Copais, 
which derived its name from this place. 

COPAIS (-idos), a large lake in Boeotia, 
formed chiefly by the river Cephisus, the 
waters of which are emptied into the Euboean 
sea by several subterraneous canals, called 
Katabothra by the modern Greeks. It was 
originally called Cephisis, under which name 
it occurs in Homer. In the summer the 
greater part of the lake is dry, and becomes 
a green meadow, in which cattle are pastured. 
Its eels were much prized in antiquity, and 
they retain their celebrity in modern times. 

COPHEX or COPHES [Oabul), the only 
grand tributary river which flows into the 
Indus from the Yv r . It was the boundary 
between India and Ariana. 

COPTOS (4), a city of the Thebai's or 
Upper Egypt, lay a little to the E. of the 
Xile, some distance below Thebes. Under 
the Ptolemies it occupied an important com- 
mercial position. 

CORA (-ae), an ancient town in Latium, 
in the Yolscian mountains, S.E. of Yelitrae. 

COEACESIUM (-i), a very strong city of 
Cilicia Aspera, on the borders of Pamphylia, 
standing upon a steep rock, and possessing a 
good harbour. 

CORASSIAE (-arum), a group of small 
islands in the Icarian sea, S.W. of Icaria. 
They must not be confounded, as they often 
are, with the islands Corseae or Corsiae, off 
the Ionian coast, and opposite the promon- 
tory Ampelos, in Samos. 

COR AX (-actis), a Sicilian rhetorician, 
flourished about b.c 467, and wrote the 
earliest work on the art of rhetoric. 

CORBULO (-onis), Cx. DOMITIUS (-i), 
a general who distinguished himself by his 



campaigns against the Parthians, in the 
reigns of Claudius and Nero. To avoid death, 
by the orders of Xero, he committed suicide. 

CORCYRA (-ae : Corfu), an island in the 
Ionian sea, off the coast of Epirus, about 33 
miles in length, but of very unequal breadth. 
The ancients regarded it as the Homeric 
Schema, where the sea-loving Phaecians 
dwelt, governed by their king Alcinous. 
About e.c. 700 it was colonised by the Co- 
rinthians, and soon became rich and powerful 
by its extensive commerce. The increasing 
prosperity of Corcyra led to a rivalship with 
Corinth ; and about b.c. 664 a battle was 
fought between the fleets, which is memo- 
rable as the most ancient sea-fight on record. 
At a later period Corcyra became one of the 
causes of the Peloponnesian war, 431. 
Shortly afterwards her power declined in 
consequence of civil dissensions ; and at last 
it became subject to the Romans, with the 
rest of Greece. Corfu is at present one of the 
7 Ionian islands under the protection of 
Great Britain, and the seat of government. 

CORDUBA (-ae : Cordova), one of the 
largest cities in Spain, and the capital of 
Baetica, on the right bank of the Baetis ; 
made a Roman colony b.c 152; birthplace 
of the two Senecas and of Lucan. 

CORDUEXE. [Gordyene.] 

CORE (-es), the Maiden, a name by which 
Persephone (Proserpine) is often called. 
[Persephone.] 

CORESSUS (-i), a lofty mountain in Ionia, 
40 stadia from Ephesus, with a place of the 
same name at its foot. 

CORFIXIUM (-i), chief town of the Pe- 
ligni in Samnium, strongly fortified, and 
memorable as the place which the Italians in 
the social war destined to be the new capital 
of Italy in place of Rome, on which account 
it was called Italica. 

CORIXXA (-ae), a Greek poetess, of Ta- 
nagra, in Boeotia, flourished about b.c. 490, 
and was a contemporary of Pindar, whom she 
is said to have instructed, and over whom she 
gained a victory at the public games at Thebes. 

CORIXTHIACUS ISTHMUS, often called 
simply the ISTHMUS, lay between the Co- 
rinthian and Saronic gulfs, and connected the 
Peloponnesus with the mainland or Hellas 
proper. In its narrowest part it was 40 
stadia, or 5 Roman miles across : here was 
the temple of Poseidon (Xeptune), and the 
Isthmian games were celebrated. Four un- 
successful attempts were made to dig a canal 
across the Isthmus, namely, by Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, Julius Caesar, Caligula, and Xero. 

CORIXTHIACUS SIXUS {G. of Lepanto), 
the gulf between the X. of Greece and Pelo- 
ponnesus. In early times it was called the 



CORLXTHUS. 



125 



CORONIS. 



Crissaean Gulf, and its eastern part the 
Alcyonian Sea. 

CORIXTHUS (-i), called in Homer 
Epecyra, a city on the above-mentioned 
Isthmus. Its territory, called Corinthia, 
embraced the greater part of the Isthmus 
with the adjacent part of the Peloponnesus. 
In the X. and S. the country is mountainous ; 
but in the centre it is a plain, with a solitary 
and steep mountain rising from it, the Acro- I 
corixthes, 1900 feet in height, -which served 
as the citadel of Corinth. The city itself vras j 
built on the X. side of this mountain. It had | 
2 harbours, Cexckeeae on the E. or Saronic 
gulf, and Lechaeem on the YV. or Crissaean 
gulf. Its favourable position between two 
seas raised Corinth in very early times to j 
great commercial prosperity, and made it the 
emporium of the trade between Europe and I 
Asia. At Corinth the first triremes were 
built ; and the first sea-fight on record was 
between the Corinthians and their colonists, 
the Corcyraeans. Its greatness at an early 
period is attested by numerous colonies, 
Ambracia, Corcyra, Apoilonia, Potidaea, 6zc. 
Its commerce brought great wealth to its in- 
habitants ; but with their wealth, they 
became luxurious and licentious. Thus the 
worship of Aphrodite (Venus) prevailed in 
this city. It was taken and destroyed in 
B.C. 146 by L. Muinmius, the Roman consul, 
who treated it in the most barbarous manner. 
For a century it lay in ruins ; but in 46 it was 
rebuilt by Caesar, who peopled it with a colony 
of veterans and descendants of freed men. 

CORIOLAXTTS (-i), the hero of one of the 
most beautiful of the early Roman legends. His 
original name was C. or Cn. Marcius, and he 
received the surname Coriolanus from the 
heroism he displayed at the capture of the 
Volscian town of Corioli. His haughty bear- 
ing towards the commons excited their fear 
and dislike ; and he was impeached and con- 
demned to exile, b.c. 491. He took refuge 
among the Yolscians, and promised to assist 
them in war against the Romans. Attius 
Tullius, the king of the Yolscians, appointed 
Coriolanus general of the Yolscian army. 
Coriolanus took many towns, and advanced 
unresisted till he came to the Cluilian dyke 
close to Rome, 489. Here he encamped, and 
the Romans in alarm sent to him embassy 
after embassy, consisting of the most dis- 
tinguished men of the state. But he would 
listen to none of them. At length the noblest . 
matrons of Rome, headed by Yeturia, the 
mother of Coriolanus, and Yolumnia his vrife, 
with his 2 little children came to his tent. 1 
His mother's reproaches, and the tears of his 
wife and the other matrons, bent his purpose. I 
He led back his army, and lived in exile ! 



among the Yolscians till his death ; though 
other traditions relate that he -w as killed by 
the Yolscians on his return to their country. 

CORIOLI (-orum), a town in Latium, 
capital of the Yolsci, from the capture of 
which in b.c 493, C. Marcius obtained the 
surname of Coriolanus. 

CORYLASA (-ae), an inland town of Pamphy- 
lia, or of Pisidia, taken by the consul Manlius. 

CORXELIA (-ae). (1) Daughter of P. 
Scipio Africanus the elder, wife of Ti. Sempro- 
nius Gracchus, and mother of the two tri- 
bunes Tiberius and Caius. She was virtuous 
and accomplished, and superintended with 
the greatest care the education of her sons, 
whom she survived. She was almost idolised 
by the people, who erected a statue to her, 
with the inscription, Cornells, mother of 
the Gracchi. — (2) Daughter of L. Cinna, 
wife of Caesar, the dictator. — (3) Daughter 
of Metellus Scipio, married first to P. Crassus, 
son of the triumvir, afterwards to Pompey 
the Great, by whom she was tenderly loved. 
She accompanied him to .Egypt after the 
battle of Pharsalia, and saw him murdered. 
She afterwards returned to Rome, and re- 
ceived from Caesar the ashes of her husband, 
which she preserved on his Alban estate. 
CORXELIA ORESTILLA. [Oeestilla.] 
CORXELIA GEXS, the most distinguished 
of all the Roman gentes. All its great fami- 
lies belonged to the patrician order. The 
names of the most distinguished patrician 
families are : — Cetheges, Cinna, Cossrs, 
DoLABELLA, Lenteles, Scipio, and Sella. 
The names of the plebeian families are 
Balbes and Galles. 

COXELIES XEPOS. [Xepos.] 
CORXICrLUM (4), a town in Latium in 
the mountains X. of Tibur, celebrated as the 
residence of the parents of Servius Tullius. 

COROEBUS (-i). (1) A Phrygian, son of 
Mygdon, loved Cassandra, and for that reason 
fought on the side of the Trojans. — (2) An 
Elean, who gained the victory in the stadium 
at the Olympic games, b.c 7 76 : from this 
time the Olympiads begin to be reckoned. 

COROXE (-es), a town in Messenia on the 
YT. side of the Messenian gulf, founded b.c 
371 by the Messenians after their return to 
their native country, with the assistance of 
the Thebans. 

COROXEA (-ae), a town in Boeotia, S.W. 
of the lake Copais, and a member of the 
Boeotian League. 

COROXIS (-idis). (1) Daughter of Phle- 
gyas, and mother by Apollo of Aesculapius, 
who is hence called Coronldes. [ Aescelapecs.] 
— (2) Daughter of Phoroneus, king of Phocis, 
metamorphosed by Athena (Minerva) into a 
crow, when pursued by Poseidon (Xeptune) . 



CORSICA. 



126 



CORYCIA. 



COESICA (-ae), called CYRXUS by the 
Greeks, a mountainous island in the Medi- 
terranean, N. of Sardinia. Honey and wax 
were the principal productions of the island ; 
but the honey had a bitter taste from the 
yew-trees with which the island abounded. 
The inhabitants were addicted to robbery, 
and paid little attention to agriculture. The 
most ancient inhabitants appear to have been 
Iberians ; but in early times Ligurians, 
Tyrrhenians, Carthaginians, and even Greeks 
[Aberia], settled in the island. It was 
subject to the Carthaginians at the com- 
mencement of the 1st Punic war, but soon 
afterwards passed into the hands of the 
Romans, and subsequently formed a part of 
the Roman province of Sardinia. 

CORSOTE (-es), a city of Mesopotamia, on 
the Euphrates, which Xenophon found already 
deserted. _ 

CORTOXA (-ae), one of the 12 cities of 
Etruria, lay N.W. of the Trasimene lake, and 
was one of the most ancient cities in Italy. 
It is said to have been originally called 
Corythas from its reputed founder Corythus, 
who is represented as the father of Dardanus. 
It was an important place when possessed by 
Etruscans, and also previously when possessed 
by the Pelasgians, as is attested by the 
remains of the Pelasgic walls, which are 



some of the most remarkable in all Italy. 
Under the Romans it sunk into insignificance. 

CORUXCAXIIJS (-i), TI., consul B.C. 280, 
with P. Valerius Laevinus, was the first 
plebeian who was created Pontifex Maximus, 
and the first person at Rome who gave regular 
instruction in law. 

CORVTXUS MESSALA. [Messala.] 

CORVTS, M. VALERIUS (-i), one of the 
most illustrious men in the early history of 
Rome. He obtained the surname of Corvus, 
or " Raven," because, when serving as 
military tribune under Camillus, e.c. 349, he 
accepted the challenge of a gigantic Gaul to 
single combat, and was assisted in the con- 
flict by a raven which settled upon his helmet, 
and flew in the face of the barbarian. He 
was 6 times consul, and twice dictator, and 
by his military abilities rendered the most me- 
morable services to his country. He reached 
the age of 100 years, and is frequently refer- 
red to by the later Roman writers as a memor- 
able example of the favours of fortune. 

CORYBAXTES (-ium), priests of Cybele 
or Rhea in Phrygia, who celebrated her wor- 
ship with enthusiastic dances, to the sound 
of the drum and the cymbal. They are often 
identified with the Curetes and the Idaean 
Dactyli, and thus are said to have been the 
nurses of Zeus (Jupiter) in Crete. 




CORYCIA (-ae), a nymph, who became by | and from whom the Corycian cave on mount 
Apollo the mother of Lycorus or Lycoreus, I Parnassus was believed to have derived its 



CORYCUS. 



127 



CEANII. 



name. The Muses are sometimes called by 
the poets Curijcides Nymplxae. 

CORYCUS '(-i). (1) A high rocky hill on 
the coast of Ionia, forming the S.W. pro- 
montory of the Erythraean peninsula. — (2) A 
city of Pamphylia, near Phaselis and Mt. 
Olympus. — (3) A city in Cilicia Aspera, -with 
a good harbour, and a grotto in the moun- 
tains, called the Corycian Cave, celebrated 
by the poets, and also famous for its saffron. 
At the distance of 100 stadia (10 geog. miles) 
from Corycus, was a promontory of the same 
name. 

CORYPHASIUM (-i), a promontory in 
Messenia, enclosing the harbour of Pylos on 
the N., with a town of the same name upon 
it. 

CORYTHUS (-i), an Italian hero, son of 
Jupiter, husband of Electra, and father of 
Dardanus, is said to have founded Corythus, 
afterwards called Coetona. 

COS, COOS, COUS (Col : Kos, Stanco), one 
of the islands called Sporades, lay off the 
coast of Caria, at the mouth of the Ceramic 
Gulf, opposite to Halicarnassus. It was 
colonised by Aeolians, but became a member 
of the Dorian confederacy. Near its chief 
city, Cos, stood the Asclepieum, or temple of 
Asclepius, to whom the island was sacred. 
Its chief productions were wine, ointments, 
and the light transparent dresses called 
" Coae vestes." It was the birthplace of the 
physician Hippocrates, of the poet Philetas, 
and of the painter Apelles, whose picture of 
Aphrodite (Yenus) Anadyomene adorned the 
Asclepieum. 

COSA (-ae) or COSAE (-arum). (1) 
(A?isedo?iia), an ancient city of Etruria near 
the sea, with a good harbour, called Herculis 
Portifs, and after the fall of Falerii one of the 
12 Etruscan cities. — (2) A town in Lucania 
near Thurii. 

COSSAEA (-ae), a district on the confines 
of Media and Persis, inhabited by a rude, 
warlike, predatory people, the Cossaei, whom 
the Persian kings never subdued. They were 
conquered by Alexander (b.c. 325, 324), but 
after his death, they soon regained their 
independence. 

COSSUS, CORNELIUS (-i), the name of 
several illustrious Romans in the early history 
of the republic. Of these the most celebrated 
was Ser. Cornelius Cossus, consul b.c. 428, 
who killed Lar Tolumnius, the king of the 
Veii, in single combat, and dedicated his 
spoils in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius — 
the 2nd of the 3 instances in which the spolia 
opima were won. 

COSYRA or COSSYRA {Pantclaria), &\ 
small island in the Mediterranean near Malta. 

COTISO (-onis), a king of the Dacians, | 



conquered in the reign of Augustus by Len- 
tulus. 

COTTA (-ae), AURELIUS (-i). (1) c, 
consul b.c. 75 with L. Octavius, was one of 
the most distinguished orators of his time, 
and is introduced by Cicero as one of the 
speakers in the I)e Orator e, and the I)e 
Natura Deorum. — (2) c, praetor 70, when 
he carried the celebrated law (lex Aurelia 
judiciaria) which entrusted the judicia to the 
senators, equites, and tribuni aerarii. 

COTTA, L. AURUSCULEIUS (-i), one 
of Caesar's legates in Gaul, perished along 
with Sabinus in the attack made upon them 
by Ambiorix, b.c 54. [Awbiorix.] 

COTTIUS (-i), king of several Ligurian 
tribes in the Cottian Alps, which derived 
their name from him. [Alpes.] He sub- 
mitted to Augustus, who granted him the 
sovereignty over 12 of these tribes, with the 
title of Praefectus. Cottius thereupon made 
roads over the Alps, and erected (b.c 8) at 
Segusio (Suza) a triumphal arch in honour 
of Augustus, extant at the present day. His 
authority was transmitted to his son, upon 
whom Claudius conferred the title of king. 
On his death, his kingdom was made a Roman 
province by Nero. 

COTTUS (-i), a giant with 100 hands, son 
of Uranus (Heaven) and Gaea (Earth.) 

COTYORA (-oruni), a colony of Sinope, on 
the coast of Pontus Polemoniacus, celebrated 
as the place where the 10,000 Greeks em- 
barked for Sinope. 

COTYS (-yos or -yis), or COTYTTO (-us), 
a Thracian divinity, whose festival, the Co- 
tyttia, resembled that of the Phrygian Cybele, 
and was celebrated with licentious revelry. 
In later times her worship was introduced at 
Athens and Corinth. Her worshippers were 
called Baptae, from the purifications which 
were connected with her rites. 

COTYS (-yos or -yis), the name of several 
kings of Thrace. Ovid, during his exile at 
Tomi, addressed an epistle to one of those 
kings 

CRAGUS (-i), a mountain consisting of 8 
summits, being a continuation of Taurus to 
the W., and forming, at its extremity, the 
S.W. promontory of Lycia. At its foot was 
a town of the same name, on the sea-shore, 
between Pydna and Patara. Parallel to it, 
N. of the river Glaucus, was the chain of 
Anticragus. 

CRANAE (-es), the island to which Paris 
first carried Helen from Peloponnesus. Its 
locality is uncertain. 

CRANAUS (-i), king of Attica, the son 
in-law and successor of Cecrops. 

CRANII or -IUM, a town of Cephallenia 
on the S. coast. 



CEAXTOE. 



128 



CEEOX. 



CEAXTOE (-oris). (1) The armour-bearer 
of Peleus, slain by the centaur Denioleon. — (2) 
Of Soli in Cilicia, an Academic philosopher, 
studied at Athens under Xenocrates and Po- 
lemo, and nourished b.c. 300. He was the 
author of several works chiefly on moral 
subjects, all of which are lost. Cicero com- 
mends him as a writer, and made great use 
of his work On Grief, in the 3rd book of his 
Tusculan Disputations, and in the Consolatio, 
which he composed on the death of his daugh- 
ter, Tullia. 

CRASSUS (-i), the name of a distinguished 
family in the Gens Licinia, the most distin- 
guished persons in which were : — (1) L. Lici- 
kius CnAssrs, the orator, who was consul, 
b.c. 95, censor 92, and died in 91. As an 
orator he surpassed all his contemporaries. 
In the treatise De Oratore Cicero introduces 
him as one of the speakers, and he is under- 
stood to express Cicero's own sentiments. — (2) 
M. Licixirs Ceassi t s, surnamed Dives. His 
father, who was consul b.c 97 and censor 89, 
took part with Sulla in the civil war, and put 
an end to his own life, when Marius and 
China returned to Eome at the end of 87. 
Young Crassus fought with Sulla against the 
Marian party, and on the defeat of the latter 
was rewarded by donations of confiscated pro- 
perty. His ruling passion was the love of I 
money ; and that he might add to his wealth he 
left no stone unturned. He bought multitudes 
of slaves, and, in order to increase their value, 
had them instructed in lucrative arts. He I 
worked silver mines, cultivated farms, and j 
built houses, which he let at high rents. In j 
71 he was appointed praetor in order to carry 
on the war against Spartacus and the gladia- 
tors ; he defeated Spartacus, who was slain 
in the battle, and he was honoured with an 
ovation. In 7 he was consul with Pompey, 
and entertained the populace most sump- 
tuously at a banquet of 10,000 tables. A 
jealousy sprang up between Pompey and 
Crassus which was reconciled by Caesar, and 
thus was formed the so-called Triumvirate in 
GO. In 55 he was consul with Pompey again, 
and received the province of Syria, where he 
hoped to add greatly to his wealth. He was 
defeated by the Parthians in the plains of 
Mesopotamia near Carrhae, the Haran of 
Scripture. He was shortly afterwards slain 
at an interview with the Parthian general. 
His head was cut off and sent to Orodes, who 
caused melted gold to be poured into the 
mouth of his fallen enemy, saying, " Sate 
thyself now with that metal of which in life | 
thou wert so greedy." His son, who was I 
Caesar's legate in Gaul from 58 to 55, was i 
slain at the same time. 

CEATEEUS (-i). (1) A distinguished | 



general of Alexander the Great, on whose 
death (b.c 323) he received in common with 
Antipater the government of Macedonia and 
Greece. He fell in a battle against Eumenes, 
in 321. — (2) A Greek physician, who attended 
the family of Atticus, mentioned also by 
Horace. 

CEATES (-etis). (1) A celebrated Athenian 
poet of the old comedy, began to flourish b.c 
449 — (2) Of Thebes', a pupil of the Cynic 
Diogenes, and one of the most distinguished 
of the Cyni'3 philosophers, flourished about 
320.— (3) Of Mallus in Cilicia, a celebrated 
grammarian, founded the school of grammar at 
Pergamus, and wrote a commentary on the 
Homeric poems, in opposition to Aristar- 
chus. _ 

CEATHIS (-is or -idis). (1) A river in 
Achaia, falling into the sea near Aegae. — (2) 
A river in lower Italy, forming the boundary 
on the E. between Lucania and Eruttii, and 
falling into the sea near Sybaris. Its waters 
were fabled to dye the hair blond. 

CEATIXI7S (-i), one of the most cele- 
brated of the Athenian poets of the old 
comedy, born b.c 519 ; began to exhibit 454, 
when he was 65 years of age ; and died in 
422, at the age of 97. He gave the old 
comedy its peculiar character, and did not, like 
Aristophanes, live to see its decline. He is 
frequently attacked by Aristophanes, who 
charges him with habitual intemperance, an 
accusation which was admitted by Cratinus 
himself. 

CEATIPPUS (-i), a Peripatetic philosopher 
of Mytilene, accompanied Pompey in his 
flight after the battle of Pharsalia," b.c 4S. 
He afterwards settled at Athens, where young 
M. Cicero^ was his pupil in 44. 

CEEMEEA (-ae), a small river in Etruria, 
which falls into the Tiber a little above Eome : 
memorable for the death of the 300 Fabii. 

CEEMOXA (-ae : Cremona), a Eoman 
colony in the X. of Italy, near the con- 
fluence of the Addua and the Po, was founded, 
together with Placentia, b.c 219, as a protec- 
tion against the Gauls and Hannibal's in- 
vading army. It soon became a place of great 
importance, but having espoused the cause 
of Yitellius, it was totally destroyed by the 
troops of Vespasian, a.d. 69. 

CEEMOXIS JUGUM. [Alpes.] 

CEEOX (-ontis). (1) King of Corinth, 
whose daughter, Glauce or Creusa, married 
Jason. Medea, thus forsaken, sent Glauce a 
garment which burnt her to death when she 
put it on ; the palace took fire, and Creon 
perished in the flames. — (2) Son of Menoecus, 
and brother of Jocaste, the wife of Laius. 
After the death of Laius, Creon governed 
Thebes for a short time, and then surrendered 



CREOPHYLUS, 



129 



CROESUS, 



trie kingdom to Oedipus, who had delivered 
the country from the Sphinx. [Oedipus.] 
After the death of Eteocles and Polynlces, 
the sons of Oedipus, he again assumed the 
reins of government at Thebes. His cruelty 
in forbidding burial to the corpse of Poly- 
nlces, and his sentencing Antigone to death 
for disobeying his orders, occasioned the 
death of his own son Haemon. For details 
see Antigone. 

CKEOPHYLUS (4), of Chios, one of the 
earliest epic poets, said to have been the friend 
or son-in-law of Homer. 

CRESPHOXTES (-is), an Heraclid, son of 
Aristoniachus, and one of the conquerors of 
Peloponnesus, obtained Messenia for his share. 
During an insurrection of the Messenians, he 
and two of his sons were slain. A third 
son, Aepyt_us, v avenged his death. "Aepytxs." 

CRESTOXIA (-ae), a district in Macedonia 
between the Axius and Strymon, near Mt. 
Cercine, inhabited by the Crestonaei, a Thra- 
cian people : their chief town was Creston or 
Crestone, founded by the Pelasgians. 

GRETA (-ae : Candia), one of the largest 
islands in the Mediterranean sea, about 160 
miles in length, and from 35 to 6 miles in 
breadth. It was celebrated for its fertility 
and salubrity, and was inhabited at an early 
period by a numerous and civilised popula- 
tion. Homer speaks of its hundred cities ; 
and before the Trojan war mythology told of 
a king Minos, who resided at Cnossus, and 
ruled over the greater part of the island. He 
is said to have given laws to Crete, and to 
have been the first prince who had a navy, 
with which he suppressed piracy in the Aegae- 
an. Cnossus, Gortyna, and Cydonia were the 
most important cities. In the historical period 
the ruling class were the Dorians, who settled 
in Crete about 60 years after the Dorian con- 
quest of Peloponnesus, and introduced into 
the island the social and political institutions 
of the Dorians. Subsequently Doric customs 
disappeared and great degeneracy in morals 
prevailed. The Apostle Paul, quoting the \ 
Cretan poet Epimenides, describes them as 
" alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies." The 
Cretans were celebrated as archers, and fre- 
quently served as mercenaries in the armies 
of other nations. The island was conquered 
by Q. Metelius, who received in consequence 
the surname Creticus (b.c. 68 — 66), and it 
became a Roman province. 

CRETEUS or CATREUS (-eos), son of 
Minos by Pasiphae or Crete, and father of 
Althemenes. 

CRETHEUS (-eos or -ei), son of Aeolus 
and Enarete, wife of Tyro, and father of 
Aeson, Pheres, Amythaon, and Hippolyte : 
he was the founder of Iolcus. 



CREUSA (-ae). (1) Daughter of Erechtheus 
and Praxithea, wife of Xuthus, and mother 
of Achaeus and Ion. — (2) Daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba, wife of Aeneas, and mother of 
Ascanius. She perished on the night of the 
capture of Troy, having been separated from 
her husband in the confusion. — (3) Daughter 
of Creon, who fell a victim to the vengeance 
of Medea. [Creon, Ho. 1.] 

CRIMISUS or CRIMISSUS, a river in the 
W. of Sicily falling into the Hypsa: on its 
banks Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 
b.c. 339. 

CRISSA or CRISA, and C1RRHA (-ae), 
towns in Phocis, regarded by some writers as 
the same place ; but it seems most probable 
that Crissa was a town inland S.W. of 
Delphi, and that Cirrha was its port in the 
Crissaean gulf. The inhabitants of these 
I towns levied contributions upon the pilgrims 
| frequenting the Delphic oracle, in conse- 
I quence of which the Amphictyons declared 
war against them, b.c 595, and eventually 
destroyed them. This territory, the rich 
Crissaean plain, was declared sacred to the 
Delphic god, and was forbidden to be culti- 
vated. The cultivation of this plain by the 
I inhabitants of Amphissa led to the Sacred 
War, in which Philip was chosen general of 
the Amphictyons, 338. Crissa remained in 
ruins, but Cirrha was afterwards rebuilt, and 
j became the harbour of Delphi, 
i CRITIAS (-ae), a pupil of Socrates, one of 
[ the 30 tyrants established at Athens by the 
Spartans, b.c. 404, was conspicuous above all 
his colleagues for rapacity and cruelty. 

CRITOLAUS (-i). (1) Of Phaselis in 
Lycia, succeeded xAriston at Athens, as the 
head of the Peripatetic school. In b.c 155 
he was sent by the Athenians as ambassador 
to Rome with Carneades and Diogenes. 
[Cabneades.] — (2) General of the Achaean 
League, 147, distinguished by his bitter 
enmity to the Romans. He was defeated by 
Metelius, and was never heard of after the 
battle. 

CRITOX (-onis), a rich citizen of Athens, 
and a friend and disciple of Socrates. 

CROCUS (-i), the beloved friend of Smilax, 
was changed by the gods into a saffron plant. 

CROESUS (-i), last king of Lydia, son of 
Alyattes, reigned b.c 560 — 546. He subdued 
all the nations between the Aegaean and the 
river Halys, and made the Greeks in Asia 
Minor tributary to him. The fame of his 
power and wealth drew to his court at Sardis 
all the wise men of Greece, and among them 
Solon, whose interview with the king was 
celebrated in antiquity. In reply to the ques- 
tion, who was the happiest man he had ever 
seen, the sage taught the king that no man 



CROMMYOX. 



130 



CURES, 



should be deemed happy till he had finished 
his life in a happy way. In a war with 
Cyrus, king of Persia, the army of Croesus 
was defeated, and his capital, Sardis, was 
taken. Croesus was condemned by the con- 
queror to be burnt to death. As he stood 
before the pyre, the warning of Solon came 
to his mind, and he thrice uttered the name 
of Solon. Cyrus inquired who it was that he 
called on ; and, upon hearing the story, re- 
p?nted of his purpose, and not only spared 
the life of Croesus, but made him his friend. 
Croesus survived Cyrus, and accompanied 
Cambyses in his expedition against Egypt. 

CROMMYOX or CROMYON, a town in 
Megaris, on the Saronic gulf, afterwards 
belonged to Corinth ; celebrated in my- 
thology on account of its wild sow, which 
was slain by Theseus. 

CRONUS (-i), called SATURXUS (-i), by 
the Romans, the youngest of the Titans, son 
of Uranus and Ge Heaven and EarthP, 
fither, by Rhea, of Hestia, Demeter (Ceres), 
Hera (.Juno", Hades (Pluto), Poseidon ^Nep- 
tune), and Zeus {Jupiter}. He deprived his 
father Uranus of the government of the 




Cronos (Satanras] . (From a Painting at Pompeii.) 

world, and was, in his turn, dethroned by his 
son Zeus._ [Zeus.] 

CROTOX (-dnis; or CROTOXA (-ae), one 



of the most powerful cities in Magna Graecia, 
was situated on the E. coast of Bruttium, and 
was founded by the Achaeans b.c 710. It is 
celebrated as the residence of Pythagoras, the 
philosopher, and of Milo, the -athlete. It 
attained its greatest power by the destruction 
of Sybaris, in 510 ; but suffered greatly in 
the wars with Dionysius, Agathocles, and 
Pyrrhus. 

'CRUSTOIERIA (-ae), -RIUM (-i), also 
CRUSTUMIUM [-1 , a town of the Sabines, 
situated in the mountains near the sources of 
the AUia. 

CTESIAS '-ae' . of Cnidus, in Caria, a con- 
temporaiy of Xenophon, was private phy- 
sician of Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he 
accompanied in his war against his brother 
Cyras, b.c. 401. He lived 17 years at the 
i Persian court, and wrote in the Ionic dialect 
i a great work on the history of Persia, and 
: also a work on India, of both of which works 
I we possess an abridgment in Photius. 

CTESIBIUS (-i), celebrated for his me- 
chanical inventions, lived at Alexandria in 
the reigns of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and 
Euergetes, about b.c. 250. 

CTESIPHOX. [Demosthexbs.j 
CTESIPHOX (-ontis), a city of Assyria, on 
! the E. bank of the Tigris, 3 Roman miles 
| from Seleucia, on the "W. bank, first became 
an important place under the Parthians, 
! whose kings used it for some time as a winter 
; residence. 

CUMAE (-arum), a town in Campania, and 
; the most ancient of the Greek colonies in 
i Italy and Sicily, was founded by Cyme, in 
j Aeolis, in conjunction with Chalcis and 
: Eretria, in Euboea. Its foundation is placed 
, in b.c. 1050, but this date is evidently too 
j early. It was situated on a steep hill of Mt. 
Gaurus, a little X. of the promontory Mise- 
nuni. It became in early times a great and 
flourishing city ; and its power is attested by 
its colonies in Italy and Sicily, — Puteoli, 
Palaeopolis, afterwards Xeapolis. Zancle, 
afterwards Messana. It maintained its inde- 
pendence till b.c. 417, when it was taken by 
j the Campanians, and most of its inhabitants 
I sold as slaves. From this time Cape a became 
the chief city of Campania. Cuniae was 
celebrated as the residence of the earliest 
Sibyl, and as the place where Tarquinius 
Superbus died. 

CTXAXA [-ae] , a small town in Babylonia, 
on the Euphrates, famous for the battle 
j fought here between the younger Cyrus and 
his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, in which the 
, former was killed (b.c. 401). 

CURES (-ium), an ancient town of the Sa- 
| bines, celebrated as the birthplace of T. Tatius 
j and Xunia Pompilius : from this town the 



CURETES. 



131 



CYAXARES. 



Romans are said to have derived the name of 
Quirites. 

CURETES (-urn), a mythical people, said to 
be the most ancient inhabitants of Acarnania 
and Aetolia ; the latter country was called 
Curetis from them. They also occur in Crete 
as the priests of Zeus (Jupiter), and are spoken 
of in connexion with the Corybantes and I 
Idaean Dactyli. The infant Zeus was en- 
trusted to their care by Rhea j and by clash- 
ing their weapons in a warlike dance, they 
drowned the cries of the child, and prevented j 
his father Cronus from ascertaining the place 
where he was concealed. 

CURIATII (-drum), a celebrated Alban 
family. 3 brothers of this family fought with 
3 Roman brothers, the Horatii, and were j 
conquered by the latter. In consequence of 
their defeat Alba became subject to Rome, 

CURIO, C. SCRIBOXIUS. (1) Consul B.C. ; 
76, was a personal enemy of Caesar, and sup- 
ported P. Clodius, when the latter was accused 
of violating the sacra of the Bona Dea. In 57 J 
he was appointed pontifex maximus, and died 
53. He had some reputation as an orator, : 
and was a friend of Cicero. — (2) Son of No. 1, 
also a friend of Cicero, was a most profligate j 
character. He was married to Fulvia, after- 
wards the wife of Antony. He at first be- 
longed to the Pompeian party, by whose 
influence he was made tribune of the plebs, 
50 ; but he was bought over by Caesar, and 
employed his power as tribune against his 
former friends. On the breaking out of the 
civil war (49), he was sent by Caesar to Sicily j 
with the title of propraetor. He succeeded j 
in driving Cato out of the island, and then { 
crossed over to Africa, where he was defeated I 
and slain by Juba and P. Attius Varus, 

CURIOSOLITAE (-arum), a Gallic people 
on the Ocean in Armorica, near the Ye- j 
neti. 

CURIUS, M. DEXTATUS (-i), a favourite | 
hero of the Roman republic, was celebrated I 
in later times as a noble specimen of old 
Roman frugality and virtue. In his first con- I 
sulship (b.c. 290), he successfully opposed the 
Samnites ; and in his second consulship (275), \ 
he defeated Pyrrhus so completely, that the 
king was obliged to quit Italy. On this and 
on subsequent occasions he declined to share j 
in the large booty that he gained, At the 
close of his military career, he retired to his i 
small farm in the country of the Sabines, 
which he cultivated with his own hands. ! 
Once the Samnites sent an embassy to him i 
with costly presents ; they found him sitting 
at the hearth and roasting turnips. He re- I 
jected their presents, telling them that he 
preferred ruling over those who possessed ; 
gold, to possessing it himself. He was censor 



in 272, and in that year executed public 
works of great importance. 

CURSOR, L. PAPIRIUS. (1) A distin- 
guished Roman general in the 2nd Samnite 
war, was 5 times consul (b.c. 333 — 313), and 
twice dictator (325 — 309). He frequently 
defeated the Samnites, but his greatest vic- 
tory over them was gained in his 2nd dictator- 
ship. Although a great general, he was not 
popular with the soldiers on account of his 
severity. — (2) Son of Xo. 1, was, like his 
father, a distinguished general. In his 2nd 
consulship, 272, he brought the 3rd Samnite 
war to a close. 

CURTIUS, METTUS or METTIUS (-i), a 
distinguished Sabine, fought with the rest of 
his nation against Romulus. According to 
one tradition, the Lacus Curtius, which was 
part of the Roman forum, was called after 
him, because in the battle with the Romans 
he escaped with difficulty from a swamp, into 
which his horse had plunged. But the more 
usual tradition respecting the name of the 
Lacus Curtius related, that in b. c. 362 the 
earth in the forum gave way, and a great 
chasm appeared, which the soothsayers de- 
clared could only be filled up by throwing 
into it Rome's greatest treasure ; that there- 
upon M. Curtius, a noble youth, mounted his 
steed in full armour, and declaring that Rome 
possessed no greater treasure than a brave 
and gallant citizen, leaped into the abyss, 
upon which the earth closed over him. 

CURTIUS RUFUS (-i), Q., the Roman his- 
torian of Alexander the Great, whose date is 
uncertain. His history of Alexander con- 
sisted of 10 books, but the first 2 are lost, and 
the remaining 8 are not without considerable 
gaps. It is written in a pleasing, though, 
somewhat declamatory style. 

CUTILIAE AQUAE. * [Aqjcae, No. 3.} 

CYAXE (-es), a Sicilian nymph and play- 
mate of Proserpine, changed into a fountain 
through grief at the loss of the goddess. 

CYAXEAE (-arum), IXSULAE, 2 small 
rocky islands at the entrance of the Thracian 
Bosporus into the Euxine, the Plan-ctae and 
Symplegades of mythology, so, called because 
they are said to have been once moveable and 
to have rushed together, and thus destroyed 
every ship that attempted to pass through 
them. After the ship Argo had passed through 
them in safety, they became stationary. 

CYAXEE (-es), daughter of Maeander, 
mother of Caunus and of Byblis. 

CYAXARES, king of Media, b.c. 634—594, 
son of Phraortes, and grandson of Deioces. 
H,e was the most warlike of the Median kings, 
and introduced great military reforms. He 
was engaged in. wars with the Assyrians, 
Scythians, and Alvattes, king of Lydia., 
K 2 



CYBELE. 



132 



CYNOSSEMA. 



[Alyattes.] Cyaxares died in 594, and was 
succeeded by Lis son Astyages. Xenophon 
speaks of a Cyaxares H., king of Media, son 
of Astyages, respecting whom see Cyexs. 
CYBELE. [Ehea.j 

CYBISTBA (-oram), an ancient city of 
Asia Minor, lying at the foot of Mt. Taurus, 
in the part of Cappadocia bordering on 
Cilicia. 

CYCLADES f-nm), a group of island? in 
the Aegean Sea, so called because they lay in 
a circle around Delos, the most important of 
them. 

CYCLOPES and CYCLOPES ;-um), that is, 
creatures with round or circular eyes, are 
described differently by different ■writers. 
Homer speaks of them as a gigantic and law- 
less race of shepherds in Sicily, who devoured 
human beings and cared nought for Zeus 
(Jupiter) : each of them had only one eye in 
the centre of his forehead : the chief among 
them was PoltphxjTts. According to Hesiod 
the Cyclops were Titans, sons of Eranus and 
Ge, were 3 in number, Argils, Steropes, and 
Beoxtes, and each of them had only one eye 
in his forehead. They were thrown into 
Tartarus bv Cronus, but were released bv Zeus, 



.ence they provided Zeus with 
tnd Hghtning, Pluto with a 
oseidon with a trident. They 
is killed by Apollo for having 



Aetna in Sicily and the 
were accordingly con- 



and in conseq 
thunderbolts 
helmet, and 3 
were afterwai 
furnished Zeu 
Aesculapius, 
the Cvclones 
(Yulcan). Y( 
that god, an< 
neighbouring 
sidered as the 
Hephaestus tl 
ornaments for gods and heroes. Their num. i 
ber is no longer confined to 3 ; and besides 
the names mentioned by Hesiod, we also find 
those of Ptbaoiox and Aca^evs. The name ' 
Cyclopian was given to the walls built of j 
great masses of unhewn stone, of which 
specimens are still to be seen at Mycenae and ! 
other parts of Greece, and also in Italy. 
They were probably constructed by the Pelas- i 
gians, and later generations, being struck by 
their grandeur, ascribed their building to a 
fabulous race of Cyclops. 

CYOTS or CYGXUS (4). (1) Son of 
Apollo by Hyrie, was metamorphosed into a i 
swan. — (2) Son of Poseidon (Neptune), and j 
father of Tenes and Hemithea. "Texes. ] In 
the Trojan war Cycnus was slain by Achilles, 
and his body was metamorphosed into a swan. 
— '3' Son of Sthenelus. king of the Ligurians, 
and a friend and relation of Phaethon, was j 
metamorphosed by Apollo into a swan, and | 
placed among the stars. 



CYDIPPE (-es). (1) The mistress of Acon- 
tius. [Acoxrirs.] — (2) One of the Xereids. 

CYDXES (-i), a river of Cilicia Canrpestris, 
rising in the Taurus, and flowing through the 
midst of the city of Tarsus. It was celebrated 
for the coldness of its waters, in bathing in 
which Alexander nearly lost his life. 

CYDOXIA (-ae), one of the chief cities of 
Crete, situated on the N.TV. coast, derived its 
name from the Cyboxes, a Cretan race, placed 
by Homer in the "W. part of the island. 
Cydonia was the place from which quinces 
{Cydoida mala) were first brought to Italy, 
and its inhabitants were some of the best 
Cretan archers. 

CYLEABES (-i), a beautiful centaur, killed 
at the wedding feast of Pirithous. The horse 

CYLLENE (-es). (1) The highest moun- 
tain in Peloponnesus on the frontiers of 
Arcadia and Achaia, sacred to Hermes (Mer- 
cury), who had a temple on the sum m it, was 
said to have been born there, and was hence 
called Cyllenius. — I 2) A sea-port town of Elis. 

CYLON (-onis), an Athenian of noble family, 
who gained an Olympic victory b. c. 640. 
He seized the Acropolis, intending to make 
himself tyrant of Athens. Pressed by famine, 
Cylon and his adherents were driven to take 
refuge at the altar of Athena, whence they 
were induced to withdraw by the archon 
Megacles, the Alcmaeonid, on a promise that 
their Eves should be spared. But their ene- 
mies put them to death as soon as they had 

CYME (-es), the largest of the Aeolian 
cities of Asia Minor, stood upon the coast of 
AeoEs, on a bay named after it, Cumaeus 
(also Ela'iticus; Sinus. It was the mother city 
of Cuniae in_Campania. 

CYYAEGIB.ES »-i\ brother of the poet 
Aeschylus, distinguished himself by his 
valour at the battle of Marathon, b.c. 490. 
According to Herodotus, when the Persians 
were endeavouring to escape by sea, Cynae- 
girus seized one of their ships to keep it back, 
but fell with Ms right hand cut off. 

CYXESII >orum) or CYXETES (-urn), a 
people, according to Herodotus. dweBing in 
the extreme W. of Europe, beyond the Celts, 
apparently in Spain. 

CYXOSAEGES, a gymnasium, sacred to 
Hercules, outside Athens, E. of the city, for 
the use of those who were not of pure Athe- 
nian blood : here taught Antisthenes, the 
founder of the Cynic school. 

CYN S CEPHAL AE , i.e. "Dog's Heads," 
two hiEs near Scotussa in Thessaly, where 
Flaminius gained his celebrated victory over 
PhiEp of Macedonia, b.c 197. 

CYXOSSEMA, "Dog's Tomb." a promontory 



CYNOSUBA. 



133 



CYRUS. 



in the Thracian Cliersonesus near Madytus, 
so called because it was supposed to be the 
tomb of Hecuba, who had been previously 
changed into a dog. 

CYXOSURA (-ae), an Idaean nyniph, and 
one of the nurses of Zeus, who placed her 
among the stars. [Aectos.] 

CYXOSURA (-ae), " Dog's Tail," a pro- 
montory in Attica, S. of Marathon. 

CYNTHUS (-i), a mountain of Delos, ce- 
lebrated as the birthplace of Apollo and 
Diana, who were hence called Cynthius and 
Cynthia respectively. 

CYXURLA {-ae}, a district on the frontiers 
of Argolis and Laconia, for the possession of 
which the Argives and Spartans carried on 
frequent wars, and which the Spartans at 
length obtained about b.c. 550. 

CYXUS {-i ; , the chief seaport in the ter- 
ritory of the Locri Opuntii. 

CYPARISSIA [-ae), a town in Messenia, on 
the W. coast, on a promontory and bay of the 
same name. 

CYPARISSUS [I] Son of Telenhus, 

who having inadvertently killed his favourite 
stag, was seized with immoderate grief, and 
metamorphosed into a cypress. — (2) A small 
town in Phocis on Parnassus near Delphi. 

CYPRUS and CYPRUS [-f , a large island 
in the Mediterranean, S. of Cilicia and W. of 
Syria, about 140 miles in length, and 50 
Triil ps in its greatest breadth. It was cele- 
brated in ancient as well as in modern times 
for its fertility. The largest plain, called 
the Salaminian plain, is in the E. part of the i 
island near Salamis. The rivers are little J 
more than mountain torrents, mostly dry in 
summer. Cyprus was colonised both by the 
Phoenicians and the Greeks ; was subject at 
different times to the Egyptians, the Persians, { 
and the Romans, of whom the latter made it 
a province, b.c. 58. Cyprus was one of the j 
chief seats of the worship of Aphrodite j 
(Yenus), who is hence called Cypris or ■ 
Cypria, and whose worship was introduced 
into the island by the Phoenicians. 

CYPSELA (-orum). (1) A town in Arcadia j 
on the frontiers of Laconia. — 2, A town 
in Thrace on the Hebrus and the Egnatia j 
Via. 

CYPSELUS (-i), a tyrant of Corinth, b.c. 
655 — 625, so named because when a child he 
was concealed from the Bacchiadae (the Doric | 
nobility of Corinth) by his mother in a chest 
(xv'^ikr,), He was succeeded in the tyranny 
by his son Periander. 

* CYRENE (-es). (1) Daughter of Hypseus, 
mother of Aristaeus by Apollo, was carried 
by the god from Mt. Pelion to Libya, where 
the city of Cyrene derived its name from her. 
— (2) An important Greek city in the X. of 



Africa, lying between Alexandria and Car- 
thage. It was founded by Battus (b.c. 631), 
who led a colony from the island of Thera, 
and he and his descendants ruled ovf r th ! 
city for 8 generations. It stood 80 stadia (8 
geog. miles) from the coast, on the edge of 
the upper of two terraces of table land, at 
the height of 1800 feet above the sea, in one 
of the finest situations in the world. At a 
later time Cyrene became subject to the 
Egyptian Ptolemies, and was eventually 
formed, with the island of Crete, into a 
Roman province. The ruins of the city of 
Cyrene are very extensive. It was the birth- 
place of Callimachus, Eratosthenes, and 
Aristippus. The territory of Cyrene, called 
Cyrenaica, included also the Greek cities of 
Barca, Teuchira, Hesperis, and Apollonia, 
the port of Cyrene. Under the Ptolemies 
Hesperis became Berenice, Teuchira was 
called Arsinoe, and Barca was entirely 
eclipsed by its port, which was raised into a 
city under the name of Ptolemai's. The 
country was at that time usually called 
Pentapolis, from the 5 cities of Cyrene — 
Apollonia, Ptolemai's, Arsinoe, and Berenice. 

CYRESCHATA {-ae; or CYROPOLIS [-is , 
a city of Sogdiana, on the Jaxartes, the 
furthest of the colonies founded by Cyrus, 
and the extreme city of the Persian empire : 
destroyed, after many revolts, by Alexander. 

CYRXUS (-i), the Greek name of the island 
of .Corsica, from which is derived the adjec- 
tive Cyme ks, used by the Latin poets. 

CYRRHESTICE (-es), the name given 
under the Seleucidae to a province of Syria, 
lying between Commagene on the X. and the 
plain of Antioeh on the S. 

CYRUS (-i). (1) The Elder, the founder 
of the Persian empire. The history of his 
life was overlaid in ancient times with fables 
and romances. According to the legend pre- 
served by Herodotus, Cyrus was the son of 
Cambyses, a noble Persian, and of Mandane, 
daughter of the Median king Astyages. In 
consequence of a dream, which seemed to 
porxend that his grandson should be master 
of Asia, Astyages committed the child as soon 
as it was born to Harpagus with orders to 
kiU it. But he delivered the infant to a 
herdsman, and by the herdsman's wife the 
child was reared. At ten years of age he 
gave proof of his high descent by his royal 
bearing, and on being sent to Astyages 
was discovered by him to be his grandson. 
By the advice of the Magians, who said that 
the dream had been fulfilled when Cyrus 
was made king in sport, he sent him to his 
parents in Persia. TVhen Cyrus grew up, lie 
led the hardy mountaineers of Persia against 
Astyages, defeated him in battle, and took 



CYRUS. 



134 



DACIA. 



him prisoner, b.c. 559. The Medes accepted ' 
Cyrus for their king, and thus the supremacy 
which they had held passed to the Persians. | 
Cyrus now proceeded to conquer the other ! 
parts of Asia. In 546 he overthrew the 
Lydian monarchy, and took Croesus prisoner. 
[Croesus.] The Greek cities in Asia Minor 
were subdued by his general Harpagns. He 
next turned his arms against the Babylonian 
empire, and took the capital, Babylon, by 
diverting the course of the Euphrates, which 
flowed through the midst of it, so that his 
soldiers entered the city by the bed of the 
river. This was in 538. Subsequently he 
set out on an expedition against the Massa- 
getae, a Scythian people, but he was defeated 
and slain in battle. Tomyris, the queen of 
the Massagetae, cut off his head, and threw 
it into a bag filled with human blood, that he 
might satiate himself (she said) with blood. 
He was killed in 529. He was succeeded by 
his son Cambyses. Xenophon's account is 
very different. He represents Cyrus as 
brought up at his grandfather's court, as 
serving in the Median army under his uncle 1 
Cyaxares II., the son and successor of Asty- I 
ages, of whom Herodotus knows nothing ; i 
as making war upon Babylon simply as 
the general of Cyaxares ; as marrying the 
daughter of Cyaxares : and at length dying | 
quietly in his bed. But Xenophon merely 
draws a picture of what a wise and just 
prince ought to be ; and his account must ' 
not be regarded as a genuine history. — (2) The 
Yoexger, the 2nd son of Darius Xothus, king 
of Persia, and of Parysatis, was appointed by 
his father commander of the maritime parts j 
of Asia Minor, and satrap of Lydia, Phrygia, j 
and Cappadocia, b.c. 407. He assisted 
Lysander and the Lacedaemonians with large ! 
sums of money in their war against the 
Athenians. Cyrus was of a daring and am- 
bitions temper. On the accession of his 
elder brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, 404, he 
formed the design of dethroning his brother, I 
to accomplish which he obtained the aid of 
a force of 13,000 Greek mercenaries, set out 
from Sardis in the spring of 401, and, having 
crossed the Euphrates at Thapsacus, marched j 
down the river to the plain of Cunaxa, 500 
stadia from Babylon Here he met the king's ! 
army. In the battle which followed his 
Greek troops were victorious, but Cyrus him- 
self was slain. The character of Cyrus is 
drawn by Xenophon in the brightest colours. 
It is enough to say that his ambition was 
gilded by all those brilliant qualities which 
win men's hearts. — (3) A river of Armenia, 
rising in the Caucasus, flowing through 
Iberia, and after forming the boundary be- 
tween Albania and Armenia, uniting with | 



the Araxes, and falling into the W. side of the 
Caspian. 

CYTHERA (-ae : Cerigo), an island off 
the S.E. point of Laconia, with a town of the 
same name in the interior, the harbour of 
which was called Scaxdea. It was colonised 
at an early time by the Phoenicians, who in- 
troduced the worship of Aphrodite (Venus) 
into the island, for which it was celebrated. 
This goddess was hence called Cttkeeaea, 
Cytheejeis ; and, according to some tra- 
ditions, it was in the neighbourhood of this 
island that she first rose from the foam of the 
sea. 

CYTHNCS (-i : Thermia), an island in the 
Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades. 

CYT1NIUM (-i), one of the 4 cities in 
Doris, on Parnassus. 

CYTOBUS or -CM (-i), a town on the coast 
of Paphlagonia, a commercial settlement of 
Sinope, stood upon the mountain of the same 
name, celebrated for its box-trees. 

CYZICTJS (-i), one of the most ancient and 
powerful of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, 
stood upon an island of the same name in 
the Propontis [Sea of Marmara) . This island 
lay close to the shore of Mysia, to which it 
was united by two bridges, and afterwards 
(under Alexander the Great) by a mole, 
which has accumulated to a considerable 
isthmus. The most noted passages in its 
history are its shaking off the Persian yoke 
after the peace of Antalcidas, and its gallant 
resistance against Mithridates (b.c 75) which 
obtained for it the rank of a " libera civitas. 1 ' 



T\AAE. JDahae.] 

^ DACIA (-ae), as a Boman province, lay 
between the Danube and the Carpathian 
mountains, and comprehended the modern 
Transyhania, TTallachia, Moldavia, and part 
of Hungary. The Daci were of the same 
race and spoke the same language as the 
Getae, and are therefore usually said to be 
of Thracian origin. They were a brave and 
warlike people. In the reign of Dornitian 
they became so formidable under their king 
Decebale?, that the Romans were obliged to 
purchase a peace of them by the payment of 
tribute. Trajan delivered the empire from 
thi^ disgrace ; he crossed the Danube, and 
after a war of 5 years (a.d. 101 — 106) con- 
quered the country, and made it a Roman 
province. At a later period Dacia was in- 
vaded by the Goths ; and as Aurelian con- 
sidered it more prudent to make the Danube 
the boundary of the empire, he resigned 
Dacia to the barbarians, removed the Roman 
inhabitants to Moesia, and gave the name of 
Dacia (Aureliana) to that part of the pro- 



DACTYLI. 



135 



DAMASCUS. 



vince along- the Danube where they were 
settled. 

DACTYLI (-orum), fabulous beings, to 
whom the discovery of iron, and the art of 
working- it by means of fire, was ascribed. 
Mount Ida, in Phrygia, is said to have been 
the original seat of the Dactyls, whence they 
are usually called Idaean Dactyls. In 
Phrygia they were connected with the wor- 
ship of Rhea, or Cybele. They are sometimes 
confounded or identified with the Curetes, 
Corybantes, and Cabiri. 

DAEDALUS (-i), a mythical personage, 
under whose name the Greek writers per- 
sonified the earliest development of the arts 
of sculpture and architecture, especially 
among the Athenians and Cretans. He is 
sometimes called an Athenian, and sometimes 
a Cretan, on account of the long time he 
lived in Crete. He devoted himself to sculp- 
ture, and made great improvements in the 
art. He instructed his sister's son, Calos, 
Talus, or Perdix, who soon came to surpass 
him in skill and ingenuity, and Daedalus 
killed him through envy. [Perdix.] Being 
condemned to death by the Areopagus for 
this murder, he went to Crete, where the 
fame of his skill obtained for him the friend- 
ship of Minos. He made the well-known 




Daedalus and Icarus. (ZoSga, Bassirilievi di Roma, 
tav. 44.) 



wooden cow for Pasiphae ; and when Pasi- 
phae gave birth to the Minotaur, Daedalus 
constructed the labyrinth, at Cnossus, in 
which the monster was kept. For his part 
in this affair, Daedalus was imprisoned by 
Minos ; but Pasiphae released him ; and, as 
Minos had seized all the ships on the coast of 



Crete, Daedalus procured wings for himself 
and his son Icarus, and fastened them on 
with wax. [Icarus.] Daedalus flew safely 
over the Aegean, alighting, according to 
some accounts, at Cumae, in Italy. He then 
fled to Sicily, where he was hospitably enter- 
tained by Cocalus. Minos, who sailed to 
Sicily in pursuit of him, was slain by 
Cocalus or his daughters. Several other 
works of art were attributed to Daedalus, in 
Greece, Italy, Libya, and the islands of the 
Mediterranean. They belong to the period 
when art began to be developed. The name 
of JDaedala was given by the Greeks to the 
wooden statues, ornamented with gilding, and 
bright colours, and real drapery, the earliest 
known forms of the images of the gods. 

DAHAE (-arum), a great Scythian people, 
who led a nomad life over a great extent of 
country, on the E. of the Caspian, in Hyr- 
cania (which still bears the name of Daglies- 
tan), on the banks of the Margus, the Oxus, 
and even the Jaxartes. 

DALMATIA or DELMATIA (-ae), a part 
of the country along the E. coast of 
the Adriatic sea, included under the general 
name of Illyricum, and separated from 
Liburnia on the N. by the Titius \Ker'ka) i 
and from Greek Illyria on the S. by the 
Drilo (Drmo), thus nearly corresponding 
to the modern Dabnatia, The capital was 
Dalminium or Delminiem, from which the 
country derived its name. The next most 
important town w T as Salona, the residence 
of Diocletian. The Dalmatians were a brave 
and warlike people, and gave much trouble 
to the Romans. In b.c. 119 their country 
was overrun by L. Metellus, who assumed, in 
consequence, the surname Dalmaticus, but 
they continued independent of the Romans. 
In 39 they were defeated by Asinius Pollio, 
of whose Dalmaticus triumphus Horace 
speaks ; but it was not till the year 23 that 
they were finally subdued by Statilius Tau- 
rus. They took part in the great Pannonian 
revolt under their leader Bato ; but after a 
three years' war were again reduced to sub- 
jection by Tiberius, a.d. 9. 

DALMINIUM. [Daematia.] 

DAMALIS (-is) or BOUS (-i), a small 
place in Bithynia, on the shore of the Thra- 
cian Bosporus, N. of Chalcedon ; celebrated 
by tradition as the landing-place of Io. 
" DAM AR AT U S . [Demarates.] 

DAMASCUS (-i), one of the most ancient 
cities of the world, mentioned as existing in 
the time of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 15), stood in 
the district afterwards called Coele-Syria, 
upon both banks of the river Chrysorrhoas or 
Bardines (Burada). Its fruits were cele- 
brated in ancient, as in modern times ; and 



DAMASIPPTJS. 



136 



DANAUS. 



altogether the situation of the city is one of 
the finest on the globe. For a long period 
Damascus was the seat of an independent 
kingdom, called the kingdom of Syria, which 
was subdued by the Assyrians, and passed 
successively under the dominion of the Baby- 
lonians, the Persians, the Greek kings of 
Syria, and the Romans. It nourished greatly 
under the emperors. Diocletian established 
in it a great factory for arms : and hence the 
origin of the fame of Damascus blades. 

DAMASIPPUS -i , a merchant mentioned 
by Horace, who became bankrupt, in conse- 
quence of which he intended to put an end 
to himself; but he was prevented by the 
Stoic Stertinius, and then turned Stoic him- 
self, or at least affected to be one by his 
long beard. 

DAMIA. \lrxESiA.]- 

DAMNONII [-oram). (1) Or Dumnokb 
or Drirxrxii, a powerful people in the S."W. 
of Britain, inhabiting Com w all, Devonshire, 
and the TV. part of Somersetshire, from whom 
was called the promontory Dasesoxiew, also 
OcnrsTTi [C. Lizard', in Cornwall. — (2) Or 
Dawntt, a people in N. Britain, inhabiting 
parts of Perth, Argyle, Sterling, and Bum- 
barton-sh ires. 

DAMOCLES '-is', a Syraeusan, one of the 
companions and flatterers of the eider Diony- 
sius. Damocles having extolled the great 
felicity of Dionysius on account of his wealth 
and power, the tyrant invited him to try 
what his happiness really was, and placed 
him at a magnificent banquet, in the midst of 
which Damocles saw a naked sword suspended 
over his head by a single horse-hair — a sight 
which quickly dispelled all his visions of 
happiness. 

DAMON (-onis). (1) Of Athens, a celebrated 
musician and sophist, said to have been a 
teacher of Socrates. — .2 A Pythagorean, and 
Mend of Phtstias (not Pythias). When the 
latter was condemned to die for a plot against 
Dionysius I., of Syracuse, he obtained leave 
of the tyrant to depart, for the purpose of 
arranging his domestic affairs, upon Damon 
offering himself to be put to death instead of 
his Mend, should he fail to return. Phin- 
tias arrived just in time to redeem Damon ; 
and Dionysius was so struck with this in- 
stance of friendship on both sides, that he 
pardoned the cr imina l, and entreated to be 
admitted as a third into their bond of brother- 
hood. 

DANA '-ae N , a great city of Cappadocia, 
probably the same as the later Tyasa. 

DANAE [-es), daughter of Acrisius king 
of Argos, was confined by her father in a 
brazen tower, because an oracle had declared 
that she would give birth to a son, who should 



kill his grandfather. But here she became 
the mother of Perseus by Zeus ^Jupiter^ , who 
visited her in a shower of gold, and thus 
mocked the precautions of the king. Acrisius 
shut up both mother and child in a chest, 
which he cast into the sea ; but the chest 
floated to the island of Seriphus, where both 
were rescued by Dictys. As to the fulfilment 
of the oracle, see Pee set- s. An Italian legend 
related that Danae came to Italy, built the 
town of Ardea, and married Pilumnus, by 
whom she became the mother of Daunus, the 
ancestor of Turnus. 




Danae. (Museo Borbonico.) 
DANAI. "Daxaes.] 

DAN AIDES (-uni), the 50 daughters of 
Danaus. ^Dasaes,] 

DaNACS (-i), son of Belus and twin- 
brother of Aegyptus. Belus had assigned 
Libya to Danaus, but the latter, fearing his 
brother and his brother's sons, fled with his 
50 daughters to Argos. Here he was elected 
king by the Argives in place of Gelanor, the 
reigning monarch. The story of the murder 
of the 50 sons of Aegyptus by the 50 daugh- 
ters of Danaus :the Danaides is given under 
Aegyptes. There was one exception to the 
murderous deed. The life of Lynceus was 
spared by his wife Hypernmestra ; and ac- 
cording to the common tradition he afterwards 
avenged the death of his brothers by killing 
his father-in-law, Danaus. According to the 



DANUBIUS. 



137 



DARES. 




DANUBIUS (-i : Danube, in Germ. Donau), 
called Ister by the Greeks, one of the chief 
rivers of Europe, rising in M. Abnoba the 
Black Eorest, and falling into the Black sea 
after a course of 17 70 miles. The Danube 
formed the N. boundary of the empire, with 
the exception of the time that Dacia was a 
Roman province. In the Roman period the 
upper part of the river from its source as far 
as Vienna was called Danubius, while the 
lower part to its entrance in the Black Sea 
was named Ister. 

DAPHNE (-es). (1) Daughter of the river- 
god Peneus, in Thessaly, was pursued by 
Apollo, who was charmed by her beauty ; 
but as she was on the point of being overtaken 
by him, she prayed for aid, and was meta- 
morphosed into a laurel-tree {Io.$vy,), which 
became in consequence the favourite tree of 
Apollo. — (2) A beautiful spot, 5 miles S. of 
Antioch in Syria, to which it formed a sort 
of park or pleasure garden. It was cele- 
brated for the grove and temple dedicated to 
Apollo. 

DAPHNIS (-idis), a Sicilian shepherd, son 
of Hermes (Mercury) by a nymph, was 
taught by Pan to play on the flute, and was 
regarded as the inventor of bucolic poetry. 
A Naiad]to whom he proved faithless punished 
him with blindness, whereupon his father 
Hermes translated him to heaven. 

DARDANI (-oruni), a people in Upper 
Moesia, occupying part of Illyricum. 

DARDANIA (-ae). (1) A district of the 
Troad, lying along the Hellespont, S. W. of 
Abydos, and adjacent to the territory of 
Ilium. Its people (Dardani) appear in the 



Trojan War, under Aeneas, in close alliance 
with the Trojans, with whose name theirs is 
often interchanged, especially by the Roman 
poets. — (2) A city in this district. See Dar- 
danus, No. 2. 

DARDANUS (-i). (1) Son of Zeus (Jupi- 
ter) and Electra, the mythical ancestor of 
the Trojans, and through them of the Ro- 
mans. The Greek traditions usually made 
him a king in Arcadia, from whence he emi- 
grated first to Samothrace, and afterwards to 
Asia, where he received a tract of land from 
king Teucer, on which he built the town of 
Dardania. His grandson Tros removed to 
Troy the Palladium, which had belonged to 
his grandfather. According to the Italian 
traditions, Dardanus was the son of Cory- 

I thus, an Etruscan prince of Corythus (Corto- 
na) ; and, as in the Greek tradition, he 
afterwards emigrated to Phrygia. — (2) Also 
Daedanl-m and -htm, a Greek city in the 
Troad on the Hellespont, 12 Roman miles 

j from Ilium, built by Aeolian colonists, at 

I some distance from the site of the ancient 
city Dardania. From Dardanus arose the 

I name of the Castles of the Dardanelles, after 
which the Hellespont is now called. 

DARES (-etis), a priest of Hephaestus 

I (Yulcan) at Troy, mentioned in the Iliad, to 
whom was ascribed in antiquity an Iliad, 
believed to be more ancient than the Homeric 
poems. This work, which was undoubtedly 
the composition of a sophist, is lost ; but 
there is extant a Latin work in prose in 14 
chapters, on the destruction of Troy, bearing 
the title Daretis Phrygii de Excidio Trojae 
Historia, and purporting to be a translation 



DARIUS. 



138 



DECK'S, 



of the work of Dares by Cornelius Nepos. 
But the Latin -work is evidently of much later 
origin ; and it is supposed by some to have 
been written even as late as the 12th century. 

DARIUS (-i). (1) King of Persia, b.c. 5 21 
— 4S5, son of Hystaspes, was one of the 7 
Persian chiefs who destroyed the usurper 
Smebdis. The 7 chiefs agreed that the one 
of them whose horse neighed first at an ap- 
pointed time and place, should become king ; 
and as the horse of Darius neighed first, he 
was declared king. He divided the empire 
into 20 satrapies, assigning to each its amount 
of tribute. A few years after his accession 
the Babylonians revolted, but after a siege of 
20 months, Babylon was taken by a stratagem 
of Zofybes, about 516. He then invaded 
Scythia and penetrated into the interior of 
modern Russia, but after losing a large num- 
ber of men by famine, and being unable to 
meet with the enemy, he was obliged to re- 
treat. On his return to Asia, he sent parr of 
his forces, under Megabazus, to subdue 
Thrace and Macedonia, which thus became 
subject to the Persian empire. The most 
important event in the reign of Darius was 
the commencement of the great war between 
the Persians and the Greeks. The history of 
this war belongs to the biographies of other 
men. [Aeistagoeas, Histiaees, Maedoxies, 
Meltiades. ] In 501 the Ionian Greeks re- 
volted ; they were assisted by the Athenians, 
who burnt Sardis, and thus provoked the 
hostility of Darius. Darius sent against the 
Greeks Mardonius in 492, and afterwards 
Datis and Artaphernes, who sustained a 
memorable defeat by the Athenians at Mara- 
thon, 490. Darius now resolved to call out 
the whole force of his empire for the purpose 
of subduing Greece ; but, after 3 years of 
preparation, his attention was called off by 
the rebellion of Egypt. He died in 4S5, 
leaving the execution of his plans to his son 
Xerxes. — 2; King of Persia, 424 — 405, 
named Ochtjs before his accession, and then 
surnamed Notetos, or the Bastard, from his 
being one of the bastard sons of Artaxerxes I, 
He obtained the crown by putting his brother 
Sogdianus to death, and married Parysatis, by 
whom he had 2 sons, Artaxerxes II., who 
succeeded him, and Cyrus the younger. Darius 
was governed by eunuchs, and the weakness 
of his government was shown by repeated 
insurrections of his satraps. — (3) Last king 
of Persia, 336 — 331, named Codoxaxes be- 
fore his accession, was raised to the throne 
by Bagoas, after the murder of Aeses. The 
history of his conquest by Alexander the 
Great, and of his death, is given in the life \ 
of Alexaxdee. 

DASSAPETII (-oriun}, or DASSAEITAE, 



DASSABETAE (-arum), a people in Greek 
Hlyria on the borders of Macedonia : their 
chief town was Lychxides on a hill, on the 
X. side of the lake Lychxitis, which was so 
called after the town. 

DATAMES (4s), a distinguished Persian 
general, a Carian by birth, was satrap of 
Cilicia under Artaxerxes II. Mnemon' , but 
revolted against the king. He defeated the 
generals who were sent against him, but was 
at length assassinated, e.c. 362. Cornelius 
Nepos, who has written his life, calls him the 
bravest and most able of all barbarian gene- 
rals, except Hamilcar and Hannibal. 

DATIS (-is), a Mede, commanded, along 
with Artaphernes, the Persian army which 
was defeated at Marathon, b.c. 490. 

DATUM or DATES '4;, a Thracian town, 
on the Strymonic gulf, subject to Macedonia, 
with gold mines in Mt. Pangaeus, in the 
neighbourhood, whence came the proverb, 
a " Datum of good things." 

DAELIS (-idis; or " D AULIA (-ae), an 
ancient town in Phocis, situated on a lofty 
hill, celebrated in mythology as the residence 
of the Thracian king Tereus, and as the 
scene of the tragic story of Phieomeea and 
Peocxe. Hence Daelias is the surname both 
of Procne and Philomela. 

DAtJNIA. [Apulia.] 

DACXTTS (-i), son of Pilumnus and Danae, 
wife of Venilia, and ancestor of Turnus. 

DECEBALLS (-T), a celebrated king of the 
Dacians, to whom Domitian paid an annual 
tribute. He was defeated by Trajan, and put 
an end to his own life ; whereupon Dacia 
became a Roman province, a.d. 106. 

DECELEA or -IA >ae . a demus of Attica, 
X. \V. of Athens, on the borders of Boeotia, 
near the sources of the Cephissus, seized and 
fortified by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian 
war. 

DECETIA (-ae; Denize), a city of the 
Aedui, in Gallia Lugdunensis, on an island 
in the Liger Loire). 

DECIDirS SAX_A. ^Saxa." 1 

DECITS (-i) MLS (Muris), P., plebeians. 
(1) Consul b.c. 340 with T. Manlius Torqua- 
tus, in the great Latin war. Each of the 
consuls had a vision in the night before 
fighting with the Latins, announcing that the 
general of one side and the army of the other 
were devoted to death. The consuls there- 
upon agreed that the one whose wing first 
began to waver should devote himself and the 
army of the enemy to destruction. Decius 
commanded the left wing, which began to 
give way ; whereupon he devoted himself and 
the army of the enemy to destruction, then 
rushed into the thickest of the enemy, and 
was slain, leaving the victory to the Pvomans. 



DECIUS. 



139 



DELPHI. 



— (2) Son of the preceding-, 4 times consul, 
imitated the example of his father by devot- 
ing himself to death at the battle of Senti- 
num, b.c. 295. — (3) Son of No. 2, consul 
279, in the war against Pyrrhus. 

DECIUS (-i), Roman emperor, a.d. 249 — 
251, a native of Pannonia, and the successor 
of Philippus, whom he slew in battle. He 
fell in battle against the Goths, together with 
his son, in 251. In his reign the Christians 
were persecuted with great severity. 

DECUMATES AGEI. [Agri Dectjmates.] 

DEIANIRA (-ae), daughter of Althaea and 
Oeneus, and sister of Meleager. Achelous 
and Hercules both loved Deianira, and 
fought for the possession of her. Hercules 
was victorious, and she became his wife. She 
was the unwilling cause of her husband's 
death by presenting him with the poisoned 
robe which the centaur Nessus gave her. In 
despair she put an end to her own life. For 
details, see Hercules. 

DEIDAMIA (-ae), daughter of Lyeomedes, 
in the island of Scyrus. When Achilles was 
concealed there in maiden's attire, she be- 
came by him the mother of Pyrrhus or 
Neoptolemus. 

DEIOCES (-is), first king of Media, after 
the Medes had thrown off the supremacy of 
the Assyrians, reigned b.c 709 — 656. He 
built the city of Ecbatana, which he made 
the royal residence. He was succeeded by 
his son, Phraortes. 

DEIOXIDES (-ae), son of Deione, by 
Apollo, i.e., Miletus. 

DEIOTARUS (-i), Tetrarch of Galatia, ad- 
hered to the Romans in their wars against 
Mithridates, and was rewarded by the senate 
with the title of king. In the civil war he 
sided with Pompey, and was present at the 
battle of Pharsalia, b.c. 48. He is remark- 
able as having been defended by Cicero before 
Caesar, in the house of the latter at Rome, in 
the speech (pro Eege Deiotaro) still extant. 

DEIPHOBE (-es), the Sibyl at Cumae, 
daughter of Glaucus. [Sibylla.] 

DEIPHOBUS (-i), son of Priam and He- 
cuba, who married Helen after the death of 
Paris. On the capture of Troy by the Greeks 
he was slain and fearfully mangled by 
Menelaus. 

DELIUM (-i), a town on the coast of 
Boeotia, in the territory of Tanagra, near the 
Attic frontier, named after a temple of 
Apollo similar to that at Delos. Here the 
Athenians were defeated by the Boeotians, 
B.c. 424. 

DELIUS (-i) and DELIA (-ae), surnames 
of Apollo and. Artemis (Diana) respectively, 
from_the island of Delos. 

DELOS or DELUS (-i), the smallest of the 



islands called Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea. 
According to a legend, it was called out of 
the deep by the trident of Poseidon (Neptune), 
but was a floating island until Zeus (Jupiter), 
fastened it by adamantine chains to the 
bottom of the sea, that it might be a secure 
resting-place to Leto (Latona) for the birth of 
Apollo and Artemis (Diana). Hence it 
became the most holy seat of the worship of 
Apollo. We learn from history that Delos 
was peopled by Ionians, for whom it was the 
chief centre of political and religious union, 
in the time of Homer. It was afterwards 
the common treasury of the Greek confede- 
racy for carrying on the war with Persia 
but the treasury was afterwards transferred 
to Athens. It was long subject to Athens ; 
but it possessed an extensive commerce 
which was increased by the downfal of 
Corinth, when Delos became the chief empo- 
rium for the trade in slaves. The city of 
Delos stood on the W. side of the island at 
the foot of Mt. Cynthus (whence the god's 
surname of Cynthius). It contained a temple 
of Leto, and the great temple of Apollo. 
With this temple were connected games, 
called Delia, which were celebrated every 4 
years, and were said to have been founded by 
Theseus. A like origin is ascribed to the 
sacred embassy (Theoria), which the Athe- 
nians sent to Delos every year. The greatest 
importance was attached to the preservation 
of the sanctity of the island ; and its sanctity 
secured it, though wealthy and unfortified, 
from plunder. 

DELPHI (-orum : Kastri), a small town in 
Phocis, but one of the most celebrated in 
Greece, on account of its oracle of Apollo. It 
was situated on a steep declivity on the S. 
slope of Mt. Parnassus, and its site resembled 
the cavea of a great theatre. It was shut in 
on the N. by a barrier of rocky mountains, 
which were cleft in the centre into 2 great 
cliffs with peaked summits, between which 
issued the waters of the Castalian spring. 
It was regarded as the central point of the 
whole earth, and was hence called the "navel 
of the earth." It was originally called Pytho, 
by which name it is alone mentioned in 
Homer. Delphi was colonised at an early 
period by Doric settlers from the neighbour- 
ing town of Lycorea, on the heights of Par- 
nassus. The government was in the hands 
of a few distinguished families of Doric origin, 
j From them were taken the chief magistrates 
and the priests. The temple of Apollo con- 
tained immense treasures ; for not only were 
rich offerings presented to it by kings and 
private persons, but many of the Greek states 
had in the temple separate thesauri, in which 
they deposited, for the sake of security, inany 



DELTA. 



140 



DEMETER. 



of their valuable treasures. In the centre of 
the temple there was a small opening in the 
ground, from which, from time to time, an 
intoxicating vapour arose. Over this chasm 
there stood a tripod, on which the priestess, 
called Pythia, took her seat whenever the 
oracle was to be consulted. The words which 
she uttered after exhaling the vapour were 
believed to contain the revelations of Apollo. 
They were carefully written down by the 
priests, and afterwards communicated in 
hexameter verse to the persons who had come 
to consult the oracle. If the Pythia spoke in 
prose, her words were immediately turned 
into verse by a poet employed for the purpose. 
The oracle is said to have been discovered by 
its having thrown into convulsions some goats 
which had strayed to the mouth of the cave. 
The Pythian games were celebrated at Delphi, 
and it was one of the 2 places of meeting of 
the Amphictyonic council. 
DELTA. _ [Aegyptus.]' 
DEMADES (-is), an Athenian orator, who 
belonged to the Macedonian party, and was a 
bitter enemy of Demosthenes. He was put 
to death by Antipater in b. c. 318. 

DEMARATUS or DAMARATUS (-i). (1) 
King of Sparta, reigned from about b. c. 510 
to 491. He was deposed by his colleague 
Cleomenes, b.c. 491, and thereupon repaired 
to the Persian coast, where he was kindly 
received by Darius. He accompanied Xerxes 
in his invasion of Greece, and recommended 
the king not to rely too confidently upon his 
countless hosts. — (2) A merchant noble of 
Corinth, who settled afterwards in Etruria, 
and became the father of Aruns and Lucumo 
(Tarquinius Priscius) . 

DEMETER, called CERES (-eris) by the Ro- 
mans, one of the great divinities of the Greeks, 
was the goddess of the earth, and her name 
probably signified Mother -Earth (yn ^rr,^). 
She was the protectress of agriculture and of 
all the fruits of the earth. She was the 
daughter of Cronus (Saturn) and Rhea, and 
sister of Zeus (Jupiter), by whom she became 
the mother of Persephone (Proserpine). Zeus, 
without the knowledge of Demeter, had pro- 
mised Persephone to A'idoneus (Pluto) ; and 
while the unsuspecting maiden was gathering 
flowers in the Nysian plain in Asia, the earth 
suddenly opened and she was carried off by 
A'idoneus. After wandering for some days in 
search of her daughter, Demeter learnt from 
the Sun, that it was A'idoneus who had carried 
her off. Thereupon she quitted Olympus 
in anger and dwelt upon earth among men, 
conferring blessings wherever she was kindly 
received, and severely punishing those who 
repulsed her. In this manner she came to 
Celeus, at Eleusis. [Celeus.] As the goddess 



still continued angry, and did not allow 
the earth to produce any fruits, Zeus sent 
Hermes (Mercury) into the lower world to 
fetch back Persephone. Aidoneus consented, 
but gave Persephone part of a pomegranate 
to eat. Demeter returned to Olympus with 
her daughter, but as the latter had eaten in 
the lower world, she was obliged to spend one 
third of the year with Aidoneus, continuing 
with her mother the remainder of the year. 
The earth now brought forth fruit again. This 
is the ancient legend as preserved in the 
Homeric hymn, but it is variously modified 
in later traditions. In the Latin poets the 
scene of the rape is near Enna, in Sicily ; and 
Ascalaphus, who had alone seen Persephone 
eat any thing in the lower world, revealed the 
fact, and was in consequence turned into an 
owl by Demeter. [Ascalaphus.] The mean- 
ing of the legend is obvious : — Persephone, 
who is carried off to the lower world, is the 
seed-corn, which remains concealed in the 
ground part of the year ; Persephone, who 
returns to her mother, is the corn which rises 
from the ground, and nourishes men and 
animals. Later philosophical writers, and 
perhaps the mysteries also, referred the dis- 
appearance and return of Persephone to the 
burial of the body of man and the immortality 
of his soul. — The other legends about Demeter 
are of less importance. To escape the pursuit 
of Poseidon she changed herself into a mare, 
but the god effected his purpose, and she 
became the mother of the celebrated horse 
Arion. [Arion, 2.] — She fell in love with 
Iasion, and lay with him in a thrice -ploughed 
field in Crete : their offspring was Plutus 
(Wealth). [Iasion.] — She punished with 
fearful hunger Erysichthon, who had cut 
down her sacred grove. [Erysichthon.] — 
In Attica Demeter was worshipped with great 
splendour. The Athenians pretended that 
agriculture was first practised in their coun- 
try, and that Triptolemus of Eleusis, the 
favourite of Demeter, was the first who in- 
vented the plough and sowed corn. [Trip- 
tolemus.] Every year at Athens the festival 
of the Meusinia was celebrated in honour of 
these goddesses. The festival of the Thes- 
mophoria was also celebrated in her honour 
as well at Athens as in other parts of Greece : 
it was intended to commemorate the intro- 
duction of the laws and the regulations of 
civilised life, which were ascribed to Demeter, 
since agriculture is the basis of civilisation.— 
In works of art Demeter is represented in full 
attire. Around her head she wears a garland 
of corn-ears or a simple riband, and in her 
hand she holds a sceptre, corn-ears or a poppy, 
sometimes also a torch and the mystic basket. 
The Romans received from Sicily the worship 



DEMETRIAS. 



141 



DEMETRIUS. 



of Demeter, to whom they gave the name of 
Ceres. They celebrated in her honour the 




Demeter (Ceres). (Mus. Bor., vol. 9, tav. 35.) 



festival of the Cerealia. She was looked upon 
by the Romans much in the same light as 
Tellus. Pigs were sacrificed to both divinities. 
Her worship acquired considerable political 
importance at Rome. The property of traitors 
against the republic was often made over to 
her" temple. The decrees of the senate were 
deposited in her temple for the inspection of 
the tribunes of the people. 

DEMETRIAS (-adis), a town in Magnesia, 
in Thessaly, on the innermost recess of the 
Pagasaean bay, founded by Demetrius Poli- 
oreetes, and peopled by the inhabitants of 
Ioclus and the surrounding towns. 

DEMETRIUS (-i:) I. Kings of Macedonia. 
— (l)Surnamed Poliorcetes or the Besieger, 
son of Antigonus, king of Asia, and Strato- 
nice. At an early age he gave proofs of 
distinguished bravery, and during his father's 
lifetime was engaged in constant campaigns 
against either Cassander or Ptolemy. In his 
siege of Rhodes (b.c. 305) he constructed 
those gigantic machines to assail the walls of 
the city, which gave him the surname of 
Poliorcetes. He at length concluded a treaty 
with the Rhodians (304). After the defeat 
and death of his father at the battle of Ipsus 
(301), the fortunes of Demetrius were for a 
time under a cloud ; but in 294 he was 



acknowledged as king by the Macedonian 
army, and succeeded in keeping possession of 
Macedonia for 7 years. In 287 he was de- 
serted by his own troops, who proclaimed 
Pyrrhus king of Macedonia. He then crossed 
over to Asia, and after meeting with alter- 
nate success and misfortune, was at length 
obliged to surrender himself prisoner to 
Seleucus (286). That king kept him in con- 
finement, but did not treat him with harsh- 
ness. Demetrius died in the 3rd year of his 
imprisonment and the 56th of his age (213). 
He was one of the most remarkable characters 
of his time, being a man of restless activity 
of mind, fertility of resource, and daring 
promptitude in the execution of his schemes. 
His besetting sin was his unbounded licen- 
tiousness. — (2) Son of Antigonus Gonatas, 
reigned b.c. 239 — 229. 

II. Kings of Syria. — (1) Soter (reigned b.c. 
162 — 150), was the son of Seleucus IV. 
Philopator and grandson of Antiochus the 
Great. While yet a child he had been sent 
to Rome by his father as a hostage, where he 
remained until he was 23 years of age. He 
then fled to Syria, and was received as king 
by the Syrians. An impostor named Balas 
raised an insurrection against him and slew 
him. He left 2 sons, Demetrius Xicator and 
Antiochus Sidetes, both of whom subsequently 
ascended the throne. — (2) Nicator (b.c. 146 
— 142, and again 128 — 125), son of Deme- 
trius Soter. With the assistance of Ptolemy 
Philometor he defeated Balas, and recovered 
his kingdom ; but, having rendered himself 
odious to his subjects by his vices and cruel- 
ties, he was driven out of Syria by Tryphon, 
who set up Antiochus, the infant son of 
Alexander Balas as a pretender against him. 
Demetrius retired to Babylon, and from 
thence marched against the Parthians, by 
whom he was defeated and taken prisoner, 
138. He remained as a captive in Parthia 
10 years. Demetrius again obtained posses- 
sion of the Syrian throne in 128 ; but while 
engaged in an expedition against Egypt, 
Ptolemy Physcon set up against him the 
pretender Alexander Zebina, by whom he was 
defeated and compelled to fly. He fled to Tyre, 
where he was assassinated, 125. 

III. Literary. — Phalerees, so called from 
his birthplace, the Attic demos of Phalerus, 
where he was born about b.c 345. His 
parents were poor, but by his talents and 
perseverance he rose to the highest honours 
at Athens, and became distinguished both as 
an orator, a statesman, a philosopher, and a 
poet. The government of Athens was en- 
trusted to him by Cassander in 317, the 
duties of which he discharged with ex- 
traordinary distinction. When Demetrius 



DEMOCEDES. 



142 



DEMOSTHENES. 



Poliorcetes approached Athens in 307 Phale- 
rens was obliged to take to night. He settled 
at Alexandria in Egypt, and exerted some 
influence in the foundation of the Alexandrine 
library. He was the last of the Attic orators 
worthy of the name. 

DEMOCEDES, a celebrated physician of 
Crotona. He practised medicine successively 
at Aegina, Athens, and Samos. He was taken 
prisoner along with Polycrates, in b.c. 522, 
and was sent to Susa to the court of Darius. 
Here he acquired great reputation, by curing 
the king's foot and the breast of the queen 
Atossa. Notwithstanding his honours at the 
Persian court, he was always desirous of re- 
turning to his native country. In order to 
effect this, he procured by means of Atossa 
that he should be sent with some nobles to 
explore the coast of Greece, and to ascertain 
in what parts it might be most successfully 
attacked. At Tarentum he escaped, and 
settled at Crotona, where he married the 
daughter of the famous wrestler, Milo. 

DEMOCBITUS (-i), a celebrated Greek 
philosopher, was born at Abdera in Thrace, 
about b.c. 460. He spent the large inhe- 
ritance, which his father left him, on travels 
into distant countries in pursuit of know- 
ledge. He was a man of a most sterling and 
honourable character. He died in 361 at a 
very advanced age. There is a tradition that 
he deprived himself of his sight, that he 
might be less disturbed in his pursuits ; but 
it is more probable that he may have lost his 
sight by too severe application to study. 
This loss, however, did not disturb the 
cheerful disposition of his mind, which 
prompted him to look, in all circumstances, 
at the cheerful side of things, which later 
writers took to mean, that he always laughed 
at the follies of men. His knowledge was 
most extensive. It embraced not only the 
natural sciences, mathematics, mechanics, 
grammar, music, and philosophy, but various 
other useful arts. His works were composed 
in the Ionic dialect, though not without 
some admixture of the local peculiarities 
of Abdera. They are nevertheless much 
praised by Cicero on account of the live- 
liness of their style, and are in this re- 
spect compared even with the works of Plato. 
Democritus was the founder of the atomic 
theory. 

DEMOPHON or DEMOPHOON (-ontis). 
(1) Son of Celeus and MetanTra, whom 
Demeter wished to make immortal. Eor 
details see Celetjs. — (2) Son of Theseus and 
Phaedra, accompanied the Greeks against 
Troy, and on his return gained the love 
of Phyllis, daughter of the Thracian king 
Sithon, and promised to marry her. Before 



the nuptials were celebrated, he went to 
Attica to settle his affairs, and as he tarried 
longer than Phyllis had expected, she thought 
that she was forgotten, and put an end to 
her life ; but she was metamorphosed into a 
tree._ Demophon_became king of Athens. 

DEMOSTHENES (-is). (1) Son of Aicis- 
thenes, a celebrated Athenian general in the 
Peloponnesian war. In b.c. 425 he rendered 
important assistance to Cleon, in making 
prisoners of the Spartans in the island of 
Sphacteria. In 413 he was sent with a large 
fleet to Sicily to assist Nicias, but both com- 
manders were defeated, obliged to surrender, 
and put to death by the Syraeusans. — (2) The 
greatest of Athenian orators, was the son of 
Demosthenes, and was born inthe Attic demos 
of Paeania, about b. c. 385. At 7 years of 
age he lost his father, who left him and his 
younger sister to the care of guardians, who 
neglected him, and squandered his property. 
When he was 20 years of age Demosthenes 
accused Aphobus, one of his guardians, and 
obtained a verdict in his favour. Emboldened 
by this success, Demosthenes ventured to 
come forward as a speaker in the public as- 
sembly. His first effort was unsuccessful, 
but he was encouraged to persevere by the 
actor Satyrus, who gave him instruction in 
action and declamation. In becoming an 
orator, Demosthenes had to struggle against 
the greatest physical disadvantages. His 
voice was weak and. his utterance defective ; 
and. it was only by the most unwearied ex- 
ertions that he succeeded in overcoming the 
obstacles which nature had placed in his way. 
Thus it is said that he spoke with pebbles in his 
mouth, to cure himself of stammering ; that 
he repeated verses of the poets as he ran up 
hill, to strengthen his voice; that he de- 
claimed on the sea-shore, to accustom himself 
to the noise and confusion of the popular 
assembly ; that he lived for months in a cave 
under ground, engaged in constantly writing 
out the history of Thucydides, to form a 
standard for his own style. It was about 355 
that Demosthenes began to obtain reputation 
as a speaker in the public assembly. His 
eloquence soon gained him the favour of the 
people. The influence which he acquired he 
employed for the good of his country, and 
not for his own aggrandisement. He clearly 
saw that Philip had resolved to subjugate 
Greece, and he therefore devoted all his 
powers to resist the aggressions of the Mace- 
donian monarch. For 14 years he continued 
the struggle against Philip, and neither 
threats nor bribes could turn him from his 
purpose. It is true he failed ; but the failure 
must not be considered his fault. The 
struggle was brought to a close by the battle 



DENT ATI'S. 



143 



DIAGORAS. 



of Chaeronea (338), by which the indepen- 
dence of Greece was crushed. Demosthenes 
was present at the battle, and fled like 
thousands of others. At this time many 
accusations were brought against him. Of 
these one of the most formidable was the 
accusation of Ctesiphon by Aeschines, but 
which was in reality directed against Demos- 
thenes himself. Aeschines accused Ctesiphon 
for proposing that Demosthenes should be re- 
warded for his services with a golden crown 
in the theatre. The trial was delayed for 
reasons unknown to us till 330, when De- 
mosthenes delivered his " Oration on the 
Crown." Aeschines was defeated and with- 
drew from Athens. [Aeschines.] Demos- 
thenes was one of those who were suspected 
of having received money from Harpalus 
in 325. [Hab.pai.ijs.] His guilt is doubtful ; 
but he was condemned, and thrown into 
prison, from which however he escaped. 
He took up his residence partly at Troezene 
and partly in Aegina, looking daily across 
the sea to his beloved native land. His exile 
did not last long. On the death of Alexander 
(323) the Greek states rose in arms against 
Macedonia. Demosthenes was recalled and 
returned in triumph. But in the following 
year (322) the confederate Greeks were de- 
feated, and he took refuge in the temple 
of Poseidon (Xeptune), in the island of 
Calauria. Here he was pursued by the 
emissaries of Antipater ; whereupon he took 
poison, which he had for some time carried 
about his person, and died in the temple, 322. 
Sixty-one orations of Demosthenes have come 
down to us. Of these 17 were political, the 
most important being the 12 Philippic ora- 
tions ; 42 were judicial, the most celebrated 
being the orations Against Midias, Against 
Leptines, On the dishonest conduct of 
Aeschines during his embassy to Philip, and 
On the Crown ; and 2 were show speeches, 
both of which are spurious, as also probably 
are some of the others. 

DEXTATES, CTRIES. [Crarus.] 

DEO, another name for Demeter (Ceres) ; 
hence her daughter Persephone is called by 
the patronymic Deois and Deoine. 

DERBE (-es), a town in Lycaonia, on the 
frontiers of Isauria. 

DERCETIS (-is), DERCETO (-us), also 
called Atargatis, a Syrian goddess. She of- 
fended Aphrodite (Venus', who in consequence 
inspired her with love for a youth, to whom 
she bore a daughter Semiramis ; but ashamed 
of her frailty, she killed the youth, exposed 
her child in a desert, and threw herself into a 
lake near Ascalon. Her child was fed by 
doves, and she herself was changed into a 
fish. The Syrians thereupon worshipped her 



as a goddess. The upper part of her statue 
j represented a beautiful woman, while the 

lower part terminated in the tail of a fish, 
j She appears to be the same as Dagon men- 
| tioned in the Old Testament as a deity of the 
j Philistines. 

DERTOXA (-ae : Tcrtona), an important 

town in Liguria, on the road from Genua to 

Placentia. 

DEUCALION (-onis), son of Prometheus 
and Clymene, king of Phthia, in Thessaly. 
"When Zeus (Jupiter) had resolved to destroy 
the degenerate race of men, Deucalion and 
his wife Pyrrha were, on account of their 
piety, the only mortals saved. On the advice 
of his father, Deucalion built a ship, in which 
he and his wife floated in safety during the 9 
days' flood, which destroyed all the other in- 
habitants of Hellas. At last the ship rested, 
according to the more general tradition, on 
Mount Parnassus in Phocis. Deucalion and 
his wife consulted the sanctuary of Themis 
how the race of man might be restored. The 
| goddess bade them cover . their heads and 
j throw the bones of their mother behind them. 
After some doubts respecting the meaning of 
this command, they agreed in interpreting 
the bones of their mother to mean the stones 
of the earth. They accordingly threw stones 
I behind them, and from those thrown by 
Deucalion there sprang up men, from those 
thrown by Pyrrha women. Deucalion then 
descended from Parnassus, built his first 
abode at Opus or at Cynus, and became by 
Pyrrha the father of Hellen, Amphictyon, 
Protogenia, and others. 

DEYA. (1) {Chester), the principal town 
of the Cornavii in Britain, on the Seteia 
{Bee). — (2) {Dee), an estuary in Scotland, on 
which stood the town Dovanna, near the 
modern Aberdeen. 

DIA, the ancient name of Xaxos. 
DIABLIXTES. [Aelerci.] 
DIACRIA (-ae), a mountainous district in 
the N.E. of Attica, including the plain of 
Marathon. [Attica.] The inhabitants of 
this district were the most democratical of 
the 3 parties into which the inhabitants of 
Attica were divided in the time of Solon. 
DIAGORAS (-ae). (1) Son of Damagetus 
j of Ialysus in Rhodes, celebrated for his own 
I victories and those of his sons and grandsons, 
in the Grecian games. He gained his Olympic 
j victory, b.c 464. — (2) Surnamed the Atheist, 
a Greek philosopher and poet, a native of 
the island of Melos, and a disciple of Demo- 
critus. In consequence of his attacks upon 
j the popular religion, and especially upon the 
I Eleusinian mysteries, he was formally ac- 
cused of impiety, b.c. 411, and fearing the 
I results of a trial, fled from Athens. He went 



DIANA, 



114 



DIDO. 



first to Pallene, and afterwards to Corinth of Pyginalion, who succeeded to the crown 
■where he died. after the death of his father. Dido "was 

DIANA (-ae), an ancient Italian divinity, married to her wealthy uncle, Acerbas, who 
whom the Romans identified with the Greek was murdered by Pygmalion. Upon this 
Artemis. Her worship is said to hare been Dido secretly sailed from Tyre with his 
introduced at Eome by Servius Tullius, who treasures, accompanied by some noble Ty- 
dedicated a temple to her on the Aventine. j rians, and passed over to Africa. Here she 
At Rome Diana was the goddess of light, purchased as much land as might be enclosed 
and her name contains the same root as the j with the hide of a bull, but she ordered 
word dies. As Dianus (Janus), or the god the hide to be cut up into the thinnest 
of light, represented the sun, so Diana, the possible stripes, and with them she sur- 
goddess of light, represented the moon. The ■ rounded a spot, on which she built a citadel 
attributes of the Greek Artemis were after- ; called Byrsa (from $v%tr«.^ i.e., the hide of a 
wards ascribed to the Roman Diana. For t bull). Around this fort the city of Carthage 
details see Artemis. J arose, and soon became a powerful and 

DIANIOI [4 : Denia), a town in Hispania flourishing place. The neighbouring king, 
Tarraconensis on a promontory of the same Hiarbas, jealous of the prosperity of the 
name [C. Martin} founded by the Massilians. new city, demanded the hand of Dido in 
Here stood a celebrated temple of Diana, j marriage, threatening Carthage with war in 
from which the town derived its name. case of refusal. Dido had vowed eternal 

DICAEA (-ae), a town in Thrace, on the fidelity to her late husband ; but seeing 
lakeJBistonis. ^ | that the Carthaginians expected her to 

DICAEARCHIA. [Puteoli.] j comply with the demands of Hiarbas, she 

DICAEARCHCS (-i), a celebrated Peripa- pretended to yield to their wishes, and under 
tetic philosopher, geographer, and historian, I pretence of soothing the manes of Acerbas by 
a native of Messana in Sicily, a disciple of ' expiatory sacrifices, she erected a funeral 
Aristotle and a friend of Theophrastus. He ! pile, on which she stabbed herself in presence 
wrote a vast number of works, of which only of her people. After her death she was wor- 
fragments are extant. ] shipped by the Carthaginians as a divinity. 

DICTAEUS. [Dicte.] i Tirgil has inserted in his Aeneid the legend 

DICTE (-es), a mountain in the E. of ', of Dido, with various modifications. Accord- 
Crete, where Zeus (Jupiter) is said to have ing to the common chronology, there was an 
been brought up. Hence he bore the sur- interval of more than 300 years between the 
name Diet a e us. The Roman poets frequently > capture of Troy (b.c. 1184) and the foun- 
employ the adjective Dictaeus as synonymous dation of Carthage (b.c. 853) ; but Virgil, 
with Cretan. j nevertheless, makes Dido a contemporary of 

DICTTXXA (-ae), a surname both of Bri- | Aeneas, with whom she falls in love on his 
tomartis and Diana, which two divinities 
were subsequently identified. The name is 
connected with ^ixwo9 i a hunting-net, and 
was borne by Britomartis and Diana as god- 
desses of the chase. 

DICTYS [-yis or -yos) CRETEXSIS (-is), 
the reputed author of an extant work in 
Latin on the Trojan war, divided into 6 
books, and entitled Ephemeris Belli Trojani, 
professing to be a journal of the leading 
events of the war. In the preface to the 
work we are told .hat it was composed by 
Dictys, of Cnossus, who accompanied Idome- 
neus to the Trojan war; but it probably 
belongs to the time of the Roman empire. 

DIDIUS SAL TIES JULIAXUS (-i), bought 
the Roman empire of the praetorian guards, 
when they put up the empire for sale after , 
the death of Pertinax, a.d. 193. After reigning Dido. (MS. Vatican Yir^il, P. 93.) 

two months, he was murdered by the soldiers j 

when Severus was marching against the city. I arrival in Africa. When Aeneas hastened to 
DIDO (-us: acc. 6), also called Elissa, the j seek the new home which the gods had 
reputed founder of Carthage. She was promised him, Dido, in despair, destroyed 
daughter of the Tyrian king Belus, and sister | herself on a funeral pile. 




DIDYMA. 



145 



DIOGENES. 



DIDYMA. [Bbanchtdae.] 

DIESPITER. [Jupiter.] 

DIGEXTIA (-ae : Licenza), a small stream 
in Latiuni, beautifully cool and clear, flow- 
ing into the Anio, through the Sabine farm of 
Horace. 

DINAKCHUS (-i), the last and least im- 
portant of the 10 Attic orators, was born at 
Corinth, about b.c. 361. As he was a 
foreigner, he could not come forward himself 
as an orator, and therefore wrote orations for 
others. He belonged to the friends of Phocion 
and the Macedonian party. Only 3 of his 
speeches have come down to us. 

DINDYMENE. [Dindymus.] 

DINDYMUS (-i) or DIXDYMA (-orum). 
(1) A mountain in Phrygia, on the frontiers 
of Galatia, near the town Pessinus, sacred to 
Cybele, the mother of the gods, who is hence 
called Dindymene. — (2) A mountain in 
Mysia, near Cyzicus, also sacred to Cybele. 

DIOCAESAREA (-ae), more anciently 
SEPPHORIS, in Galilee, was a small place, 
until Herodes Antipas made it the capital of 
Galilee, under the name of Diocaesarea. 

DIOCLETLXXUS, VALERIUS (-i), Roman 
emperor, a.d. 284 — 305, was born near 
Salona, in Dalmatia, in 245, of most obscure 
parentage. On the death of Numerianus, he 
was proclaimed emperor by the troops, 284. 
That he might more successfully repel the 
barbarians, he associated with himself Maxi- 
mianus, who was invested with the title of 
Augustus, 286. Subsequently (292) the em- 
pire was again divided. Constantius Chlorus 
and Galerius were proclaimed Caesars, and 
the government of the Ronian world was 
divided between the 2 Augusti and the 2 
Caesars. Diocletian governed the East ; but 
after an anxious reign of 21 years, he longed 
for repose. Accordingly on 1st of Maj T , 305, 
he abdicated at Xicomedia, and compelled his 
reluctant colleague, Maximian, to do the same 
at Milan. Diocletian retired to his native 
Dalmatia, and passed the remaining 8 years 
of his life near Salona, in philosophic retire- 
ment, devoted to rural pleasures and the 
cultivation of his garden. He died 313. One 
of the most memorable events in the reign of 
Diocletian was his fierce persecution of the 
Christians (303), to which he was instigated 
by his colleague Galerius. 

"dIODORUS (-i). (1) Surnamed Croxtjs, 
a celebrated dialectic philosopher, was a 
native of Iasus, in Caria, and lived at Alex- 
andria in the reign of Ptolemy Soter. — (2' 
Sicuxus, of Agyrium, in Sicily, a celebrated 
historian, was a contemporary of Julius 
Caesar and of Augustus. In order to collect 
materials for his history, he travelled over a 
great part of Europe and Asia, and lived a 



long time at Rome. His work was entitled 
BibUotheca Historica, Hie Historical Library, 
and was an universal history, embracing the 
period from the earliest mythical ages down 
to the beginning of Caesar's Gallic wars. Of 
the 40 books into which the work was 
divided, 15 have come down to us entire, 
namely, the first 5 books, containing the 
early history of the Eastern nations, the 
Egyptians, Aethiopians, and Greeks ; and 
books 11 to 20 inclusive, containing the 
history from the 2nd Persian war, b.c. 480, 
down to 302. Of the rest, only fragments 
have been preserved. In his writings we find 
neither method, accuracy, nor judgment. As 
an authority he cannot be relied upon. — (3) Of 
Tyre, a peripatetic philosopher, a disciple and 
follower of Critolaiis, whom he succeeded as 
the head of the Peripatetic school at Athens. 
He flourished b.c. 110. > 

DIODOTUS (-i), a Stoic philosopher, and 
a teacher of Cicero, in whose house he died 
b.c. 59. 

DIOGENES (-is). (1) Of Apolloxia, in 
Crete, a celebrated Ionic philosopher, and a 
pupil of Anaximenes, lived in the 5th cen- 
tury b.c. — (2) The Babylonian, a Stoic 
philosopher, was a pupil of Chrysippus, and 
succeeded Zeno of Tarsus as the head of the 
Stoic school at Athens. He was one of the 3 
ambassadors sent by the Athenians to Rome 
in b.c. 155. — (3) The celebrated Cyxic phi- 
losopher was born at Sinope, in Pontus, 
about b.c 412. His youth is said to have 
been spent in dissolute extravagance ; but at 
Athens his attention was arrested by the cha- 
racter of Antisthenes, and he soon became 
distinguished by his austerity and moroseness. 
In summer he used to roll in hot sand, and 
in winter to embrace statues covered with 
snow ; he wore coarse clothing, lived on the 
plainest food, slept in porticoes or in the 
streets ; and finally, according to the common 
story, took up his residence in a tub belong- 
ing to the Metroum, or temple of the Mother 
of the Gods. On a voyage to Aegina he was 
taken prisoner by pirates, and carried to 
Crete to be sold as a slave. Here, when he 
was asked what business he understood, he 
answered, "How to command men." He 
was purchased by Xeniades, of Corinth, who 
gave him his freedom, and entrusted him 
with the care of his children. During his 
residence at Corinth his celebrated interview 
with Alexander the Great is said to have 
taken place. The conversation between them 
begun by the king's saying, "I am Alexander 
the Great ;" to which the philosopher replied, 
" And I am Diogenes the Cynic." Alexander 
then asked whether he could oblige him in 
any way, and received no answer, except, 



DIOMEDEAE. 



146 



DIONAEA. 



"Yes; you can stand out of the sunshine." 
We are further told that Alexander admired 
Diogenes so much that he said, "If I, were 
not Alexander, I should wish to be Diogenes." 
Diogenes died at Corinth, at the age of 
nearly 90, b.c. 323. — (4) LaertIus, of 
Laerte, in Cilicia, probably lived in the 2nd 
century after Christ. He wrote the Lives of 
the Philosophers in 10 books, which work is 
still extant. 

DIOMEDEAE IXSELAE, 5 small islands 
in the Adriatic sea, X. of the promontory 
Garganum, in Apulia, named after Diomedes. 
[Diomedes.] The largest of these, called 
Diornedea Insula or Trimerus [Tremiti), was 
the place where Julia, the granddaughter of 
Augustus, died. 

DIOMEDES (-is). (1) Son of Tycleus and 
Dei'pyie, whence he is constantly called Ty- 
dldes, succeeded Adrastus as king of Argos. 
— Homeric Siory. Tydeus fell in the expe- 
dition against Thebes, while his son Diomedes 
vras yet a boy ; but Diomedes was afterwards 
one of the Epigoni who took Thebes. He 
went to Troy with 80 ships, and was next to 
Achilles, the bravest hero in the Greek army. 
He enjoyed the especial protection of Athena 
(Minerva) ; he fought against the most dis- 
tinguished of the Trojans, such as Hector 
and Aeneas, and even with the gods who 
espoused the cause of the Trojans. He thus 
wounded both Aphrodite (Tenus), and Ares 
(Mars). — Later Stories. Diomedes and 
"Ulysses carried off the palladium from the 
city of Troy, since it was believed that Troy 
could not be taken so long as the palladium 
was within its walls. After the capture of ; 
Troy, he returned to Argos, where he found 
nis wife Aegialea living in adultery with j 
Hippolytus, or, according to others, with I 
Cometes or Cyliabarus. This misfortune 
befell him through the anger of Aphrodite. | 
He therefore quitted Argos, and went to j 
Aetolia. He subsequently attempted to re- 
torn to Argos ; but on his way home a storm j 
threw him on the coast of Daunia, in Italy. I 
He married Evippe, the daughter of Daunus, | 
and settled in Daunia, -svhere he died at an ; 
advanced age. He was buried in one of the 
islands off Cape Garganum, which were 
called after him the Diomedean islands. His 
companions were inconsolable at his loss, and j 
were metamorphosed into birds (Aves Bio- 
medeae), which, mindful of their origin, ; 
used to fly joyfully towards the Greek ships, j 
hut to avoid those of the Romans. A number 
erf towns in the E. part of Italy were believed 
to have been founded by Diomedes. A plain 
Of Apulia, near Salapia and Canusium, was 
called Biomeclei Campi, after him. — (2) King : 
of the Bistones, in Thrace, killed by Hercules I 



on account of his mares, which he fed with 
human flesh. 

DIOX (-onis), a Syracusan, son of Hippa- 
rinus, and a relation of Dionysius, who 
treated him with the greatest distinction, 
and employed him in many services of trust 
and confidence. On the visit of Plato to 
Syracuse, Dion became an ardent disciple of 
the philosopher ; and when the younger Diony- 
sius succeeded his father, Dion watched with 
undisguised contempt his dissolute conduct, 
and so became an object of suspicion to the 
youthful tyrant. Dion, aided by Plato, en- 
deavoured to withdraw him from his vicious 
courses, but failed, and was banished. He 
then retired to Athens. Plato visited Syra- 
cuse a third time, that he might secure the 
recall of Dion ; but failing in this, Dion de- 
termined on expelling the tyrant by force. 
In this he succeeded ; but since his own con- 
duct towards the Syracusans was equally 
tyrannical, a conspiracy was formed against 
him, and he was assassinated in his own 
house b.c 35 3, 

DIOX CASSIUS (-i), the historian, son 
of a Roman senator; born a. d. 155, at Ni- 
caea, in Bithynia. He held several important 
offices under Commodus, Caracalla, and 
Alexander Severus, 180 — 229, and after- 
wards retired to Campania ; subsequently he 
returned to Xicaea, his native town, where 
he passed the remainder of his life, and died. 
The chief work of Dion was a History of 
Rome, in SO books, from the landing of 
Aeneas in Italy to a.d. 229. Unfortunately, " 
only a comparatively small portion of this 
work has come down to us entire. Prom the 
36th book to the 54th the work is extant 
complete, and embraces the history from the 
wars of Eueullus and Cn. Pompey against 
Mithriclates, down to the death of Agrippa, 
b.c. 10. Of the remaining books we have 
only the epitomes made by Xiphilinus and 
others. Dion Cassius consulted original 
authorities, and displayed great judgment and 
discrimination in the use of them. 

. DIOX CHRYSOSTOMrS (-1), that is, the 
golden-mouthed, a surname given him on 
account of his eloquence, was bom at Prusa, 
in Bithynia, about the middle of the first 
century of our era. He was well educated, 
and increased his knowledge by travelling. 
The emperors Xeiwa and Trajan entertained 
for him the highest esteem. He was the 
most eminent of the Greek rhetoricians and 
sophists in the time of the Roman empire. 
There are extant 80 of his orations ; but they 
are rather essays on political, moral, and 
philosophical subjects than real orations, of 
which they have only the form. 

DIOXAEA. [Dioxe.] 



DIONE. 



147 



DIONYSUS. 



DIONE (-es), a female Titan, by Zeus 
(Jupiter), by whom she became the mother of 
Aphrodite (Venus), who is hence called Dio- 
naea, and sometimes even Bione. Hence 
Caesar is called Bionaeus Caesar ; because he 
claimed descent from Venus. 

DIONYSIUS (-i). (1) The Elder, tyrant 
of Syracuse, son of Hermocrates, born b.c. 
430. He began life as a clerk in a public 
office. Prompted by ambition, and pos- 
sessing- natural talent, he gradually raised 
himself to distinction ; and in b.c. 405, 
though only 25 years of age, was appointed 
sole general at Syracuse, with full powers. 
From this period we may date the commence- 
ment of his reign, or tyranny, which con- 
tinued without interruption for 38 years. 
He strengthened himself by the increase of 
the army, and by converting the island Or- 
tygia into a fortified residence for himself ; 
and when thoroughly prepared, commenced 
the execution of his ambitious plans. These 
embraced the subjugation of the rest of 
Sicily, the humiliation of Carthage, and the 
annexation of part of Southern Italy to his 
dominions. In all these projects he succeeded. 
During the last 20 years of his life he pos- 
sessed an amount of power and influence far 
exceeding that enjoyed by any other Greek 
before the time of Alexander. His death 
took place at Syracuse, 367, in the middle of 
a war with Carthage. He was succeeded by 
his eldest son, Dionysius the younger. The 
character of Dionysius has been drawn in the 
blackest colours by many ancient writers ; he 
appears, indeed, to have become a type of a 
tyrant, in its worst sense. In his latter 
years he became extremely suspicious, and 
apprehensive of treachery, even from his 
nearest friends, and is said to have adopted 
the most excessive precautions to guard 
against it. He built the terrible prison called 
Lautumiae, which was cut out of the solid 
rock in the part of Syracuse named Epipolae. 
Dionysius was fond of literature and the arts, 
and frequently entertained at his court men 
distinguished in literature and philosophy, 
among whom was the philosopher Plato. He 
was himself a poet, and repeatedly contended 
for the prize of tragedy at Athens. — 
(2) The Younger, son of the preceding, suc- 
ceeded his father as tyrant of Syracuse, b.c 367. 
He was at this time under 30 years of age ; 
he had been brought up at his father's court 
in idleness and luxury, and was studiously 
precluded from taking any part in public 
affairs. The ascendancy which Dion, and 
through his means Plato, obtained for a time 
over his mind was undermined by flatterers 
and the companions of his pleasures. Dion, 
who had been banished by Dionysius, re- \ 



turned to Sicily in 357, at the head of a small 
force, with the. avowed object of dethroning 
him. Dionysius finding that he could not 
successfully resist Dion, sailed away to Italy, 
and thus lost the sovereignty after a reign of 
12 years, 356. He now repaired to Locri, 
the native city of his mother, Doris, where 
he was received in the most friendly man- 
ner ; but he made himself tyrant of the city, 
and treated the inhabitants with the utmost 
cruelty. After remaining at Locri 10 years, 
he obtained possession again of Syracuse, 
where he reigned for the next 3 years until 
Timoleon came to Sicily to deliver the Greek 
cities there from the dominion of the tyrants. 
Being unable to resist Timoleon, he surren- 
dered the citadel into the hands of the latter, 
on condition of being allowed to depart in 
safety to Corinth, 343. Here he spent the 
remainder of his life in a private condition ; 
and according to some writers was reduced to 
support himself by keeping a school. — (3) 
Of Halicap.xassl's, a celebrated Greek rheto- 
rician, lived many years at Rome in the time 
of Augustus, and died b.c. 7. His principal 
work was a history of Rome in 22 books, 
containing the history of the city from the 
mythical times down to b.c. 264. Of this 
work only the first 1 1 books have come down 
to ns. These prove that he possessed con- 
siderable artistic skill as well as rhetorical 
power, but was deficient both as an historian 
and as a statesman. He also wrote various 
rhetorical and critical works, which abound 
with the most exquisite remarks and criti- 
cisms on the works of the classical writers of 
Greece. Of these several have been pre- 
served. — (4) Of Heraclea, a pupil of Zeno, 
at first a Stoic and afterwards an Eleatic 
philosopher. 

DIONYSUS (-i), the youthful, beautiful, 
but effeminate god of wine. He is also called 
both by Greeks and Romans Bacchus, that is, 
the noisy or riotous god, which was originally 
only an epithet or surname of Dionysus He 
was the son of Zeus( Jupiter) and Semele, the 
daughter of Cadmus of Thebes. Before his 
birth, Semele was persuaded by Hera (Juno), 
who appeared to her in disguise, to request 
the father of the gods to appear to her in the 
same glory in which he approached his own 
wife Hera. Zeus unwillingly complied, and 
appeared to her in thunder and lightning. 
Semele, being seized by the flames, gave pre- 
mature birth to a child ; but Zeus saved the 
child, sewed him up in his thigh, and thus 
preserved him till he came to maturity. After 
his birth Dionysus was brought up by the 
nymphs of Mt. Nysa, who were rewarded by 
Zeus by being placed as Hyades among the 
stars. "When he had grown up, Hera drove 



DIONYSUS. 



143 



DIONYSUS. 



him mad, in which state he wandered through 



IP9 ft 




Dionysus (Bacchus] . (From a Painting at Pompeii.) 
various parts of the earth. He first went to 



Egypt, thence proceeded through Syria, then 
traversed all Asia, teaching the inhabitants of 
the different countries of Asia the cultivation 
of the vine and introducing among them the 
elements of civilisation. The most famous 
part of his wanderings in Asia is his expe- 
dition to India, which is said to have lasted 
several years. On his return to Europe, he 
passed through Thrace, but was ill received 
by Lycurgus, king of the Edones. [Lycukgus.] 
He then returned to Thebes, where he com- 
pelled the women to quit their houses, and to 
celebrate Bacchic festivals on lit. Cithaeron, 
and fearfully punished Pentheus, who at- 
tempted to prevent his worship. [Pentheus.] 
Dionysus next went to Argos, where the 
people first refused to acknowledge him, but 
after punishing the women vrith frenzy, he 
was recognised as a god. His last feat was 
performed on a voyage from Icaria toXaxos. 
He hired a ship which belonged to Tyrrhenian 
pirates ; but the men, instead of landing at 
Naxos, steered toward Asia, to sell him there 
as a slave. Thereupon the god changed the 
mast and oars into serpents, and himself into 
a lion ; ivy grew around the vessel, and the 
sound of flutes was heard on every side ; the 
sailors were seized with madness, leaped into 
the sea, and were metamorphosed into dol- 
phins. After he had thus gradually established 
his divine nature throughout the world, he 



! • 



g^H pi 



v 




Dionysus (Bacchus) drawn by Tigers. (Museum Capitolinum, vol. 4, tav. 63.) 

took his mother out of Hades, called her I Tarious mythological beings are described as 
Thyone, and rose with her into Olympus. — I the offspring of Dionysus ; but among the 



DIOSCORIDES. 



149 



DIOSCORIDES. 



women who won his love none is more famous 
in ancient story than Ariadne. [Ariadne.] — 
The worship of Dionysus was no part of the 
original religion of Greece. In Homer he 
does not appear as one of the great divinities ; 
he is there simply described as the god who 
teaches man the preparation of wine. As the 
cultivation of the vine spread in Greece, the 
worship of Dionysus likewise spread farther ; 
and after the time of Alexander's expedition 
to Didia, the celebration of the Bacchic festivals 
assumed more and more their wild and dis- 
solute character. Dionysus may be taken as 
the representative of the productive and in- 
toxicating power of nature. Since wine is 
the natural symbol of this power, it is called 
" the fruit of Dionysus." On account of the 
close connexion between the cultivation of the 
soil and the earlier stages of civilisation, he 
is regarded as a lawgiver and a lover of peace. 
As the Greek drama had grown out of the 
dithyrambic choruses at the festival of Diony- 
sus, he was also regarded as the god of tragic 
art, and as the protector of theatres. Respect- 
ing his festivals and the mode of their cele- 
bration, and especially the introduction and 
suppression of his worship at Rome, see Diet. 



of Ant. art. Dionysia. — In the earliest times 
the Graces or Charites were the companions of 
Dionysus, but afterwards we find him accom- 
panied in his expeditions and travels by Bac- 
chantic women, called Lenae, Maenades, Thy- 
iades, Mimallones, Clodones, Bassarae or Bas- 
sarides, all of whom are represented in works 
of art as raging with madness or enthusiasm, 
their heads thrown backwards, with dishevel- 
led hair, and carrying in their hands thyrsus- 
staffs (entwined with ivy, and headed with 
pine-cones), cymbals, swords, or serpents. 
Sileni, Pans, satyrs, centaurs, and other 
beings of a like kind, are also the constant 
companions of the god. The animal most 
commonly sacrificed to Dionysus was the ram. 
Among the things sacred to him, we may 
notice the vine, ivy, laurel, and asphodel : 
the dolphin, serpent, tiger, lynx, panther, 
and ass. In works of art he appears as a 
youthful god. The form of his body is 
manly, but approaches the female form by 
its softness and roundness. The expression 
of the countenance is languid, and his atti- 
tude is easy, like that of a man who is 
absorbed in sweet thoughts, or slightly in- 
toxicated. 




Dionysus (Bacchus) enthroned. (Ponce, Bains de Titus, No. 12.) 



DIOSCORIDES (-is) PEDACTUS or PEDA- 1 sician, who probably lived in the 2nd century 
NIL" Sj of Anazarba, in Cilicia, a Greek phy- | of the Christian era, the author of an extant 



DIOSCURI. 



150 



DIRCE, 



work on Materia Medica, which for many 
ages was received as a standard produc- 
tion.^ 

DIOSCURI (-oruni), that is, sons of Zens 
(Jupiter), the well-known heroes Castor and 
Poixrx, called by the Greeks Polydeuces. 
The two brothers were sometimes called 
Castores by the Romans. According to Homer 
they were the sons of Leda and Tyndarens, 
king of Lacedaemon, and consequently bro- 
thers of Helen. Hence they are often called 
by the patronymic Tynda/ridae. Castor was 
famous for his skill in taming and managing 
horses, and Pollux for his skill in boxing. 
Both had disappeared from the earth before 
the Greeks went against Troy. Although 
they were buried, says Homer, yet they came 
to life every other day, and they enjoyed 
divine honours. — According to other tradi- 
tions, both were the sons of Zeus and Leda, 
and were born at the same time with their 
sister Helen out of an egg. [Leda.] Accord- 
ing to others again, Pollux and Helen only I 
were children of Zeus, and Castor was the son 
of Tyndarens. Hence Pollux was immortal, 
while Castor was subject to old age and death 
like other mortals. The fabulous life of the 
Dioscuri is marked by 3 great events. 1. Their 
expedition against Athens, where they rescued 
their sister Helen, who had been carried off 
by Theseus, and placed in Aphidnae, which 
they took. 2. Their part in the expedition 
of the Argonauts, during which Pollux killed, 
in a boxing-match, Anrycus, king of the Be- 
bryces. During the Argonautic expedition they 
founded the town of Dioscurias, in Colchis. 
3. Their battle with the sons of Aphareus, Idas 
and Lynceus. Castor, the mortal, fell by the 
hands ol Idas, but Pollux slew Lynceus, and 
Zeus killed Idas by a flash of Ughtaing. At 
the request of Pollux, Zeus allowed him to ! 
share his brother's fate, and to live alter- 
nately one day under the earth, and the other j 
in the heavenly abodes of the gods. Accord- 
ing to a different form of the story, Zeus re- 
warded the attachment of the two brothers 
by placing them among the stars as Gemini. — 
These heroic youths received divine honours 
at Sparta, from whence their worship spread 
over other parts of Greece, and over Sicily 
and Italy. They were worshipped more 
especially as the protectors of sailors, for 
Poseidon (Neptune) had rewarded their 
brotherly love by giving them power over 
winds and waves. Hence they are called 
by Horace, " Fratres Helenae, lucida si- 
dera." T\ nenever they appeared they were 
seen riding on magnificent white steeds. 
They were regarded as presidents of the 
public games, as the inventors of the war 
dance, and the patrons of poets and bards. 



They are usually represented in works of 
art as youthful horsemen, with egg-shaped 
helmets, crowned with stars, and with spears 
in their hands. — At Rome, the worship of 
the Dioscuri was introduced at an early time. 
They were believed to have assisted the Ro- 




Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). (From a Com in the 
British Museum.) 



mans against the Latins in the battle of Lake 
Regillus ; and the dictator A. Postumius 
Albinus during the battle vowed a temple to 
them. This temple was erected in the forum, 
opposite the temple of Testa. The equites 
regarded the Dioscuri as their patrons, and 
went every year, on the 15th of July, in a 
magnificent procession on horseback, to visit 
their temple. 




Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). iMillin. Gal. Myth., 
pi. 103.) 



DIRAE (-arum), a name of the Furiae. 

ErMEXIDES.] 

DIRCE (-es), wife of Lycus, who married 
her, after divorcing his former wife Antiope. 
Dirce treated Antiope with great cruelty ; 
and accordingly, when Amphion and Zethus, 
the sons of Antiope, by Zeus (Jupiter}, ob- 
tained possession of Thebes, they took a 
signal vengeance upon Dirce. They tied her 
to" a wild bull, which dragged her about till 
she perished. They then threw her body 
into a fountain near Thebes, which was 
henceforth called the fountain of Dirce. The 



DIS, 



151 



DOMITIANUS. 



adjective Dircaeus is frequently used as 
equivalent to Boeotian. 




Dirce. Group at Naples. (Maffei, pi. 48.) 



DIS {-gen. Ditis), contracted from Dives, 
a name sometimes given to Pluto, and hence 
also to the lower vrorld. 

DISCOEDIA. [Ebis.] 1 

DITJM. (1) An important, town in Mace- 
donia on the Thermaic gulf. — (2) A town 
in Chalcidice in Macedonia, on the Strymonic 
gulf. 

DrYTCO (-onis), the leader of the Hel- 
vetians in the war against L. Cassius in e.c. 
107, was at the head of the embassy sent to 
Julius Caesar, nearly 50 years later, b.c. 58, 
when he was preparing to attack the Hel- 
vetians. 

DIYITIACTS (4), an Aeduan noble and 
brother of Duninorix, was a warm adherent 
of the Romans and of Caesar, who, in con- 
sideration of his entreaties, pardoned the 
treason of Dumnorix in b.c. 5S. 

DIYODUBEM (-i : Metz), subsequently 
Medioniatrici, and still later Metis or Mettis, 
the capital of the Mediomatrici in Gallia 
Belgica. 

DIVONA. [Cjj>urci.] 

DOBERUS (4), a town in Paeonia in Ma- 
cedonia, E. of the river Echedorus. 

DODOXA (-ae), the most ancient oracle in 
Greece, situated in Epirus, founded by the 
Pelasgians, and dedicated to Zeus (Jupiter). 
The responses of the oracle were given from 
lofty oaks or beech trees. The will of the 
god was declared by the wind rustling through 



the trees, and in order to render the sounds 
more distinct, brazen vessels were suspended 
on the branches of the trees, which being set in 
motion by the wind came in contact with one 
another. These sounds were interpreted in 
early times by men, but afterwards by aged 
I women. The priests, who had the manage- 
ment of the temple were called Selli or Helli. 
The oracle of Dodona had less influence in 
historical times than in the heroic age, and 
; was supplanted to a great extent by the 
! oracle of Delphi. 

DOLABELLA (-ae), the name of a cele- 
: brated patrician family of the Cornelia gens. 
I Those most deserving of notice are : — (1) Cn. 
i Cornelius Dolabella, consul b.c. 81, whom 
the young Julius Caesar accused in 7 7 of 
; extortion in his province. — (2) Cn. Cornelius 
I Dolabella, praetor urbanus 81. YVithYerres 
as his legate, he plundered his province in 
i Cilicia, and upon his return was accused, 
: betrayed by Yerres, and condemned. — (3) P. 
j Cornelius Dolabella, the son-in-law of 
I Cicero, whose daughter Tullia he married in 
51. He was one of the most profligate men 
of his age, and his conduct caused Cicero 
| great uneasiness. On the breaking out of the 
civil war he joined Caesar and fought on his 
side at the battle of Pharsalia (48), and was 
raised by him to the consulship in 44. He 
\ afterwards received from Antony the pro- 
vince of Syria. On his way to his province 
he plundered the cities of Greece and Asia 
i Minor, in consequence of which the senate 
sent against him Cassius, who took Caesarea, 
in which Dolabella had taken refuge. That 
he might not fall into the hands of his ene- 
; mies, he_committed suicide, 43. 

DOLOX (-onis), a spy of the Trojans in the 
Trojan war, slain by Diomedes. 

DOLOPES (.urn), a powerful people in 
; Thessaly, dwelt on the Enipeus, and fought 
j before Troy. At a later time they dwelt at 
j the foot ' of Mt. Pindus ; and their country, 
! called DolopIa, was reckoned part of Epirus. 
DOMITIANUS (-i), or with his full name 
T. Flavius Do^iitianus Augustus, Eoman 
emperor a.d. 81 — 96, was the younger son of 
I Yespasian, and was born at Rome a.d. 51. 
During the reigns of Yespasian (69 — 79) and of 
his brother Titus (79 — SI) he was not allowed 
to take any part in public affairs. During the 
first few years of his reign his government 
was much better than had been expected. 
But his conduct was soon changed for the 
worse. His wars were mostly unfortunate ; 
and his want of success both wounded his 
vanity and excited his fears, and thus led 
j him to delight in the misfortunes and suf- 
; ferings of others. In 83 he undertook an 
I expedition against the Chatti, which was at- 



DOMITIUS AEER. 



15 



!2 



DRAWS. 



tended with no result, though, on his return 
to Rome in the following year, he celebrated 
a triumph, and assumed the name of Ger- 
manicus. In 85 Agricola, whose success and 
merits excited his jealousy, was recalled to 
Home. [Agricola.] After his war with the 
Dacians, which terminated very unfavourably 
[Decebales], he gave full sway to his cruelty 
and tyranny. The silent fear which prevailed 
in Eome and Italy during the latter years of 
Domitian's reign is briefly but energetically 
described by Tacitus in the introduction to 
his Life of Agricola, and his vices and tyranny 
are exposed in the strongest colours by the 
withering satire of Juvenal. Many con- 
spiracies had been formed against his life, 
which had been discovered ; but he was at 
length murdered by the connivance of his 
wife, Domitia. 

DOMITIUS AFER. [Aeer.] 

DOMITIUS AHEX0BARBU3, [Ahexo- 

BARBES.] 

DOMITIUS CALYIXUS. [CALvixtis.] 
DOMITIUS CORBULO. [Corbelo.] 
DOMITIUS ULPLaXUS. [Ulpiaxes.] 
DONATUS (-i). — (I) A celebrated gram- 
marian, who taught at Eome in the middle of 
the 4th century, and was the preceptor of 
St. Jerome. His most famous work is a 
system of Latin Grammar, which has formed 
the groundwork of most elementary treatises 
upon the same subject, from his own time to 
the present day. — (2) Tiberies Claedies, the 
author of a life of Virgil in 25 chapters, 
prefixed to many editions of Virgil. 

DOXtSA or DOXUSIA (-ae), one of the 
smaller Sporades in the Aegean sea, near 
Naxos. It produced green marble, whence 
Virgil calls the island viridis. Under the 
Pvoman emperors it was used as a place of 
banishment. 

DORA (-ae), DORUS, DORUM (-i), called 
Dor in the O. T., the most southerly town of 
Phoenicia on the coast, on a kind of penin- 
sula at the foot of Mt. Carmel. 

DORIS (-idis). (1) Daughter of Oceanus 
and Thetis, wife of her brother Xereus, and 
mother of the Nereides. The Latin poets 
sometimes use the name of this divinity for 
the sea itself. — (2) One of the Xereides, 
daughter of the preceding. — (3) A small and 
mountainous country in Greece, formerly 
called Dryopis, bounded by Thessaly on the 
N., by Aetolia on the W., by Locris on the S., 
and by Phocis on the E. It contained 4 
towns, Bourn, Citinium, Erineus, and Pindus, 
which formed the Dorian tetrapolis. These 
towns never attained any consequence ; but 
the country is of importance as the home 
of the Dorians (Dores), one of the great 
Hellenic races, who conquered Peloponnesus. 



It was related that Aegirnius, king of the 
Dorians, had been driven from his dominions 
by the Lapithae, but was reinstated by 
Hercules ; that the children of Hercules 
hence took refuge in this land when they 
had been expelled from Peloponnesus .; and 
that it was to restore them to their rights 
that the Dorians invaded Peloponnesus. Ac- 
cordingly, the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
the Dorians is usually called the Return of 
the Heraclidae. [Heraclidae.] The Dorians 
were divided into three tribes : the Hylleis, 
Pamphyli, and Dymanes. They were the 
ruling class throughout Peloponnesus ; the 
old inhabitants were reduced to slavery, or 
became subjects of the Dorians under the 
name of Perioeci. — (4) A district in Asia 
Minor consisting of the Dorian settlements 
on the coast of Caria and the neighbouring 
islands. 6 of these towns formed a league, 
called the Dorian hexapolis, consisting of 
Lindus, Ialysus, and CamTrus in the island of 
Rhodes, the island of Cos, and Cnidus and 
Halicarnassus on the mainland. 

DORISCUS (-i), a town in Thrace at the 
mouth of the Hebrus, in the midst of an ex- 
tensive plain of the same name, where Xerxes 
revie_wed his vast forces. 

DORUS (-i), a son of Hellen, and the 
mythical ancestor of the Dorians. 

DORYLAEUM (-i), a town in Phrygia 
Epictetus, on the river Thyrnbris, with warm 
baths, which are used at the present dav. 

DOSSEXXUS FABIUS, or DORSEXUS, an 
ancient Latin comic dramatist, censured by 
Horace on account of the exaggerated buf- 
foonery of his characters. 

DRABESCUS (-i), a town in the district 
Eclonis in Macedonia, on the Strymon. 

DRACOX (^nis), the author of the first 
written code of laws at Athens. In this code 
he affixed the penalty of death to almost all 
crimes — to petty thefts, for instance, as well 
as to sacrilege and murder — which gave 
occasion to the remark that his laws were 
written not in ink, but in blood. His legis- 
lation is placed in b.c. 621. After the legis- 
lation of Solon (594), most of the laws of 
Dracon fell into disuse. 

DR AX GIANT A (-ae), a part of Ariana, 
bounded by Gedrosia, Carmania, Arachosia, 
and Aria. It sometimes formed a separate 
satrapy, but was more usually united to the 
satrapies either of Arachosia or of Gedrosia, 
or of Aria. In the X T . of the country dwelt 
the Draxgae, a warlike people, from whom 
the province derived its name. The Ariaspae 
inhabited the S. part of the province. 

DRAVUS (-i : Brave), a tributary of the 
Danube, flowing through Xoricum and 
Pannonia;- and after receiving the Murius 



DEEP AN OI. 



153 



DUBPJS POPTUS. 



(Muhr), falling into the Danube E. of Mursa 
(Esseck) . 

DREPANEM {-i), that is, a sickle. (1) Also 
Dkkpana (-drum), more rarely Drepane (-es : 
Trapani), a seaport town in the N.W. corner 
of Sicily, founded by the Carthaginians. It 
was here that Anchises died, according to 
Yirgil. — (2) Also Drepaxe, a town in Bithy- 
nia, the birth-place of Helena, mother of 
Constantine the Great, in whose honour it 
was called Helexopolis, and made an im- 
portant place. 

DRUENTIA (-ae: Durance), a large and 
rapid river in Gallia Narbonensis, rising in 
the Alps, and flowing into the Phone near 
Avenio (A v ignon ) . 

DRUSILLA (-ae).— (i) Livia (-ae), mo- 
ther of the emperor Tiberius and wife of 
Augustus. [Livia.] — (2) Daughter of Ger- 
manicus and Agrippina, lived in incestuous 
intercourse with her brother Caligula, who 
loved her most tenderly and deified her at 
her decease a.d. 38. — (3) Daughter of He- 
rodes Agrippa I., king of the Jews, married 
Felix, the procurator of Judaea, and was 
present with her husband when St. Paul i 
preached before Felix in a.d. 60. 

DRUSES (-i), the name of a distinguished j 
family of the Livia gens. It is said that one i 
of the Livii acquired the cognomen Drusus i 
for himself and his descendants by having j 
slain in combat one Drausus, a Gallic chief- i 
tain ; — (1) M. Lrvrus Drusus, tribune of the j 
plebs with C. Gracchus, b.c. 122. He was a 
staunch adherent of the aristocracy, and 
gained popularity for the senate by proposing 
almost the same measures as he had opposed 
when brought forward by Gracchus. He 
was consul 111. — (2) M. Livirs Druses, son 
of No. 1, an eloquent orator, was tribune of 
the plebs, 91. Although, like his father, he 
belonged to the aristocratical party, he medi- 
tated the most extensive changes in the 
Roman state. He proposed and carried some 
portion of his scheme ; but eventually his \ 
measures became very unpopular. The senate, 
perceiving the dissatisfaction of all parties, 
voted that all the laws of Drusus, being 
carried against the auspices, were null and 
void from the beginning. Drusus now began 
to organise a formidable conspiracy against [ 
the government ; but one evening, as he was 
entering the hall of his own house, he was j 
stabbed and died a few hours afterwards. 
The death of Drusus destroyed the hopes of 
the Socii, to whom he had promised the Poman 
citizenship, and was thus immediately fol- 
lowed by the Social War. — (3) Lrvrus Druses 
Claudiaxus, father of Livia, who was the 
mother of the emperor Tiberius. He was 
one of the gens Claudia, and was adopted by i 



a Livius Drusus. Being proscribed by the 
triumvirs (42) he put an end to his own life. 
— (4) Nero Claudius Drusus, commonly 
called by the modems Druses Senior, to dis- 
tinguish him from No. 5, was the son of Tib. 
Claudius Nero and Livia, and younger bro- 
ther of the emperor Tiberius. He was born 
in the house of Augustus three months after 
the marriage of Livia and Augustus, b.c. 38. 
Drusus, as he grew up, was more liked by 
the people than was his brother. He married 
Antonia, the daughter of the triumvir, and 
was greatly trusted by Augustus, who em- 
ployed him in important offices. He carried 
on the war against the Germans, and in the 
course of 4 campaigns (b.c 12 — 9) he ad- 
vanced as far as the Albis (Elbe). In his 
first campaign he dug a canal (Fossa Bru- 
siana) from the Phine near Arnhehn to the 
Yssel, near Doesberg ; and he made use of 
this canal to sail from the Phine into the 
ocean. On the return of the army from the 
Elbe to the Rhine, he died in consequence of 
a fracture of his leg, which happened through 
a fall from his horse. — (5) Dre-sus Caesar, 
commonly called by modern writers Drusus 
Junior, was the son of the emperor Tiberius 
by his 1st wife, Yipsania. He married Livia, 
the sister of Germanicus. He was poisoned 
by Sejanus, the favourite of Tiberius, who 
aspired to the empire, a.d. 23. — (6) Dru- 
sus, second son of Germanicus and Agrippina, 
also fell a victim to the ambition of Sejanus 
a few years after No. 5. 

DRYADES. [Nymphae.] 

DPYAS (-adis) father of the Thracian king 
Lycurgus, who is hence called Dryantides. 

DRYM AEA (-ae) or DPYMUS (-i), a town 
in Phocis, a little S. of the Cephissus. 

DPYMUS (-i).— (1) See Drtmaea— (2) 
A strong place in Attica, on the frontiers of 
Boeotia. 

DRYMUSSA (-ae), an island off the coast 
of Ionia, opposite Clazomenae. 

DRYOPE (-es), daughter of king Dryops, 
was beloved by Apollo, by whom she became 
the mother of Amphissus. She was after- 
wards carried off by the Hamadryades, and 
became a nymph. 

DRYOPES (-um), a Pelasgic people, who 
dwelt first in Thessaly, from the Spercheus 
to Parnassus, and afterwards in Doris, which 
was called from them Dryopis. Driven out 
of Doris by the Dorians, they migrated to 
other countries, and settled in Peloponnesus, 
Euboea, and Asia Minor. 

DUBIS (-is : Boubs), a river in Gaul, 
rising in M. Jurassus (Jura), flowing past 
Yesontio (Besancon), and falling into the 
Arar (Saone) near Cabillonuni (Chalons). 

DEBRIS PORTUS [Dover) , a seaport town 



DUHJUS. 



154 



ECHO. 



of the Cautii, in Britain : here was a fortress 
erected by the Romans against the Saxon 
pirates. 

DUILIUS [4), consul b.c. 260, gained a 
victory over the Carthaginian fleet by means 
of grappling-irons, which drew the enemy's 
ships towards his, and thus changed the sea- 
fight into a land-fight. This was the first 
naval victory that the Eomans had ever 
gained, and the memory of it was perpetuated 
by a colu m n which was erected in the forum, 
and adorned with the beaks of the conquered 
ships [Columna Most rat a.) 

DULGIBINI '-orunr, a people in Germany, 
dwelling on the W. bank of the Weser. 

DULICHIUM. [Echinades.] 

DTJMNORIX (-igis;, a chieftain of the 
Aedui, and brother of Divitiacus. He was 
an enemy of the Eomans, and was put to 
death by Caesar's order, b.c. 54, 

DUXIOI. [Dusoteiges.] 

DUBIUS (-i : Duero, Bouro), one of the 
chief rivers of Spain, near Xumantia, and 
flowing into the Atlantic. 

DUROCORTORUM -i : MTieims), the capital 
of the Eemi in Gallia Belgica, subsequently 
called Eemi. 

DURONIAj a town in Samnium in Italy, 
Vf. of the Caucline passes. 

DCBOTBIGES (-um), a people in Britain, 
in Dorsetshire and the TV. of Somersetshire : 
their chief town was Duniurn [Dorchester). 

DUROVERNTJM or DABYEBXUM ' -i : 
Canterbury) i a town of the Cantii in Britain, 
afterwards called Cantuaria. 

DYMAS (-antisj , father of Hecuba, who is 
hence called By mantis. 

DYME (-es) or DYMAE (-arum), a town 
in the TV. of Achaia, near the coast ; one of 
the 12 Achaean towns. 

DYBBHACHiOI (4 : Durazzo), formerly 
called Epid-oixvs, a town in Greek Illyria, 
on a peninsula in the Adriatic sea. It was 
founded by the Corcyraeans, and received the 
name of Epidamnus ; but since the Eomans 
regarded this name a bad omen, as reminding 
them of damnum, they changed it intoDyrrha- 
chium. It was the usual place of landing for 
persons who crossed over from Brundisium. 



"PBOEACOI or EBEEACCM (-i : York), a 
town of the Brigantes in Britain, made 
a Eoman station by Agricola, and became the 
chief Eoman settlement in the island. It was 
both a municipium and a colony, and the resi- 
dence of the Eoman emperors when they 
visited Britain. Here the emperors Septi- 
mius Severus and Constantius Chlorus died. 

EBEDAE orHEBUDAE (-arum : Hebrides), 
islands in the Western Ocean off Britain. 



EBUEUXES {-um', a German people, who 
crossed the Ehine and settled in Gallia 
Belgica, between the Ehine and the Mosa 
(Maas). 

EBURO VICES. "ArLzr.::," 
EBfSITS or EBtSES [-i : Iviza), the 
| largest of the Pityusae insulae, off the E. 

coast of Spain, reckoned by some writers 
' among the Baleares. 

ECBATANA (-orum : Hamadan), a great 
city, most pleasantly situated, near the foot 
; of Alt. Orontes, in the X. of Great Media, 
! was the capital of the Median kingdom, and 
' afterwards the summer residence of the 
Persian and Parthian kings. It is said to 
have been founded by the first king of Media, 
| Deioces. 

ECETEA (-ae), an ancient town of the 
Volsci, destroyed by the Romans at an early 
period. 

ECHEDORTJS [-i) 3 a small river in Mace- 
donia, flowing through Mygdonia, and falling 
into the Thermaic gulf. 

ECHEMUS -i . king of Arcadia, slew, in 
single combat, Hyllus, the son of Hercules. 
ECHIDXA {-ae], a monster, half woman 

I and half-serpent, became by Typhon the 
mother of the Chimaera, of the many-headed 
dog Orthus, of the hundred-headed dragon 

; who guarded the apples of the Hesperides, of 
the Colchian dragon, of the Sphinx, of Cer- 
berus (hence called Echidneus can it], of 

j Scylla, of Gorgon, of the Lernaean Hydra 

I [Echidna- Leruaea), of the eagle which con- 

: sumed the liver of Prometheus, and of the 
Xeniean lion. She was killed in her sleep by 

j Argus Panoptes. 

ECHINADES (-um), a group of small 

i islands at the mouth of the Achelous, be- 
longing to Arcanania, said to have been 
formed by the alluvial deposits of the Ache- 
lous. They appear to have derived their 

| name from their resemblance to the Echinus 
or sea-urchin. The largest of these islands 
was named Dtjjlichiijm, and belonged to the 
kingdom of Ulysses, who is hence called 
Dulichius. 

ECHION (-onis) (1) One of the heroes 
who sprang up from the dragon's teeth sown 
by Cadmus. He was the husband of Agave 

j and father of Pentheus, who is hence called 
Echiomdes. — '2 Son of Hermes Mercury] 
and Antianlra, took part in the Calydonian 
hunt, and in the expedition of the Argo- 

I nauts. 

ECHO (-us), a nymph who used to keep 
Juno engaged by incessantly talking to her, 
while Jupiter was sporting with the nymphs. 
Juno, however, found out the trick that was 
played upon her, and punished Echo by 
changing her into an echo. Echo in this 



EDESSA. 



155 



ELICIUS. 



state fell in love with Narcissus ; but as her 
love was not returned, she pined away in 
grief, so that in the end there remained of 
her nothing but her voice. 

EDESSA (-ae). (1) Also called Antiochta 
Callirrhoe (O.T. Ur), a very ancient city in 
the N. of Mesopotamia, the capital of Osroene, 
and the seat of an independent kingdom from 
b.c. 137 to a.d. 216. [Abgakus.]. — (2) A 
city of Macedonia, the burial-place of the 
kings. 

EDETANI or SEDETAN1 (-orum), a people 
in Hispauia Tarraconensis, E. of the Celtiberi. 

EDONI or EDONES (-urn), a Thracian I 
people, between the Nestns and the Strymon, 
celebrated for their orgiastic worship of 
Bacchus ; whence Ed5xis in the Latin poets 
signifies a female Bacchante, and Edonus is I 
use_d as equivalent to Thracian. 

EETIOX (-onis), king of the Placian Thebe, 
in Cilicia, and father of Andromache, the wife 
of Hector. 

EGERIA. [Aegeria.] 

EGESTA. [Segesta.] 

EGXATIA (-ae), a town in Apulia, on the 
coast, called Gkatia by Horace. It was cele- 
brated for its miraculous stone or altar, which ! 
of itself set on fire frankincense and wood ; a 
prodigy which afforded amusement to Horace 
and his friends, who looked upon it as a 
mere trick. Egnatia was situated on the high 
road from Eome to Brundisium, which from 
Egnatia to Brimdisiuni bore the name of the 
Yia Egxatia. The continuation of this road j 
on the other side of the Adriatic from Dyrrha- 
chium to Byzantium, also bore the name of 
Via Egnatia. It was the great military road J 
between Italy and the E. Commencing at 
Dyrrhachium, it passed by Lychnidus, Hera- 
clea, Lyncestis, Edessa, Thessalonica, Anrphi- 
polis, Philippi, and traversing the whole of 
Thrace, finally reached Byzantium. 

EIOX (-onis}, a town in Thrace, at the 
mouth of the Strymon, 25 stadia from Arnphi- 
polis, of which it was the harbour. 

ELAEA (-ae;, an ancient city on the 
coast of Aeolis, in Asia Minor, subsequently j 
served as the harbour of Pergamus. The 
gulf on which it stood was named after it 
Sinus Elaiticus. 

KLAEUS ( -unti s ] , or ELEUS (-untis), a 
town on the S. E. point of the Thracian I 
Chersonese, with a harbour and an herouni j 
of Protesilaus. 

ELAGABALES (-i), Eoman Emperor, a.d. 
218 — 222, son of Julia Soemias and Yarius j 
Marcellus, was born at Emesa about 205, and 
was called Elagabalus because in childhood he 
was made priest of the Syro-Phoenician Sun- j 
god at Emesa, bearing that name. He ob- 
tained the purple at the age of 13, by the j 



intrigues of his grandmother Julia Maesa, who 
gave out that he was the son of Caracalla. 
On his accession he took the name of M. 
Aurelits ANTONixrs. He was a prince of 
incredible folly, superstition, and vice. He 
was slain by the soldiers in 222, and was 
succeeded by his cousin Alexander Severus. 
EL AX A . [ Aelana. ] 

ELATEA (-ae). (1) A town in Phocis, 
situated near the Cephissus in a fertile valley, 
which was an important pass from Thessaly 
to Boeotia. — (2) A town in Pelasgiotis, in 
Thessaly, near Gonni. — (3) Or Elatrea, a 
town in Epirus, near the sources of the 
Cocytus. 

ELATES (-i), one of the Lapithae, and 
father of Caeneus, who is hence called Jtlatet v >. 

ELAYER (-eris, Allier), a river in Aqui- 
tania, a tributary of the Liger. 

ELEA. [Yelia.] 

ELECTRA (-ae), i. e. the bright or bril- 
liant one. (1) Daughter of Oceanus and 
Tethys, wife of Thaumas, and mother of Iris 
and the Harpies, Aello and Ocypete. — 2) 
Daughter of Atlas and Pleione, one of the 7 
Pleiades, and by Zeus (Jupiter), mother of 
Iasion and Dardanus. — (3) Daughter of Aga- 
memnon and Clytaemnestra, also called Lao- 
dice, sister of Iphigenia and Orestes. After 
the murder of her father by her mother, she 
saved the life of her young brother Orestes by 
sending him to Tving Strophius until he had 
grown up to manhood. Electra then excited 
him to avenge the death of Agamemnon, and 
assisted him in slaying their mother Clytaem- 
nestra. [Orestes.] After the death of the 
latter, Orestes gave her in marriage to his 
friend Pylades. 

ELECTRIDES IXSELAE. [Bridals.] 

ELECTRYOX (-onis), son of" Perseus and 
Andromeda, and father of Alcmene, the wife 
of Amphitryon. Eor details see Amphitryon. 

ELEOX (-onis), a town in Boeotia, near 
Tanagra. 

ELEPHAXTIXE (-es), an island in the 
Nile, with a city of the same name, opposite 
to Syene, and 7 stadia below the Little Cata- 
ract, was the frontier station of Egypt towards 
Ethiopia, and was strongly garrisoned under 
the^ Persians and the Romans. 

ELEUSIS (-mis), a town and demus of 
Attica, situated X. W. of Athens, on the coast 
near the frontiers of Megara. It possessed a 
magnificent temple of Demeter (Ceres), and 
gave its name to the great festival and mys- 
teries of the Eleusinia, which were celebrated 
in honour of Demeter and Persephone (Proser- 
pine).^ 

ELICIUS (-i), a surname of Jupiter at 
Rome, because he was invoked to send down 
lightning. 



ELIMBERRUM. 



156 



ENDYMION. 



ELIMBERRUM. [Atjsci.] 

ELIMEA, -IA (-ae), or ELIMIOTIS, a dis- 
trict of Macedonia, on the frontiers of Epirus 
and Thessaly, originally belonging to Illyria. 
Its inhabitants, the Elimaei, were Epirots. 

ELIS (-idis), a country on the W. coast of 
Peloponnesus, bounded by Achaia on the N., 
Arcadia on the E., Messenia on the S., and 
the Ionian sea on the W. It was divided into 
3 parts : — (1) Elis Proper or Hollow Elis, 
the N. part, watered by the Peneus, of which 
the capital was also called Elis. — (2) Pisatis, 
the middle portion, of which the capital was 
Pisa. — (3) Triphylia, the S. portion, of which 
Pylos was the capital, lying between the 
Alpheus and the Neda. — In the heroic times 
we find the kingdom of Nestor and thePelldae 
in the S. of Elis ; while the N. of the country 
was inhabited by the Epeans, with whom 
some Aetolian tribes were mingled. On the 
conquest of Peloponnesus by the Heraclidae, 
the Aetolian chief Oxylus received Elis as his 
share of the conquest ; and it was the union 
of his Aetolian and Dorian followers with the 
Epeans, which formed the subsequent popu- 
lation of the country, under the general name 
of Eleans. Elis owed its importance in Greece 
to the worship of Zeus (Jupiter) at Olympia, 
near Pisa, in honour of whom a splendid fes- 
tival was held every 4 years. [Olympia.] In 
consequence of this festival being common 
to the whole of Greece, the country of Elis 
was declared sacred, and its inhabitants pos- 
sessed priestly privileges. 

ELISSA. [Dido.] 

ELLOPIA (-ae). (1) A district in the N. 
of Euboea, near the promontory Cenaeum, 
with a town of the same name : the whole 
island of Euboea is sometimes called Ellopia. 
— (2) An ancient name of the district about 
Doclona, in Epirus. 

ELOXE f-es), a town of the Perrhaebi, in 
Thessaly, afterwards called Limone. 

ELPEXOR (-oris), one of the companions 
of Ulysses, who were metamorphosed by 
Circe into swine, and afterwards back into 
men. Intoxicated with wine, Elpenor one 
day fell asleep on Circe's roof, and broke his 
neck. 

ELU SATES (-um), a people in Aquitania, 
in the interior of the country. 

ELYMAIS (-idis), a district of Susiana, 
which derived its name from the Elymaei 
or Elymi, a warlike and predatory people. 
They are also found in the mountains of 
Great Media, and were probably among the 
most ancient inhabitants of the country N. of 
the head of the Persian Gulf : in the O. T. 
Susiana is called Elam. 

ELYMUS (-i), natural son of Anchises, 
and brother of Eryx ; one of the Trojans who 



fled from Troy to Sicily. With the aid of 
Aeneas they built the towns of Aegesta and 
Elyme. The Trojans who settled in that 
part of Sicily called themselves Elymi, after 
Elymus. 

ELYSIUM (-i), the JEhjsian fields. In 
Homer Elysium forms no part of the realms 
of the dead ; he places it on the W. of the 
earth, near Ocean, and describes it as a 
happy land, where there is neither snow, nor 
cold, nor rain. Hither favoured heroes, like 
Menelaus, pass without dying, and live happy 
under the rule of Rhadamanthus. In the 
Latin poets Elysium is part of the lower 
world, and the residence of the shades of the 
Blessed. 

EMATHIA (-ae), a district of Macedonia, 
between the Haliacmon and the Axius. The 
poets frequently give the name of Emathia to 
the whole of Macedonia, and sometimes even 
to the neighbouring Thessaly. 

EMATHIDES (-um), the" 9 daughters of 
Pier us, king of Emathia. 

EMESA or EMISA (-ae), a city of Syria, 
on the E. bank of the Orontes, the native city 
of Elagabalus. 

EMPEDOCLES (-is), a philosopher of Agri- 
gentum, in Sicily, flourished about b.c. 444. 
He was learned and eloquent ; and, on ac- 
count of his success in curing diseases, was 
reckoned a magician. His death is said to 
have been as miraculous as his life. One 
tradition related that he threw himself into 
the flames of mount Aetna, that by his sudden 
disappearance he might be believed to be a 
god ; but it was added that the volcano threw 
up one of his sandals, and thus revealed the 
manner of his death. His works were all in 
verse; and some fragments of them have 
come down to us. Empedocles was chosen 
as a model by Lucretius. 

EMPORIAE (-arum) or EMPORIUM (-i : 
Ampurias), a town of the Indigetes, in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, near the Pyrenees, 
situated on the river Clodianus, founded by 
the Phocaeans from Massilia. 

EMPTJSA (-ae), a monstrous spectre, which 
was believed to devour human beings. 

ENCELADUS (-i), son of Tartarus and 
Ge (Earth), and one of the hundred-armed 
giants who made war upon the gods. He 
was killed by Zeus (Jupiter), who buried him 
under mount Aetna. 

EXDYMION (-onis), a youth renowned 
for his beauty and his perpetual sleep. As 
he slept on mount Latmus, in Caria, his sur- 
prising beauty warmed the cold heart of 
Selene (the Moon), who came down to him, 
kissed him, and lay by his side. His eternal 
sleep on Latmus is assigned to different 
causes; but it was generally believed that 



ENGYUM. 



157 



EPHESUS. 



Selene had sent him to sleep that she might 
be able to kiss him without his knowledge. 

ENGYUM (-i), a town in the interior of 
Sicily, possessing a celebrated temple of 
the^ great mother of the gods. 

ENIPEUS (-eos or -ei), a river in Thessaly, 
rising in Mt. Othrys, receiving the Apidanus, 
near Pharsalus, and flowing into the Peneus. 
Poseidon (Neptune) assumed the form of the 
god of this river in order to obtain possession 
of Tyro, who was in love with Enipeus. She 
became by Poseidon the mother of Pelias and 
Neleus. 

ENNA or HENNA (-ae), an ancient town 
of the Siculi, in Sicily, on the road from 
Catana to Agrigentum, said to be the centre 
of the island. It was surrounded by fertile 
plains, which bore large crops of wheat ; it 
was one of the chief seats of the worship of 
Demeter (Ceres) ; and according to later tra- 
dition, it was in a flowery meadow near this 
place that Pluto carried off Proserpine. 

ENNIUS (-i), Q., the Roman poet, was 
born at Rudiae, in Calabria, b.c. 239. He 
was a Greek by birth, but a subject of Rome, 
and served in the Roman armies. In 204 
Cato, who was then quaestor, found Ennius 
in Sardinia, and brought him in his train to 
Rome. In 180 Ennius accompanied M. Ful- 
vius Nobilior during the Aetolian campaign, 
and shared his triumph. Through the son 
of Nobilior, Ennius, when far advanced in 
life, obtained the rights of a Roman citizen. 
He maintained himself by teaching the youths 
of the Roman nobles. He lived on terms of 
the closest intimacy with the elder Scipio 
Africanus. He died. 169, at the age of 70, 
and was buried in the sepulchre of the Sci- 
plos. Ennius was regarded by the Romans 
as the father of their poetry, but all his works 
are lost with the exception of a few fragments. 
His most important work was an epic poem 
in dactylic hexameters, entitled Annates, being 
a history of Rome, from the earliest times to 
his own day. 

ENTELLA (-ae), a town of the Sicani in 
the interior of the island on the "W. side, said 
to have been founded by Entellus, one of the 
companions of the Trojan Acestes. 

ENYALIUS (-i), the Warlike, frequently 
occurs in the Iliad (never in the Odyssey) as 
an epithet of Ares (Mars). At a later time 
Enyalius and Ares were distinguished as 2 
different gods of war. The name is evidently 
derived _from Enyo. 

ENYO (-us), the goddess of war, who de- 
lights in bloodshed and the destruction of 
towns, and accompanies Ares in battles. 
Respecting the Roman goddess of war, see 
Bellona. & 

EORDAEA (-ae), a district and town in 



the N. W. of Macedonia, inhabited by the 
Eordi. 

EOS (and Eos), in Latin AURORA (-ae), 
the goddess of the dawn, daughter of Hype- 
rion and Thia or Euryphassa ; or of Pallas, 
according to Ovid. At the close of every 
night she rose from the couch of her spouse 
Tithonus, and in a chariot drawn by swift 
horses ascended up to heaven from the river 
Oceanus, to announce the coming light of the 
sun. She carried off several youths distin- 
guished for their beauty, such as Orion, 
Cephaltjs, and Tithonus, whence she is called 
by Ovid Tithonia conjux. She bore Memnon 
to Tithonus. 

EPAMINONDAS (-ae), the Theban general 
and statesman, son of Polymnis, was born 
and reared in poverty, though his blood was 
noble. He saved the life of Pelopidas in 
battle b.c. 385, and lived in close friendship 
with him afterwards. After the Spartans 
had been expelled from Thebes, 379, Epami- 
nondas took an active part in public affairs. 
He gained a great victory over the Spartans at 
Leuctra (b.c. 37 1), which destroyed the Spartan 
supremacy in Greece. Four times he suc- 
cessfully invaded Peloponnesus at the head of 
the Theban armies. In the last of these cam- 
paigns he gained a brilliant victory over the 
Lacedaemonians atMantinea ; but, in the full 
career of victory, died. He is said to have fallen 
by the hands of Gryllus, the son of Xenophon. 
Epaminondas was one of the greatest men of 
Greece. He raised Thebes to the supremacy 
of Greece, which she lost almost as soon as he 
died. Both in public and in private life he 
was distinguished by integrity and upright- 
ness, and he carried into daily practice the 
lessons of philosophy, of which he was an 
ardent student. 

EPAPHUS (-i), son of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
Io, born on the river Nile, after the long 
wanderings of his mother. He became 
king of Egypt, and built Memphis. 

EPEI. [Elis.] 

EPEUS (-i), son of Panopeus, and builder 
of the Trojan horse, 

EPHESUS (4), the chief of the 12 Ionian 
cities on the coast of Asia Minor. In the 
plain beyond its walls stood the celebrated 
temple of Artemis (Diana), which was built 
in the 6th century b.c, and, after being 
burnt down by Herostratus in the night on 
which Alexander the Great was born (b.c. 
356), was restored by the joint efforts of all 
the Ionian states, and was regarded as one of 
the wonders of the world. With the rest of 
Ionia, Ephesus fell under the power succes- 
sively of Croesus, the Persians, the Macedo- 
nians, and the Romans. It was always very 
flourishing, and became even more so as the 



EPHIALTES. 



153 



EPIMENIDES. 



other Ionian cities decayed. In the early 
history of the Christian Chnrch it is con- 
spicuous as having been visited both by St. 
Paul and St. John, who also addressed epis- 
tles to the church established at Ephesus. 

EPHIALTES (-is).— (1) One of the Aloldae. 
[Aloees.] — (2) A Malian, who in b.c. 480, 
when Leonidas was defending- the pass of 
Thermopylae, guided a body of Persians over 
the mountain path, and thus enabled them to 
fall on the rear of the Greeks. — (3) An 
Athenian statesman, and a friend and partisan 
of Pericles, whom he assisted in carrying his 
political^ measures. 

EPHORUS (-i), of Cymae in Aeolis, a 
celebrated Greek historian, a contemporary 
of Philip and Alexander, flourished about b.c. 
340. He wrote a universal history, the first 
that was attempted in Greece. The work 
however has perished with the exception of a 
few fragments. 

EPHYRA (-ae), the ancient name of Co- 
rinth, whence Ephyreius is used as equivalent 
to Corinthian. [Cokinthtjs.] 

EPICASTE, commonly called Jocaste. 

EPICHARMUS (-i), the chief comic poet 
among the Dorians, born in the island of Cos, 
about b.c. 540, was carried to Megara in 
Sicily in his infancy, and spent the latter part 
of his life at Syracuse at the court of Hieron. 
He died at the' age of 90 (450), or 97 (443). 
Epicharmus gave to comedy a new form, and 
introduced a regular plot. His language was 
elegant, and his productions abounded in 
philosophical and moral maxims. 

EPICXEMIDII LOCRI. [Locris.] 

EPICTETUS (-i), of Hierapolis in Phrygia, 
a celebrated stoic philosopher, was a freed- 
man of Epaphroditus, who was himself a 
freedman of Xero. Being expelled from 
Rome by Donoitian, he took up his residence 
at Xicopolis in Epirus. He did not leave any 
works behind him ; and the short manual 
(Enckiridiofi), which bears his name, was 
compiled from his discourses by his pupil 
Arrian. _ [Arbiaxes.] 

EPICURUS (-i), a^celebrated Greek philo- 
sopher, was born b.c. 342, in the island of 
Samos, and took up his permanent residence 
at Athens, in 306. Here he purchased the 
garden, afterwards so noted, in which he 
established the philosophical school, called 
after him the Epicurean. He died in 270, 
at the age of 7 2, after a long and painful 
illness, which he endured with truly philo- 
sophical patience and courage. Epicurus is 
the great leader of that philosophical school 
which teaches that the summum bonum, or 
highest good, is happiness. The happiness 
that he taught his followers to seek after was 
not sensual enjoyment, but peace of mind as 



the result of the cultivation of all the vir- 
tues. According to the teaching of his 
school virtue should be practised because 
it leads to happiness ; whereas the Stoics 
teach that virtue should be. cultivated for her 
own sake, irrespective of the happiness it 
will ensure. In the physical part of his 
philosophy he followed the atomistic doctrines 
of Democritus and Diagoras. The pupils of 
Epicurus were very numerous, and were 
excessively devoted to him. His system has 
been most violently attacked, partly because 
after the days of Epicurus men who pro- 
fessed to be his followers gave themselves 
over to mere sensual enjoyment, partly be- 
cause it has been but imperfectly understood, 
and partly because it was really founded on 
an erroneous principle, in making virtue 
dependent upon consequent happiness. 
EPIDAMNUS. [Dtrrhachiem.] 
EPIDAURUS (-i) . (1) A town in Argolis on 
the Saronic gulf, formed, with its territory 
Epidaeeia, a district independent of Argos, 
and was not included in Argolis till the time 
of the Romans. It was the chief seat of the 
worship of Aesculapius, whose temple was 
situated about 5 miles from the town. — (2) Sur- 
named Lemera, a town in Laeonia, on the E. 
coast, said to have been founded by Epidaurus 
in Argolis. 

EPIGOXI (-oruni), that is, "the Descend- 
ants," the name of the sons of the 7 heroes 
who perished before Thebes. [Adeastts,] 
Ten years after their death, the descendants 
of the 7 heroes marched against Thebes, 
which they took and razed to the ground. 
The names of the Epigoni are not the same 
in all accounts ; but the common lists con- 
tain Alcmaeon, Aegialeus, Diomedes, Pro- 
machus, Sthenelus, Thersander, andEuryaius. 

EPIMEXIDES (-is), a celebrated poet and 
prophet of Crete, whose history is, to a great 
extent, mythical. There is a legend that 
when a boy he was sent out by his father in 
search of a sheep ; and that, seeking shelter 
from the heat of the midday sun, he went 
into a cave, and there fell into a deep sleep, 
which lasted 5 7 years. On waking and re- 
turning home, he found, to his great amaze- 
ment, that his younger brother had, in the 
mean time, grown an old man. His visit to 
Athens, however, is an historical fact, and 
determines his date. The Athenians, who 
were visited by a plague in consequence of 
the crime of Cylon [Cyeon], invited Epime- 
nides to come and undertake the purification 
of the city. Epimenides accordingly came to 
Athens, about b.c. 596, and performed the 
desired task by certain mysterious rites and 
sacrifices, in consequence of which the plague 
ceased. Many works were attributed to him 



EPIMETHEUS, 



159 



ERICHTHONIUS. 



by the ancients, and the Apostle Paul has 
preserved (Titus, i. 12) a celebrated verse of 
his against the Cretans. 

EPIMETHEUS. [Prometheus and PAN- 
DORA.]^ 

EPIPHAXES (-is), a surname of Antio- 
chus IT., king of Syria. 

EPIPHAXlA or -EA (-ae). (1) In Syria 
(0. T. Harnath), in the district of Cassiotis, 
on the left bank of the Orontes. — (2) In 
Cilicia, close to the Pylae Anianides, formerly 
called Oeniandus. 

EPIPOLAE. [Syracusae.1 

EPIBXS (4), that is, "the mainland," a 
country in the X.AV. of Greece, so called to 
distinguish it from Corcyra, and the other 
islands ofT the coast. Homer gives the name 
of Epirus to the -whole of the W. coast of 
Greece, thus including Acarnania in it. | 
Epirus was bounded by Iilyria and Mace- 
donia on the X., by Thessaly on the E., by 
Acarnania and the Ambracian gulf on the S., 
and by the Ionian Sea on the W. Its inhabit- 
ants were numerous, but were not of pure 
Hellenic blood. They appear to have been 
a mixture of Pelasgians and Illyrians. The 
ancient oracle of Dodona in the country was 
of Pelasgic origin. Epirus contained 14 
different tribes. Of these the most important 
were the Chaones, Thesproti, and Molossi, 
who gave their names to the 3 principal 
divisions of the country, Chaoxia, Thes- 
peotia, and Molossis. The different tribes | 
were originally governed by their own I 
princes. The Molossian princes, who traced 
their descent from Pyrrhus (Xeoptolemus), | 
son of Achilles, subsequently acquired the 
sovereignty over the whole country, and took 
the title of kings of Epirus. The most cele- 
brated of these was Pvrrhus, who carried on 
war with the Eomans. 

EPIRUS NOVA. [Iixykictjm.] 

EPOREDIA (-i : Ivrea), a town in Gallia 
Cisalpina, on the Duria, in the territory of 
the Salassi, colonised by the Etonians, b.c. 
100, to serve as a bulwark against the neigh- 
bouring Alpine tribes. 

EPOREDOEIX (-lgis), a noble Aeduan, 
who served in Caesar's armv. 

EQUUS TUTICUS or AEQUUM TUTI- 
CUM (-i;, a small town of the Hirpini, in 
Samniuin. 21 miles from Beneventum. 

ERAE (-arum), a small but strong seaport 
town on the coast of Ionia, X. of Teos. 

ERAXA (-ae), a town in M. Amanus, the 
chief seat of the Eleutherocilices, in the time 
of Cicero. 

ERASIXUS (-i), the chief river in Argolis, 
rising in the lake Stymphalus, and, after dis- 
appearing under the earth, flowing through 
the Lernaean marsh into the Argolic gulf. 



ERA SI ST RAT U S (-i), a celebrated phy- 
sician and anatomist, a native of Iulis, in the 
island of Ceos, flourished from b.c. 300 to 
260, and was the founder of a medical school 
at Alexandria. 

ERATO (-us), one of the Muses. [Musae.] 
ERATOSTHEXES (-is), of Cyrene, born 
b.c. 276, was placed by Ptolemy Euergetes 
over the library at Alexandria. He died at 
Alexandria at the age of 80, about b.c 196, 
of voluntary starvation, having lost his sight, 
and being tired of life. He was a man of 
extensive learning, and wrote on almost all 
the branches of knowledge then cultivated — 
astronomy, geometry, geography, philosophy, 
history, and grammar. His works have 
perished, with the exception of some frag- 
ments. His most celebrated work was a 
systematic treatise on geography, of which 
Strabo made great use. N 

EREBUS (-i), son of Chaos, begot Aether 
and Hemera (Day) by Xyx (Xight) , his sister. 
The name signifies darkness, and is therefore 
applied to the dark and gloomy space under 
the earth, through which the shades pass 
into Hades. 

ERECHTHEUM. [Erichthoxius.] 
ERECHTHEUS. [Erichthoxius.] 
ERESUS or ERESSUS (-i), a town on the 
W. coast of the island of Lesbos, the birth- 
place*of Theophrastus, and, according to some, 
of Sappho^ 

ERETRIA (-ae), one of the chief towns 
of Euboea, situated on the Euripus, with a 
harbour, Porthmos, was founded by the Athe- 
nians, but had a mixed population, among 
which was a considerable number of Dorians. 
Its commerce and navy raised it in early 
times to importance ; it contended with 
Chalcis for the supremacy of Euboea ; and it 
planted colonies in Macedonia and Italy. It 
was destroyed by the Persians, b.c 490, and 
most of its inhabitants were carried away 
into slaverv. 

ERICHTHOXIUS (-ae), or ERECHTHEUS 
(-eos or ei). In the ancient myths these two 
names indicate the same person ; but later 
writers mention 2 heroes, one called Erich- 
thonius or Erechtheus L, and the other Erech- 
theus II. — (1) Erichthoxius or Erechtheus 
I., son of Hephaestus (Vulcan) and Atthis, the 
daughter of Cranaus. Athena (Minerva) 
reared the child without the knowledge of the 
other gods, and entrusted him to Agraulos, 
Pandrosos, and Herse, concealed in a chest, 
which they were forbidden to open. But 
disobeying the command, they saw the child 
in the form of a serpent, or entwined by a 
serpent, whereupon they were seized with 
madness, and threw themselves down the 
rock of the acropolis. Eriehthonius after- 



EEICHTHOXIUS. 



160 



EROS. 



wards became king- of Athens, and was suc- 
ceeded in the kingdom by his son Pandion. 
He is said to hare introduced the worship 
of Athena, to have instituted the festival of 
the Panathenaea, and to have built a temple 
of Athena on the acropolis. YVhen Athena 
and Poseidon (Xeptune) disputed about the 
possession of Attica, Erichthonius declared 
in favour of Athena. He was further the 
first who used a chariot with 4 horses, for 
which reason he was placed among the stars 
as auriga. He was worshipped as a god after 
his death : and a temple, called the JSrech- 
theum, was built to him on the acropolis. 
— (2) Erechthees II., grandson of the for- 
mer, and son of Pandion whom he succeeded 
as king of Athens. He was father of Cecrops, 
Procris, Creusa, Chthonia, andOrithyia. In the 
war between the Eleusinians and Athenians, 
Eumolpus, the son of Poseidon, was slain ; 
whereupon Poseidon demanded the sacrifice 
of one of the daughters of Erechtheus. "When 
one was drawn by lot, her 3 sisters resolved 
to die with her ; and Erechtheus himself was 
killed by Zeus with a flash of lightning at 
the request of Poseidon. 

ERICHTHOXIlS (-i), son of Dardanus, 
father^ ofTros, and king of Troy. 

ERIDAXUS (-i), a river gocl, on whose 
banks amber was found. In later times the 
Eridanus was supposed to be the same as the 
Padus (Po), because amber was found at its 
mouth. Hence the Electrides Insulae or 
" Amber Islands " are placed at the mouth 
of the Po, and here Phaethon was supposed 
to have fallen when struck by the lightning 
of Zeus (Jupiter.) 

ERIGOXE (-es). — (1) Daughter of Iearius, 
beloved by Bacchus. Eor details, see Icaritjs. 
— (2) Daughter of Aegisthus and Clytaem- 
nestra. 

ERIX'XA (-ae), a Eesbian poetess, a con- 
temporary and Mend of Sappho (about b.c. 
612), who died at the age of 19, but left 
behind, her poems which were thought worthy 
to rank with those of Homer. 

ERIXXYES. [Etjmenidae.] 

EEIPHYLE (-es), daughter of Talaus and 
wife of Amphiaraus, whom she betrayed for 
the sake of the necklace of Harmonia, for 
which she was slain by her son Alcmaeon. 
For details see Amphiaraus, Alcmaeo:>. 

ERIS (-idos) in Latin, DISCORDIA (-ae), 
the goddess of Discord, the friend and sister 
of Ares (Mars), who delighted with him in 
the tumult of war. It was Eris who threw 
the apple into the assembly of the gods, the 
cause of so much suffering and war. [Paris.] 

^EROS (-otis), in Latin, AMOR (-oris), or 
CEPIDO (-mis), the god of Love, son of 
Aphrodite (Yenus), by either Ares (Mars), 



Zeus (Jupiter), or Hermes (Mercury). He 
was represented as a wanton boy, of whom a 
thousand tricks and cruel sports were related, 
and from whom neither gods nor men were 
safe. His arms consist of arrows, which he 
carries in a golden quiver, and of torches 




Eros (Cupid) whetting his Darts. (De la Chausse, 
Gemme Antiche.) 

which no one can touch with impunity. His 
arrows are of different power : some are 
golden, and kindle love in the heart they 
wound ; others are blunt and heavy with 
lead, and produce aversion to a lover. Eros 
is further represented with golden wings, and 
as fluttering about like a bird. His eyes are 
sometimes covered, so that he acts blindly. 




Eros. (From a Gem.) 



He is the. usual companion of his mother, 



E RYMANTHU S , 



161 



ETRURIA. 



Aphrodite. Axteros, literally, return-love, 
is usually represented as the god who pun- 
ishes those who do not return the love of 
others : thus he is the avenging' Eros, or a 
deus ultor. But in some accounts he is de- 
scribed as a god opposed to Eros and strug- 
gling against him. — Respecting the connec- 
tion between Eros and Psyche, see Psyche. 
The later poets speak of a number of Erotes. 




Eros (Cupid). (Museum Capitolinum, vol. 4, tax. 57.) 

ERYMANTHUS (-i). (1) A lofty moun- 
tain in Arcadia on the frontiers of Achaia 
and Elis, celebrated in mythology as the 
haunt of the savage Erymanthian boar de- 
stroyed by Hercules. [Hekcuxes]. — The Ar- 
cadian nymph Callisto, who was changed 
into a she-bear is called Erymanthis ursa, 
and her son Areas Eryma?ithidis ursae castes. 
[Ajrctos.] — (2. ; A river in Arcadia, rising in 
the" above-mentioned mountain, and falling 
into the Alpheus. 

ERYSICHTHOX (-orris), son of the Thes- 
salian king Triopas, who cut down trees in a 
grove sacred to Demeter, for which he was 
punished by the goddess with a fearful hunger, 
that caused him to devour his own flesh. 

ERYTHRAE (-arum;. (1) An ancient town 
in Boeotia, not far from Plataeae and Hysiae, 
and celebrated as the mother city of Erythrae ! 
in Asia Minor. — (2) A town of the Locri 
Ozolae, E. of Xaupactus. — (3) One of the 12 
Ionian cities of Asia Minor, stood at the 
bottom of a large bay, on the W. side of the 
peninsula which lies opposite to Chios. 

ERYTHRAEEM MARE, the name origi- 
nally of the whole expanse of sea between | 
Arabia and Africa on the W., and India J 
on the E., including its two great gulfs , 
(the Red Sea and Eersiati Gulf). In this 
sense it is used by Herodotus, who also dis- 
tinguishes the Red Sen by the name of 'A°a.»ios j 
xo'/.trc;. [Arabicus Sinus.] Afterwards the j 



parts of these seas were distinguished by 
different names, the main body of the sea 
being called Indicus Oceanus, the Red Sea 
Arabicus Sinus, the Persian Gulf Persicus 
Sinus. The name Erythraeum Mare was 
generally used as identical with Arabicus 
Sinus, or the corresponding genuine Latin 
term, Mare Rubrum [Red Sea). 

ERYX (-ycis), also ERYCUS MONS [S.Giu- 
liano), a steep and isolated mountain in the 
X. W. of Sicily, near Drepanum. On the 
summit of this mountain stood an ancient 
and celebrated temple of Aphrodite (Yenus), 
said to have been built by Eryx, king of the 
Elymi, or, according to Yirgil, by Aeneas, 
but more probably by the Phoenicians, who 
introduced the worship of Aphrodite into 
Sicily. Hence the goddess bore the surname 
ErycIxa, under which name her worship was 
introduced at Rome about the beginning of 
the 2nd Punic war. There was a town of the 
name of Eryx on the W. slope of the moun- 
tain. 

ESQEILIAE. [Roma.] 
ESSUI (-drum), a people in Gaul, W. of the 
Sequana. 

ETEOCLES (-is}, son of Oedipus and 
Jocasta. After his father's flight from Thebes, 
he and his brother Polynlces undertook the 
government of the city ; but disputes having 
arisen between them, Polynices fled to Adras- 
tus, who then brought about the expedition 
of the Seven against Thebes. [Adbastus.] 
| Eteocles and Polynices perished in single 
comba_t.^ 

ETESIAE (-arum), the Etesian Winds, de- 
rived from hns "year," signified any peri- 
odical winds, but more particularly the 
northerly winds which blow in the Aegean 
for 40 davs from the rising of the dog star. 

ETRURIA, ETRUHIA, or TUSCOLA, called 
by the Greeks TYRRHEXIA or TYRSEXIA 
(-ae), a country in central Italy. The in- 
habitants were called by the Romans Etrt/sci 
or Trsci, by the Greeks Tyrrhexi or Tyrsexi, 
and by themselves Rasexa. Etruria Proper 
was bounded on the N. and X. W. by the Apen- 
nines and the river Macra, which divided it 
from Liguria, on the W, by the Tyrrhene sea 
or Mare Inferum, and on the E. and S. by the 
river Tiber, which separated it from Umbria 
and Latiuni. The origin of the Etruscans is 
uncertain. The ancients believed that they 
were a colony of Lydians, but more modern 
writers suppose that the Etruscans were a 
Rhaetian race, called Rasena, who descended 
from the Alps and the valley of the Po. The 
Etruscans were a very powerful nation when 
Rome was still in its infancy, and at an early 
period their dominions extended over the 
greater part of Italy, from the Alps and the 

M 



EUBOEA. 



162 



EUMENES. 



plains of Lonibardy on the one hand, to Vesu- 
vius and the gulf of Sarento on the other. 
These dominions mar be divided into 3 great ! 
districts : Circumpadane Etruria in the N., i 
Etruria Proper in the centre, and Campanian | 
Etruria in the S. In each of these districts 
there were 12 principal cities or states, which 
formed a confederacy for mutual protection, j 
Through the attacks of the Gauls in the X., j 
and of the Sabines, Samnites, and Greeks in 
the S., the Etruscans became confined within 
the limits of Etruria Proper, and continued 
long to flourish in this country, after they had 
disappeared from the rest of Italy. The 12 
cities which formed the confederacy in Etruria 
Proper were most probably Cobtona, Arre- 
tittm, Cxrsiuir, Peru sea., Volaterrae,Vett."lo- 
stia, Eesellae, Voesixii, Tarqeixii, Vaeerii, 
Veii, Caere, more anciently called Agylla. 
Each state was independent of all the others. 
The government was a close aristocracy, and 
was strictly confined to the family of the 
Lucumones, who united in their own persons 
the ecclesiastical as well as the civil functions. 
The people appear to have been in a state of 
vassalage or serfdom. A meeting of the con- 
federacy of the 12 states was held annually in 
the spring, at the temple of Voltumna, neai 
Volsinii. The Etruscans were a highly civilised 
people, and from them the Romans borrowed 
many of their religious and political institu- 
tions. The 3 last kings of Eome were un- 
doubtedly Etruscans, and they left in the city 
enduring traces of Etruscan power and great- 
ness. The later history of the Etruscans is a 
struggle against the rising power of Rome, to 
which they became subject, after their deci- 
sive defeat by Cornelius Dolabella in b.c. 283. 
In 91 they received the Roman franchise. 
The numerous military colonies established 
in Etruria by Sulla and Augustus destroyed 
to a great extent the national character of the 
people, and the country thus became in course 
of time completely Romanised. 

EUBOEA (-ae : JNegrepont), the largest 
island of the Aegaean sea, about 90 miles in 
length, lying along the coasts of Attica, 
Boeotia, and the S. part of Thessaly, from 
which countries it is separated by the Eu- 
boean sea, called the Euripus in its narrowest 
part. Throughout the length of the island 
runs a lofty range of mountains ; but it con- 
tains many fertile plains. In Homer the 
inhabitants are called Abantes. In the N. of 
Euboea dwelt the Histiaei ; below these were 
the Ellopii, and in the S. were the Dryopes. 
The centre of the island was inhabited chiefly 
by Ionians. It was in this part of Euboea 
that the Athenians planted the colonies of 
Chaxcis and Eretria, which were the 2 
most important cities in the island. After 



the Persian wars, Euboea became subject to 
the Athenians. Since Ciunae, in Italy, was a 
colony from Chalcis, in Euboea, the adjective 
Euloicus is used by the poets in reference to 
the former city. 

ETJCLIDES (-is). (1) The celebrated 
mathematician, lived at Alexandria in the 
time of the first Ptolemy, b.c. 323 — 2S3, and 
was the founder of the Alexandrian mathe- 
matical school. It was his answer to 
Ptolemy, who asked if geometry could not be 
made easier, that there was no royal road. 
Of the numerous works attributed to Euclid, 
several are still extant of which by far the 
most noted is " The Elements."— (2) Of 
Megara, one of the disciples of Socrates, 
quitted Athens on the death of Socrates 
(b.c. 399), and took refuge in Megara, where 
he founded a school, which distinguished itself 
chiefly by the cultivation of dialectics. This 
school was called sometimes the Megaric, 
sometimes the Dialectic or Eristic. 

EUCTEMONj the astronomer. [Meton.] 

EUDOXUS (-i), of Cnidus, a celebrated 
astronomer and. geometer, lived about b.c. 
366. He studied at Athens and in Egypt, 
but probably spent some of his time at his 
native place, where he had an observatory. 
He is said to have been the first who taught 
in Greece the motions of the planets. His 
works are lost. 

EUGANEI (-orum), a people who formerly 
inhabited Venetia, on the Adriatic sea, and 
were driven towards the Alps and the Lacus 
Benacus by the Heneti or Veneti. 

EUHEMERTJS (-i), a Greek writer, who 
lived at the court of Cassander, in Macedonia, 
about b.c 316, and the author of a work, in 
which he attempted to show that all the 
ancient myths were genuine historical eTents. 
He represented the gods as originally men 
who had distinguished themselves either as 
warriors or benefactors of mankind, and who 
after their death received divine worship 
from the grateful people. 

EULAEUS (-i : 0. T. Ulai), a river in 
Susiana, rising in Great Media, passing E. of 
Susa, and falling into the head of the Persian 
Gulf. Some of the ancient geographers make 
the Eulaeus fall into the Choaspes, and others 
identify the two rivers. 

EUMAEUS (-i), the faithful swineherd 
of Ulysses. 

EUMENES (-is). (1) Of Cardia, served 
as private secretary to Philip and Alexander ; 
and on the death of the latter (b.c 323), 
obtained the government of Cappadocia, 
Paphlagonia, and Pontus. Eumenes allied 
himself with Perdiccas, and carried on war 
for him in Asia Minor against Antipater and 
Craterus. On the death of Perdiccas, in 



EUMENIDES. 



163 



EUMOLPUS. 



Egypt, Antigonus employed the whole force 
of the Macedonian army to crush Eumenes. 
Notwithstanding the numerical inferiority of 
his forces, Eumenes maintained his ground 
against his enemies for some years, till he 
was surrendered by the Argyraspids to Anti- 
gonus, by whom he was put to death, 316. 
He was a great general and statesman, and 
had he been a native Macedonian would pro- 
bably have occupied a more important position 
among the successors of Alexander. — (2) I. 
King of Perga^tus, reigned b.c. 263 — 241 ; 
and was the successor of his uncle Phile- 
taerus. — (3) II. King of Pergamtjs, reigned 
B.C. 197 — 159 ; and was the son and suc- 
cessor of Attalus I. He inherited from his 
predecessor the friendship and alliance of the 
Romans, which he took the utmost pains to 
cultivate, Pergamus became under his rule 
a great and nourishing city, in which he 
founded that celebrated library which rose to 
be a rival even to that of Alexandria. _ 

EUMENIDES (-urn), also called ERINYES 
(-um), not Erinnyes, and by the Eomans 
FUEIAE or DERAE (-arum), the Avenging 



Deities. The name Erinyes is the more 
ancient one ; the form Eumenides, which 
signifies " the well-meaning," or " soothed 
goddesses," is a mere euphemism, because 
people dreaded to call these fearful god- 
desses by their real name. It was said to 
have been first given them after the acquittal 
of Orestes by the Areopagus, when the anger 
of the Erinyes had been soothed. They 
are represented as the daughters of Earth 
or of Night, and as fearful winged maidens, 
with serpents twined in their hair, and with 
blood dripping from their eyes. They dwelt 
in the depths of Tartarus, dreaded by gods 
and men. "With later writers their number is 
usually 3, and their names are Tisiphont, 
Alecto, and Megaera. They punished men 
both in this world and after death. The 
sacrifices offered to them consisted of black 
| sheep and nephalia, i.e. a drink of honey mixed 
with water. The crimes which they chiefly 
punished were disobedience towards parents, 
violation of the respect due to old age, perjury, 
murder, violation of the laws of hospitality, 
and improper conduct towards suppliants. 




Furies. (From a Painted Vase.) 



Fury. (From a Painted Vase.) 



EUMOLPUS (4), that is "the good 
singer," a Thracian bard, son of Poseidon 
(Neptune) and Chione, the daughter of 
Boreas. As soon as he was born he was 



thrown into the sea by his mother, who 
was anxious to conceal her shame, but was 
preserved by his father Poseidon, who had 
him educated in Ethiopia bv his daughter 
m 2 



EUNOMIA. 



164 



EUROPA. 



Benthesicyma. After dwelling for a time in 
Ethiopia, and afterward* at the court of the 
Thracian king Tegyrius, he came to Eleusis 
in Attica, where he formed a friendship with 
the Eleusinians. Subsequently he joined 
them in an expedition against Athens, but 
was slain by Erechtheus. Eumoipus was 
regarded as the founder of the Eleusinian 
mysteries, and as the first priest of Denieter 
(Ceres) and Dionysus (Bacchus). He was 
succeeded in the priestly office by his son 
Ceyx ; and his family, the JEumolpidae, con- 
tinued till the latest times the priests of 
Demeter at Eleusis. 

EUNOMIA. [Horae,] 

EUJN US (-i), a Sicilian slave, and a native 
of Apamea in Syria, was the leader of the 
Sicilian slaves in the seryile war (b.c. 134 
—132). 

EUPALIUM or EUPOLIUM (4), a town of 
the Locri Ozolae, X. of Naupactus. 

EUPHEMUS (4), son of Poseidon (Nep- 
tune), and ancestor of Battus, founder of 
Cyrene. 

'EUPHORBUS (4), son of Panthous, one 
of the bravest of the Trojans, slain by Mene- 
laus, who dedicated his shield in the temple 
of Hera (Juno), near Mycenae. Pythagoras 
asserted that he had once been Euphorbus, 
and in proof of his assertion took down at 
first sight the shield from the temple of 
Hera. 

EUPHOBlON (-onis), of Chalcis inEuboea, 
an eminent grammarian and poet, was the 
Librarian of Antiochus the Great, and flourished 
b.c. 221. All his works are lost. 

EUPHRANOR (-oris), a distinguished 
statuary and painter, was a native of Co- 
rinth, but practised his art at Athens about 
b.c. 336. 

EUPHRATES (-is : 0. T. Phrat : ElFrat), 
a great river of Asia, consists, in its upper 
course, of 2 branches, both of which rise in 
che mountains of Armenia. The northern 
branch is the true Euphrates : the southern 
was called by the ancients the Arsaxias. 
After their junction the river breaks through 
the main chain of the Taurus between Meli- 
tene and Samosata, and then flows through 
the plain of Babylonia, till it joins the 
Tigris about sixty miles above the mouth 
of the Persian Gulf. 

EUPHROSYXE (-es), one of the Charites 
or Graces. [Charites.] 

EUPOLIS (-is), one of the most celebrated 
Athenian poets of the old comedy, and a con- 
temporary of Aristophanes, was born about 
i .e. 446, and died about 411. The common 
story that Alcibiades threw him into the sea 
out of revenge is not true. 
L EURIPIDES (-is), the distinguished tragic 



poet, was born at Salamis, b.c. 480, on the 
very day that the Greeks defeated the Per- 
'. sians off that island, whither his parents had 
fled from Athens on the invasion of Xerxes. 
; In his youth he cultivated gymnastic pursuits, 
and won the prize at the Eleusinian and 
; Thesean contests. But he soon abandoned 
j these pursuits, and studied philosophy under 
: Anaxagoras, and rhetoric under Prodicus, 
i He lived on intimate terms with Socrates, 
I and traces of the teaching of Anaxagoras 
have been remarked in many passages of his 
; plays. In 441 he gained for the first time 
the first prize, and he continued to exhibit 
; plays until 408, the date of the Orestes. 
Soon after this he left Athens for the court of 
Archelaus, king of Macedonia, where he died 
\ in 406, at the age of 7 5. He is said to have 
i been torn in pieces by the king's dogs. Eu- 
I ripides in his tragedies brought down the 
| ancient heroes and heroines to the ordinary 
■ standard of men and women of his own times. 
| He represented men, according to the remark 
| of Aristotle, not as they ought to be, but as 
! they are. Hence the preference given to his 
j plays by the practical Socrates. The most 
serious defects in his tragedies, as works of art, 
are the disconnexion of the choral odes from 
I the subject of the play, and the too frequent 
introduction of philosophical maxims. His 
| great excellency is the tenderness and pathos 
| with which some of his characters are in- 
i vested. IS of his tragedies are extant, if 
I we omit the Rhesus, which is probably 
spurious. 

EURIPUS (-i), any part of the sea where 
] the ebb and flow of the tide were remarkably 
violent, is the name especially of the narrow 
strait which separates Euboea from Boeotia. 
i At Chalcis there was a bridge over the 
i Euripus, uniting Euboea with the main- 
| land. 

EUROPA (-ae). (1) Daughter of the 
; Phoenician king, Agenor, or, according to 
the Iliad, daughter of Phoenix. Her beauty 
' charmed Zeus (Jupiter), who assumed the 
form of a bull and mingled with the herd as 
j Europa and her maidens were sporting on 
: the sea-shore. Encouraged by the tameness 
j of the animal, Europa ventured to mount his 
I back ; whereupon the god rushed into the 
sea, and swam with her to Crete. Here 
she became by Zeus the mother of Minos, 
Rhadamanthus, and Sarpedon. — (2) One 
of the 3 divisions of the ancient world, 
said to have been named after the daughter 
of Agenor. In earlier times the river Phasis 
was usually supposed to be the boundary 
between Europe and Asia, and sometimes even 
the Araxes and the Caspian sea ; but at a 
later period the river Tanais and the Pains 



EUROPUS. 



165 



EtJTROPIUS. 



Maeotis were generally regarded as the i The north of Europe was little known to the 
boundaries between the two continents, j ancients. 




Europa. (ScMichtergroll, Stoscli Collection.) 



EUROPUS, [Titaeesix-s.] 
EURUS (-i), the S.E. wind, sometimes the 
£. wind. 




Eurus. (From the Temple of the Winds at Athens.) 

EUROTAS (-ae), the chief river in Laconia, 
on which Sparta stood, rises in Mt. Boreum, ! 
in Arcadia, and flows into the Laconian gulf. ! 

EUR YD ICE (-es), wife of Orpheus. For 
details see Orpheus. 

EURYLOCHUS (4), a companion of Ulysses, 
was the only one that escaped from the house I 
of Circe, when his friends were metamor- 
phosed into swine. 

EURYMEDOX (-ontis), a small river in 
Pamphylia, celebrated for the victory which i 
Cimon gained over the Persians on its banks ! 
(b.c. 469)." 



EURYMUS (-i), father of the seer Telemus, 
who is hence called Eurymides. 

EURYXOME (-es), daughter of Oceanus, 
and mother of Leucothoe. 

EURYPOX, otherwise called EURYTIOX, 
grandson of Procles,- was the third king of 
that house at Sparta, and thenceforward gave 
it the name of Eurypontidae. 

EURYPYLUS (-i). (1) Son of Euaemon, 
and leader of a body of troops before Troy. — 
(2) Son of Poseidon (Xeptune) and Asty- 
palaea, king of Cos, killed by Hercules. 

EURYSTHEXES (-is) and PROCLES (-is), 
the twin sons of Aristodemus, born before 
their father's return to Peloponnesus and 
occupation of his allotment of Laconia. He 
died immediately after the birth of his chil- 
dren, and in accordance with the command 
of the oracle at Delphi both were made kings, 
but the precedence given to Eurysthenes and 
his descendants. From these 2 brothers the 
2 royal families in Sparta were descended, 
and were called respectively the Eurysthenidae 
and Proclidae. The former were also called 
the Agidae, from Agis, son of Eurysthenes ; 
and the latter Eurypontidae, from Eurypon, 
grandson of Procles. 

EURYSTHEUS. [Hercules/ 

EURYTUS (-i), king of Oechalia, and father 
of Iole. For details see Hercules. 

EUTERPE, one of the Muses. [Mtjsae.] 

EUTROPIUS (-i), a Roman historian, 



EUXIXUS. 



166 



FABII. 



contemporary of Constantine the Great, 
Julian, and Yalens, and the author of a brief 
compendium of Eoman history in 10 books, 
from the foundation of the city to the accession 
of Yalens, a.d. 364, to whom it is inscribed. 
This work is extant, and is drawn up with 
care. The style is in keeping with the nature 
of the undertaking, being plain, precise, and 
simple. 

EUXIXES POXTUS. [PoNxrs Erxi- 

KUS.] 

EYADXE (-es), daughter of Iphis (hence 
called Iphias), and wife of Capaneus. Eor 
details see Capaneus. 

EYAGORAS (-ae), king of Salamis, in Cy- 
prus, from about b.c. 410 to 374. He was 
assisted by the Athenians in his wars against 
the Persians. 

EYAXDER (-dri) and EY ANDRE'S (-i), son 
of Hermes (Mercury), by an Arcadian nymph, 
called in Roman traditions Carmenta or 
Tiburtis. About 60 years before the Trojan 
war, Evander is said to have led a colony from 
Pallantium, in Arcadia, into Italy, and there 
to have built a town, Pallantium, on the 
Tiber, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, which 
town was subsequently incorporated with 
Rome. Evander taught his neighbours milder 
laws and the arts of peace and of social life, 
and especially the art of writing ; he also in- 
troduced among them the worship of the 
Eycaean Pan, of Demeter (Ceres), Poseidon 
(Xeptune\ and Hercules. 

EYEXI7S (-i). (1) {Fidhari), a river of 
Aetolia, rising in Mt. Oeta, and flowing into 
the sea, 120 stadia W. of Antirrhium. It 
derived its name from Evenus, the father of 
Marpessa, who was carried off by Idas, the 
son of Aphareus ; and Evenus being unable to 
overtake the latter, threw himself into the 
river, which was henceforth called after him. 
— (2) A river of Mysia, falling into the Sinus 
ElaVticus near Pitane. 

EYERGETES, the " Benefactor," a title of 
honour conferred by the Greek states upon 
those from whom they had received benefits. 
It was assumed by many of the Greek kings in 
Egypt^and elsewhere. [Ptolemaets.] 

EYIUS, an epithet of Bacchus, given him 
from the animating cry evoe, in the festivals 
of the god. 



"CABARIS or FARFARUS (-i), a small river 
■* in Italy, in the Sabine territory, between 
Reate and Cures. 

FABII (-orum), one of the most ancient 
patrician gentes at Rome, which traced its 
origin to Hercules and the Arcadian Evander. 
Its most important members are : (1) K. 
Fablus Yibtt lan"l~s, 3 times consul, b.c. 



484, 481, 479. In his third consulship he 
espoused the cause of the plebeians ; but as 
his propositions were rejected by the patri- 
cians, he and his house resolved to quit Rome 
altogether, where they were regarded as 
apostates by their own order. Accordingly 
306 Fabii, all patricians, marched with the 
consul at their head through the Carmental 
Gate, and proceeded to the banks of the 
Cremera, where they erected a fortress. 
Here they took up their abode along with 
their families and clients, and for 2 years 
continued to devastate the territory of 
Yeii. They were at length destroyed by the 
Yeientes in 47 7, on the 18th of June, the 
day on which the Romans were subsequently 
conquered by the Gauls at the Allia. The 
whole gens perished with the exception of 
one individual, from whom all the later 
Fabii were descended. — (2) Q. Fabius 
Maxuks RrLLiAxrs, 6 times consul (b.c. 
322 — 296), and the most eminent of the 
Roman generals in the 2nd Sanmite war. 
— (3) Q. FABrrs Maximt/s Gueges, or the 
Glutton, from the dissoluteness of his youth, 
son of the last, 3 times consul (292 — 265). — 
(4) Q. Fabits Maximus, with the agnomens 
Yerbtjcosus, from a wart on his upper lip, 
Ovicula, or the Lamb, from the mildness or 
apathy of his temper, and Cuxctatob, from 
his caution in war, was grandson of Fabius 
Gurges. He was 5 times consul (b.c. 233 — 
209). In 217, immediately after the defeat 
at Trasimenus, Fabius was appointed dic- 
tator. From this period, so long as the war 
vdth Hannibal was merely defensive, Fabius 
became the leading man at Rome. On taking 
the field he laid down a simple and immutable 
plan of action. He avoided all direct encoun- 
ter with the enemy ; moved his camp from 
highland to highland, where the Xumidian 
horse and Spanish infantry could not follow 
him ; watched Hannibal's movements with 
unrelaxing vigilance, and cut off his stragglers 
and foragers. His enclosure of Hannibal in 
one of the upland valleys between Cales and 
; the Yultumus, and the Carthaginian's adroit 
I escape by driving oxen with blazing faggots 
fixed to their homs, up the hill-sides, are well- 
known facts. But at Rome and in his own 
camp the caution of Fabius was misinter- 
preted ; and the people in consequence divided 
the command between him and M. Minucius 
Rufus, his master of the horse. Minucius 
was speedily entrapped, and would have been 
destroyed by Hannibal, had not Fabius hast- 
ened to his rescue. In the closing years of 
the 2nd Punic war Fabius appears to less ad- 
vantage. The war had become aggressive 
under a new race of generals. Fabius dis- 
approved of the new tactics ; he dreaded the 



FABBATEBIA. 



167 



FAUNUS. 



political supremacy of Scipio, and was his 
opponent in his scheme of invading Africa. 
He died in 203. — (5) C. Fabius Pictor, re- 
ceived the surname of Pictor, because he 
painted the walls of the temple of Salus, which 
the dictator C. Junius Brutus Bubulcus dedi- 
cated in 302. This is the earliest Boinan 
painting of which we have any record. — 
(6) Q- Fabius Pictor, grandson of the last, 
the most ancient writer of Boman history in 
prose. He served in the Gallic war 225, and 
also in the 2nd Punic war. His history, 
which was written in Greek, began with the 
arrival of Aeneas in Italy, and came down to 
his own time. 

FABBATEBIA {Falvaterra), a Volscian 
town in Latium, on the right bank of the 
Trerus, subsequently colonised by theBomans. 

FABBICIUS (-i), the name of a Boman 
family the chief members of which were : — 
(1) C. Fabricius, one of the most popular 
heroes in the Boman annals. He was consul 
b.c. 282, and two years afterwards was 
one of the Boman ambassadors sent to Pyr- 
rhus at Tarentum to negotiate a ransom or 
exchange of prisoners. Pyrrhus used every 
effort to gain the favour of Fabricius ; but 
the sturdy Boman was proof against all his 
seductions, and rejected all his offers. In 
278 Fabricius was consul a second time, when 
he sent back to Pyrrhus the traitor who had 
offered to poison him. Negotiations were 
then opened, which resulted in the evacuation 
of Italy by Pyrrhus. He was censor in 27 5, 
and distinguished himself by the severity 
with which he repressed the growing taste 
for luxury. Ancient writers love to tell of 
the frugal way in which Fabricius and his 
contemporary Curius Dentatus lived on their 
hereditary farms, and how they refused the 
rich presents which the Samnite ambassadors 
offered them. Fabricius died as poor as he 
had lived, and left no dowry for his daughters, 
which the senate furnished. — (2) L. Fabri- 
cius, curator viarum in b.c. 62, built a 
new bridge of stone, connecting the city 
with the island in the Tiber, and called after 
him pons Fabricius. This bridge still re- 
mains, and bears the name of ponte quattro 
capi. 

FAESULAE (-arum : Fiesole), a city of 
Etruria, situated on a hill 3 miles N.E. 
of Florence. It was the head quarters of 
Catiline_'s army. 

FALEBII (-orum) or FALEBIUM (-i), a 
town in Etruria, situated on a height near 
Mt. Soracte, was originally a Pelasgic town, 
but was afterwards one of the 12 Etruscan 
cities. Its inhabitants were called Falisci, 
and were regarded by many as of the same 
race as the Aequi, whence we find them often 



called Aequi Falisci. After a long struggle 
with Borne, the Faliscans yielded to Camillus 
b.c. 394. The Faliscans revolted again at 
the close of the 1st Punic war (b.c 241), 
when the Bomans destroyed their city. A 
new town was built on the plain. The white 
cows of Falerii were valued at Borne for 
sacrifices. 

FALEBNUS AGEB, a district in the X. 
of Campania, extending from the Massic hills 
to the river Vulturnus. It produced some of 
the finest wine in Italy, which was reckoned 
only second to the wine of Setia. 

FALISCI. [Falerii.] 

FANNIUS (-i) STBABO (-onis), C, son-in- 
law of Laelius, introduced by Cicero as a 
speaker in his Be RepuUica and his Laelius. 

FANUM FOBTUNAE {Fano), a town in 
Umbria at the mouth of the Metaurus, with 
a celebrated temple of Fortuna, whence the 
town derived its name. 
FABFABUS. [Fabaris.] 
FAULA or FAUNA. [Faunus.] 
FAUNUS (-i), son of Picus, grandson of 
Saturnus, and father of Latinus, was the 
third in the series of the kings of the Lau- 
rentes. He was worshipped as the protecting 
deity of agriculture and of shepherds, and 
also as a giver of oracles. After the intro- 
duction of the worship of the Greek Pan 
into Italy, Faunus was identified with Pan, 
and represented, like the latter, with horns 




Faunus. (Gori, Gem. Ant. Flor. vol. 1, pi. 94.) 



and goats' feet. At a later time we find 
mention of Fauni in the plural. What 



FAT7STA. 



16S 



FIRMUM. 



Fauniis was to the male sex, Ms wife Faula 
or Fauna was to the female. As the god 
manifested himself in various ways, the idea 
arose of a plurality of Fauns (Fanni), who 
are described as half men, half goats, and 
with horns. Faunus gradually came to be 
identified with the Arcadian Pan, and the 
Fauni with the Greek Satyrs. 

FAUST A, CORDELIA ' (-ae N , daughter of 
the dictator Sulla, wife of Milo, and infamous 
for her adulteries. 

FAUSTlXA (-ae). (1) Senior, wife of the 
emperor, Antoninus Pius, notorious for her 
licentiousness. — [2) Jrxion, daughter of the 
elder Faustina, and wife of the emperor 
M. Aurelius. also notorious for her profligacv. 

FAUSTULUS. [^omuxtts.]. 

FAYEXTIA (-ae;, a town in Gallia Cisal- 
pina on the river Anemo and on the Via 
Aemilia^ 

AT. FATOXIFS (-ae), an imitator of Cato 
Uticensis, whose character and conduct he 
copied so servilely as to receive the nickname 
of Cato's ape. 

FEBRIS (-is), the goddess, or rather the 
averter, of fever. 

FEBRUUS (4), an ancient Italian divinity, 
to whom the month of February was sacred. 
The name is connected with februare (to 
purify\ 

FELICITAS (-atis), the personification of 
happiness, is frequently seen on Roman 
medals, in the form of a matron, with the 
staff of Mercury and a cornucopia. 

FELIX -Icis), AXTOXLUS (4), procurator 
of Judaea, in the reigns of Claudius and 
Xero. He induced Drusilla, wife of Azizus. 
king of Emesa, to leave her husband ; and she 
was still living with him in a.d. 60, when St. 
Paul preached before him "of righteousness, 
temperance, and judgment to come." 

FELSIXA. "Boxoxia." 

FEXXI (-oruni), a savage people, reckoned 
by Tacitus among the Germans. They pro- 
bably dwelt in the further part of E. Prussia, 
and were the same as the modern Finns. 

FEREXTIXUM (4) . (1) A town of Etru- 
ria, S. of Tolsinii, birthplace of the emperor 
Otho. — (2) An ancient town of the Hernici, 
in Latium, S.W. of Anagnia, colonised by the 
Romans in the 2nd Punic war. 

FEREXTUM. ^FonEXTOi/ 

FERETRIUS (-i), a surname of Jupiter, 
derived from feru-e, to strike ; for persons 
who took an oath called upon Jupiter to 
strike them if they swore falsely, as they 
struck the victim which they sacrificed. 
Others derived it from ferre, because people 
dedicated 'ferebant) to him the spolia opima. 

FEROXIA (-ae), an ancient Italian di- 
vinity, whose chief sanctuary was at Ter- 



racina, near mount Soracte. At her festival 
i at this place a great fair was held. 

FESCEXXIUM (-i) or FESCEXXIA (-ae), 
a town of the Falisci, in Etruria, and conse- 
quently, like Falerii, of Pelasgic origin. 
[Fat.krtt.] From this town the Romans are 
j said to have derived the Fescennine songs. 

FESTUS, SEXT. POMPEIUS (4), a 
Roman grammarian, in the 4th century of 
our era, the author of a dictionary or glossary 
of Latin words and phrases, of which a con- 
siderable portion is extant. 

FESTUS, PORCIUS (4), succeeded Anto- 
nius Felix as procurator of Judaea, in a.d. 
62. It was he who bore testimony to the 
; innocence of St. Paul, when he defended 
j himself before him in the same year. 

FICAXA f-ae), one of the ancient Latin 
towns destroyed by Ancus Martins. 

FICULEA (-ae;, an ancient town of the 
' Sabines, E. of Fidenae. 

FIDENAE (-arum), sometimes FEDEX A 
(-ae : Castel Giubileo), an ancient town in 
the land of the Sabines, 5 miles X'.E. of 
Rome, situated on a steep hill, between the 
: Tiber and the Anio. It is said to have been 
' conquered and colonised by Romulus ; but 
it was probably colonised by the Etruscan 
Veiij with which city we find it in close 
j alliance. It frequently revolted, and was 
frequently taken by the Romans. Its last 
revolt was in B.C. 43 S, and in the following 
year it was destroyed by the Romans, but was 
afterwards rebuilt, 

FIDEXTIA (-ae), a town in Cisalpine 
Gaul, on the Via Aemilia, between Parma 
and Placentia. 

FIDES (-ei), the personification of faith- 
t fulness, worshipped as a goddess at Rome. 
FIDIUS, an ancient form of filius, occurs 
in the connection of Dius Fidius, or Medius 
Fidius. that is, me Bins (A;o,-* filius, or the son 
of Jupiter, that is, Hercules. Hence the expres- 
sion medius fidius is equivalent to me Hercules 
soil, juvet. Sometimes Fidius is used alone. 
Some of the ancients connected fidius with fides. 

FIGULUS, P. NIGIDIUS (4), a Roman 
senator, and Pythagorean philosopher, of 
high reputation, who flourished about b.c. 60. 

FIMBRIA (-ae), C. FLA VI US (4). (1) 
A jurist and an orator, consul b.c. 104. — 
(2) Son of the preceding, and one of the most 
violent partizans of Marios and Cinna during 
the civil war with Sulla. In b.c 86 he was 
sent into Asia as legate of Valerius Flaccus, 
whom he induced the soldiers to put to death. 
He then carried on war against Mithridates ; 
but in SI he was attacked by Sulla, and being 
deserted by his troops, put an end to his life, 

FIRMUM (-i), a town in Picenum, 3 miles 
from the coast. 



FLACCUS, 



169 



FORNAX. 



FLACCUS, FULVIUS (4), the name of 
two distinguished families in the Fulvia and 
Valeria gentes, Many of the members of 
both families held the highest offices in the 
state ; but the best known are : — Q) 
M. Fulvius Flaccus, the friend of the 
Gracchi, consul B.C. 125, and one of the 
triumvirs for carrying into execution the 
agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus. He was 
slain, together with C. Gracchus, in 121. 
— (2) L. Valerius Flaccus, consul b.c. 100, 
with C. Marius, when he took an active part 
in putting down the insurrection of Satur- 
ninus. In 86 he was chosen consul in place 
of Marius, and was sent into Asia against 
Mithridates, but was put to death by his 
soldiers at the instigation of Fimbria. — '3, 
L. Valerius Flaccus, a native of Padua, who 
lived in the time of Vespasian, and wrote the 
Argonautica, an unfinished heroic poem, in 
S books, on the Argonautic expedition, which 
is extant. 

FLACCUS, HORATIUS. [Horatius." 
FIAMIXIXUS, T. QUIXTIUS -i , consul 
b.c. 19S, had the conduct of the war against 
Philip of Macedonia, whom he defeated at 
the battle of Cynoscephalae, in Thessaly, in ! 
19", and compelled to sue for peace. 

FLAMIXIUS, C, (-i), consul for the first ' 
time b.c. 223, when he gained a victory over 
the Insubrian Gauls ; and censor in 220, when 
lie executed two great works, which bore Ms | 
name, viz., the Circus Flaminius and the 
Via Flaminia. In his second consulship j 
[217] he was defeated and slain by Hannibal, i 
at the bajttle of the Trasimene lake. 

FLAVIA GENS, celebrated as the house 
to which the emperor Vespasian belonged. } 
During the later period of the Roman em- 
pire, the name Flavins descended from one 
emperor to another, Constantius, the father 
of Constantine the Great, being the first in 
the series. 

FLAVIUS FIMBRIA. "Fimbria/ 
FLAVIUS JOSEPHUS. [Josephus.] 
FLAVIUS VOPISCUS. [Voriscus.] 
FLEVUM (-i), a fortress in Germany, at 
the mouth of the Amisia (Ems). 
FLEVUM, FLEVO. [Rhenus.] 
FLORA (-ae), the Roman goddess of 




Flora. (From a Roman Coin.) 
flowers and spring, whose annual festival 



[Floralia] was celebrated from the 28th of 
April till the 1st of May, with extravagant 
merriment and lasciviousness. 




Flora. (From an ancient Statue.) 

FLOREXTIA ( -ae : Firenze, Florence), a 
town in Etruria, and subsequently a Roman 
colony, situated on the Arnus ; but its great- 
ness as a city dates from the middle ages. 

FLORUS, L. AXXAEUS (-i), a Roman 
historian, lived under Trajan and Hadrian, 
and wrote a summary of Roman history, 
which is extant, divided into 4 books, ex- 
tending from the foundation of the city to 
the time of Augustus. 

FLORUS, JULIUS a poet and an 

orator, addressed by Horace in 2 epistles. 

FOXTETUS, M., (-i), propraetor in Xar- 
bonese Gaul, between b.c. 76 — 7 3, accused in 
69 of extortion in his province and defended by 
Cicero in an oration, part of which is extant. 

FOREXTUM or FEREXTUM [-i), a town 
in Apulia, surrounded by fertile fields and in 
a low situation, according to Horace. 

FORMIAE (-arum : nr. Mola di Gaeta, 
Ru.), a very ancient town in Latium, on the 
Appia Via, in the innermost corner of the 
beautiful Sinus Caietanus [Gulf of Gaeta). It 
was founded by the Pelasgic Tyrrhenians, 
and was the fabled abode of Lamus and the 
Laestrygones. >~ear this place were numer- 
ous villas of the Roman nobles : of these the 
best known is the Formianum of Cicero, in 
the neighbourhood of which he was killed. 
The hills of Formiae produced good wine. 

FORXAX -acis), a Roman goddess, who 
presided over baking the corn in the oven 
(fornax), and who was worshipped at the 
festival of the Fornacalia, 



FORTUXA. 



170 



FORUM. 



FORTUXA (-ae), called Ttche by the 
Greeks, the goddess of fortune, worshipped 
both, in Greece and Italy. She was repre- 
sented with different attributes. With a 
rudder, she was conceived as the divinity 
guiding and conducting the affairs of the 
world ; with a ball, she represented the 
varying unsteadiness of fortune ; with Plutus, 
or the horn of Anialthea, she was the symbol 
of the plentiful gifts of fortune. She was 
more worshipped by the Romans than by the 
Greeks. Her worship was of great import- 
ance also at Antium and Praeneste, where her 
sortes or oracles were very celebrated. 




rortuna. (Bronze, in the British Museum.) 

FORTUXATAE or -ORUM IXSULAE, 
" the Islands of the Blessed." The early 
Greeks, as vre learn from Homer, placed the 
Elysian fields, into which favoured heroes 
passed without dying, at the extremity of the 
earth, near the river Oceanus. [Elysium.] In 
poems later than Homer, an island is spoken 
of as their abode; and though its position 
was of course indefinite, the poets, and the 
geographers who followed them, placed it 
beyond the pillars of Hercules. Hence when 
certain islands were discovered in the Ocean, 
off theW. coast of Africa, the name of For- 
tunatae Insulae were applied to them. They 
are now called the Canary and Madeira 
islands. 

FORULI (-orum), a small town of the 



Sabines, near the junction of the Himella 
with^the Tiber. 

FORUM (-i), an open space of ground, in 
which the public met for the transaction of 
; public business, and for the sale and purchase 
of provisions. The number of fora increased 
at Rome with the growth of the city. They 
| were level pieces of ground of an oblong form, 
and were surrounded by buildings, both pri- 
' vate and public. The principal fora at Rome 
were : — (1) FoRUMRoMAxuM,also called simply 
the Forum, and at a later time distinguished 
by the epithets vet us or magnum. It lay be- 
tween the Capitoline and Palatine Hills, and 
ran lengthwise from the foot of the Capitol or 
the arch of Septimius Severus in the direction 
of the arch of Titus ; but it did not extend 
quite so far as to the latter. The origin of the 
forum is ascribed to Romulus and Tatius, who 
are said to have filled up the swamp or marsh 
which occupied its site, and to have set it 
apart as a place for the administration of jus- 
tice and for holding the assemblies of the 
people. The forum, in its widest sense, in- 
cluded the forum properly so called, and the 
Comitium. The Comitium occupied the nar- 
row or upper end of the forum, and was the 
place where the patricians met in their comitia 
curiata : the forum, in its narrower sense, was 
originally only a market-place, and was not 
used for any political purpose. At a later 
time, the forum in its narrower sense was the 
place of meeting for the plebeians in their 
comitia tributa, and was separated from the 
comitium by the Rostra or platform, from 
which the orators addressed the people. In the 
time of Tarquin the forum was surrounded 
by a range of shops, probably of a mean 
character, but they gradually underwent a 
change, and were eventually occupied by 
bankers and money-changers. As Rome grew 
in greatness, the forum was adorned with 
statues of celebrated men, with temples and 
basilicae, and with other public buildings. 
The site of the ancient forum is occupied by 
the Campo Vaccino. — .2) Forum Julium or 
I Forum Caesaris, built near the old forum by 
: Julius Caesar, because the latter was found too 
' small for the transaction of public business. — 
j (3) Forum Augusti, built by Augustus, behind 
| the Forum Julium. — (4) Forum Xervae or 
[ Forum Traxsitorium, was a small forirm lying 
between the Temple of Peace and the fora of 
Julius Caesar and Augustus. It was built by 
Xerva, and was intended to serve as a passage 
| between the Temple of Peace and the fora of 
Caesar and of Augustus. Hence its name. — 
I (5) Forum Trajaxi, built by the emperor 
Trajan, between the forum of Augustus and 
I the Campus Martins. 

FORUM, the name of several towns, ori- 



FOSL 



171 



GABII. 



ginally simply markets or places for the ad- 
niirListratiori of justice. (1) Appii, in Latiuin, j 
on the Appia Via, in the midst of the Pomp- , 
tine marshes, 43 miles S. E. of Rome, founded 
by the censor Appius Claudius when he made 
the Appia Via. Here the Christians from \ 
E.ome met the Apostle Paul. — (2) Jvlii or 
Jl'litjm {Frejus), a Pornan colony founded by I 
Julius Caesar, b.c. 44, in Gallia Xarbonensis, 
on the coast; the birthplace of Agricola. — 
[3) Xttlium. See Llutubgis. 

FOSI (-orum), a people of Germany, the 
neighbours and allies of the Cherusci, in 
whose fate they shared. [Cherusci.] 

FOSSA -ae y or FOSSAE -aruin,, a canal. j 
(1) Cluilia or Cluiliae, a trench about 5 
miles from Pome, said to have been the ditch 
with which the Alban king Cluilius protected 
his camp, when he marched against P.ome in 
the reign of TullusHostilius. — (2) Drusiaxae 
or Drusixae, a canal which Drusus caused his 
soldiers to dig in b.c. 11, uniting the Rhine 
with theYssel. — (3] Mabiama or Mart a nab, 
a canal dug by command of Marios during 
his war with the Cimbri, in order to connect the 
Rhone with the Mediterranean. — A, Xerxis. i 
See Athos. 

FRAXCI [-orom), i. e. "the Free men," a 
confederacy of German tribes, formed on the 
Eower Rhine in the place of the ancient league : 
of the Cherusci. After carrying on frequent 
wars with the Romans, they at length settled 
permanently in Gaul, of which they became j 
the rulers under their king Clovis, a.d. 496. 

FREGELLAE (-arum: Ceprano), a town of 
the Yolsci on the Liris in Latium, conquered 
by the Romans, and colonised b.c 328. 

*FREGEXAE, sometimes called FREGEL- 
LAE (-arum), a town of Etruria, on the 
coast between Alsiuni and the Tiber, colo- : 
nised by the Romans, b.c. 245. 

FREXTANI (-orom] , a Samnite people 
dwelling on the coast of the Adriatic, from the 
river Sagros on the N. [and subsequently 
almost as far N, as from the Aternus to the : 
river Frento on the S,, from which they 
derived their name. They submitted to the | 
Romans in b.c 304. 

FREXTO (-onis : Fortore n a river in Italy 
forming the boundary between the Frentani ; 
and Apulia, and failing into the Adriatic sea. 

FRISII (-orom), a people in Germany, j 
inhabiting the coast from the E. mouth of 
the Rhine to the Amisia [Urns], and bounded 
on the S. by the Bructeri. In the 5th cen- 
tury they joined the Saxons and Angli in their j 
invasion of Britain. 

FROXTlXTJS, SEX. JULIUS (-i), governor 
of Eritain (a.d. 75 — 7 8) where he dis- 
tinguished himself by the conquest of the 
feilures. He was the author of two treatises j 



that are still extant — one on the art of war, 
and another on the Roman aqueducts. He 
was nominated Curator Aquarum, or Super- 
intendent of the Aqueducts, in 97 ; died 106. 

FROXTO (-onis), M. CORXELIUS (-i), 
a celebrated rhetorician in the reigns of 
Hadrian and M. Aurelius, born at Cirta in 
Xumidia. He was entrusted with the edu- 
cation of YL Aurelius and L. Yerus, and was 
rewarded with wealth and honours. A few 
fragments of his works are extant. 

FRUSIXO (-onis), a town of the Hemic i in 
Latium, and subsequently a Roman colony. 
FUCEXTIS, FUCEXTIA. [Alba, Xo." 1.] 
FUC'iXUS LACUS [Lago ~di Delano or 
Capistrano), a large lake in the centre of 
Italy and in the country of the Marsi, about 
30 miles in circumference, into which all the 
mountain streams of the Apennines flow. 
As the waters of this lake frequently inun- 
dated the surrounding country, the emperor 
Claudius constructed an emissarium or arti- 
ficial channel for carrying off the waters of 
the lake into the river Liris. This emissarium 
is near Ij perfect : it is almost 3 miles in length. 
FUFIUS CALEXUS. [Caeexus.] 
FF/LYIA (-ae). (1) The mistre'ss of Q. 
Curius, one of Catiline's conspirators, who 
divulged the plot to Cicero. — \2) A daughter 
of M. Fulvius Bambalio of Tusculum, and 
successively the wife of P. Clodius, C. Seri- 
bonius Curio, and YE. Antonv ; died b.c. 40. 
FULYFUS FLACCUS. "Flaccus.] 
FTLYITS^ XOBILIOR. " [Xoeilior.] 
FUXDAXIUS (-i) r a writer of comedies, 
praised by Horace. 

FUXDI (-orum: Fondi), an ancient town 
in Latium on the Appia Yia, at the head of a 
narrow bay of the sea, running a considerable 
way into the land, called the Lacus Fuxdaxus. 
The surrounding country produced good wine. 
FURCUL AE CAEDIXAE . [ C a cdium . ] 
FERIAE. 'Eemexides.] 
FURIES BIBACELUS, "BiBAcrixs.] 
FURIES CAMILLUS. 'Camillis." 
FUSCUS ARISTIUS (-i), a friend of the 
poet Horace, who addressed to him an ode 
and an epistle. 

/^lABALI (-orum), a people in Gallia Aqui- 
tardea, whose chief town was Anderitum 
{Aniei'ieux). 

GABII (-orum), a town in Latium, on the 
Lacus Gabinus between Rome and Praeneste, 
a colony from Alba Longa ; and the place, 
according to tradition, where Romulus was 
brought up. It was taken by Tarquinius 
Superbus by stratagem, and was in ruins in 
the time of Augustus. The ductus Gabinus, 
a peculiar mode of wearing the toga at Rome, 



GABTNIUS. 



172 



GALBA. 



appears to have been derived from this town. 
In its neighbourhood are the stone quarries, 
from which a part of Rome was built. 

GABIXIUS, A., (-i), tribune of the plebs 
B.C. 66, when he carried a law conferring 
upon Pompey the command of the war against 
the pirates, and consul in 58, when he took 
part in the banishment of Cicero. In 57 he 
went to Syria as proconsul, and restored 
Ptolemy Auletes to the throne of Egypt, in 
opposition to a decree of the senate. On his 
return to Rome in 54 he was accused both 
of majestas and repetunctae. He was de- 
fended by Cicero. He was condemned on the 
latter charge, and went into exile. In the 
civil war he fought on the side of Caesar. 
He died^ about the end of b.c. 48. 

GADARA, a large fortified city of Pales- 
tine, situated on an eastern tributary of the 
Jordan. 

GADES ("ium : Cadiz), a very ancient town 
in Hispania Baetica, founded by the Phoe- 
nicians, and one of the chief seats of their 
commerce in the W. of Europe, situated on a 
small island of the same name (I. de Leon), 
separated from the mainland by a narrow 
channel. Herodotus says (iv. 8) that the 
island of Erythia was close to Gadeira ; 
whence most later writers supposed the 
island of Gades to be the same as the 
mythical island of Erythia, from which 
Hercules carried off the oxen of Geryon. 
Its inhabitants received the Roman franchise 
from Julius Caesar. 

GAEA (-ae), or GE (-es), called TELLUS by 
the Romans, the personification of the earth, 
is described as the first being that sprang from 
Chaos, and gave birth to Uranus (Heaven), 
and Pontus (Sea). By Uranus she became 
the mother of the Titans, who were hated 
by their father. Ge therefore concealed them 
in the bosom of the earth ; and she made a 
large iron sickle, with which Cronos (Saturn) 
mutilated Uranus. Ge or Tellus was re- 
garded by both Greeks and Romans as one of 
the gods of the nether world, and hence is 
frequently mentioned where they are invoked. 

GAETULIA (-ae), the interior of N. Africa, 
S. of Mauretania, Numidia, and the region 
bordering on the Syrtes, reaching to the 
Atlantic Ocean on the W., and of very inde- 
finite extent towards the E. and S. The 
pure Gaetuii were not an Aethiopic (i. e. 
negro), but a Libyan race, and were most 
probably of Asiatic origin. They are probably 
the ancestors of the Berbers. 

GAIUS or CAIUS (-i), a celebrated Roman 
jurist, who wrote under Antoninus Pius and 
M. Aurelius. One of his chief works was an 
elementary treatise on Roman law, entitled 
Iastitutiones, in 4 books, which was the or- 



dinary text book used by those who were 
commencing the study of the Roman law, 
until the compilation of the Institutiones of 
Justinian. It was lost for centuries, until 
discovered by Niebuhr in 1816 at Yerona. 

GALANTHIS. [Galinthias.] 

GALATEA (-ae), daughter of Nereus and 
Doris. [Acis.] 

GAL ATI A or IA (-ae), a country of Asia 
Minor, composed of parts of Phrygia and Cap- 
padocia, and bounded on the W;, S., and S.E. 
by those countries, and on the N.E., N., and 
N.W. by Pontus, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia. 
It derived its name from its inhabitants, who 
were Gauls that had invaded and settled in 
Asia Minor at various periods during the 
3d century b.c. They speedily overran all 
Asia Minor within the Taurus, and exacted 
tribute from its various princes ; but Attalus 
I. gained a complete victory over them (b.c. 
230), and compelled them to settle down 
within the limits of the country thenceforth 
called Galatia, and also, on account of the 
mixture of Greeks with the Celtic inha- 
bitants, which speedily took place, Graeco- 
Galatia and Gallograecia. The people of 
Galatia adopted to a great extent Greek 
habits and manners and religious observances, 
but preserved their own language. They 
retained also their political divisions and 
forms of government. They consisted of 3 
great tribes, the Tolistobogi, the Trocmi, and 
the Tectosages, each subdivided into 4 parts, 
called by the Greeks Tetrarchies. At the 
head of each of these 12 Tetrarchies was a 
chief, or Tetrarch. At length one of the 
tetrarchs, Deiotartjs, was rewarded for his 
services to the Romans in the Mithridatic 
War by the title of king, together with a 
grant of Pontus and Armenia Minor ; and 
after the death of his successor, Amyntas, 
Galatia was made by Augustus a Roman pro- 
vince (b.c. 25). Its only important cities 
were, in the S.W. Pessixtjs, the capital of 
the Tolistobogi ; in the centre Ancyra, the 
capital of the Tectosages ; and in the N.E., 
Tavium, the capital of the Trocmi. From the 
Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians, we learn 
that the Christian churches in Galatia con- 
sisted, in great part, of Jewish converts. 

GALBA (-ae), the name of a distinguished 
family in the Sulpicia gens. (1) P. Stjl- 
picius Galea, twice consul, b s c. 211 and 200, 
and in both consulships carried on war 
against Philip, king of Macedonia. — (2) See. 
Sulpicius Galba, praised by Cicero on ac- 
count of his oratory, praetor 151, when he 
treacherously murdered a large number of 
Lusitanians, and consul 144. — (3) See. Scl- 
picius Gaeba, Roman emperor, June a.d. 68 
to January a.d. 69, was born b.c. 3. After 



GALENUS. 



173 



GALLIA. 



his consulship he had the government of 
Gaul, a.d. 39, where he carried on a successful 
war against the Germans, and restored dis- 
cipline among the troops. Nero gave him, 
in a.d. 61, the government of Hispania 
Tarraconensis, where he remained for 8 
years. When Nero was murdered Galba 
proceeded to Rome, where he was acknow- 
ledged as emperor. But his severity and 
avarice soon made him unpopular with the 
soldiers, by whom he was murdered, at the 
instigation of Otho. 

GALENUS, CLAUDIUS (-i), commonly 
called Galex, a very celebrated physician, 
born at Pergamum, a.d. 130. He was care- 
fully educated by his father Nicon, who, in 
consequence of a dream, chose for him the 
profession of medicine. This subject he first 
studied at Pergamum, afterwards at Smyrna, 
Corinth, and Alexandria. He practised in 
his native city, and at Rome, where he at- 
tended the emperors M. Aurelius and L. 
Verus. He died about a.d. 200, at the age 
of 70, in the reign of Septimius Severus. 
He wrote a great number of works on me- 
dical and philosophical subjects. There are 
still extant 83 treatises which are acknow- 
ledged to be his, besides many that are spu- 
rious or doubtful. 

GALEPSUS (-i), a town in Macedonia, on 
the Toronaic gulf. 

GALERIUS MAXIMIANUS. [Maxxmia- 

NUS.] 

GALESUS (-i), a river in the S. of Italy, 
flowing into the gulf of Tarentum through 
the meadows where the sheep grazed whose 
wool was so celebrated in antiquity. 

GALEUS (-i), that is, " the lizard," son 
of Apollo and Themisto, from whom the 
Gale5tae, a family of Sicilian soothsayers, 
derived their origin. The principal seat of 
the Galeotae was the town of Hybla, which 
was hence called Galeotis or Galeatis. 

GALILAEA (-ae), at the birth of Christ 
was the N.-most of the 3 divisions of Pales- 
tine W. of the Jordan. Its inhabitants were 
a mixed race of Jews, Syrians, Phoenicians, 
Greeks, and others, and were therefore 
despised by the Jews of Judaea. 

GALINTHIAS (-Mis) or GALANTHIS 
(-idis), daughter of Proetus of Thebes, and a 
friend of Alcmene. "When Alcmene was on 
the point of giving birth to Hercules, and the 
Moerae and Ilithyiae, at the request of Hera 
(Juno) , were endeavouring to delay the birth, 
Galinthias suddenly rushed in with the false 
report that Alcmene had given birth to a son. 
The hostile goddesses were so surprised at 
this information that they dropped their 
arms. Thus the charm was broken, and 
Alcmene was enabled to give birth to Her- 



cules. The deluded goddesses avenged the 
deception practised upon them by metamor- 
phosing Galinthias into a weasel {yacXri). 
Hecate, however, took pity upon her, and 
made her her attendant, and Hercules after- 
wards erected a sanctuary to her. 

GALLAECIA (-ae), the country of the 
Gallaeci or Callaeci, in the N. of Spain, 
between the Astures and the Durius. Its 
inhabitants were some of the most uncivilised 
in Spain. They were defeated with great 
slaughter by D. Brutus, consul b.c. 138, who 
obtained in consequence the surname of 
Gallaecus. 

GALLIA (-ae), in its widest acceptation, 
indicated all the land inhabited by the Galli or 
Celtae, but, in its narrower sense, was applied 
to two countries : — (1) Gallia, also called 
Gallia Transalpixa or Gallia Ulterior, to 
distinguish it from Gallia Cisalpina, or the N. 
of Italy. In the time of Augustus it was 
bounded on the S. by the Pyrenees and the 
Mediterranean ; on the E. by the river Varus 
and the Alps, which separated it from Italy, 
and by the river Rhine, which separated it 
from Germany ; on the N. by the German 
Ocean and the English Channel ; and on the 
W. by the Atlantic : thus including not only 
the whole of France and Belgium, but a part 
of Holland, a great part of Switzerland, and 
all the provinces of Germany AY. of the Rhine. 
The Greeks, at a very early period, became 
acquainted with the S. coast of Gaul, where 
they founded, in b.c. 600, the important town 
of Massilia. The Romans commenced the 
conquest of Gaul b.c. 125, and a few years 
afterwards made the south-eastern part of the 
country a Roman province. In Caesar's 
Commentaries the Roman province is called 
simply Provinda, in contradistinction to the 
rest of the country ; hence comes the modern 
name of Provence. The rest of the country 
was subdued by Caesar after a struggle of 
several years (58 — 50). At this time Gaul 
was divided into 3 parts, Aquitania, Celtica, 
and Belgica, according to the 3 different 
races by which it was inhabited. The Aqui- 
tani dwelt in the S.W., between the Pyrenees 
and the Garumna ; the Celtae, or Galli proper, 
in the centre and W., between the Garumna 
and the Sequana and the Matrona ; and the 
Belgae in the N.E., between the two last 
mentioned rivers and the Rhine. Of the 
many tribes inhabiting Gallia Celtica none 
were more powerful than the Aeclui, the 
Sequani, and the Helvetii. Augustus divided 
Gaul into 4 provinces. 1. Gallia Xarbonensis, 
the same as the old Provincia. 2. G. Aqui- 
tanica, which extended from the Pyrenees to 
the Liger. 3. G. Lugdunensis, the country 
between the Liger, the Sequana, and the 



GALLIENUS. 



174 



GANYMEDES. 



Arar, so called from the colony of Lugdunum 
{Lyons), founded by Munatius Plancus. 4. G. 
Belgica, the country between the Sequana, 
the Arar, and the Rhine, Shortly afterwards 
the portion of Belgica bordering on the Rhine, 
and inhabited by German tribes, was subdi- 
vided into 2 new provinces, called German ia 
Prima and Secunda, or Germania Superior and 
Inferior. The Latin language gradually be- j 
came the language of the inhabitants, and 
Roman civilisation took deep root in all parts 
of the country. The rhetoricians and poets 
of Gaul occupy a distinguished place in the 
later history of Roman literature. On the 
dissolution of the Roman empire, Gaul, like 
the other Roman provinces, was overrun 
by barbarians, and the greater part of it 
finally became subject to the Franci or Franks, 
under their king Clovis, about a.d. 496. — 
(2) Gallia Cisalpesa, also called G. Citerior 
and G. Togata, a Roman province in the N. 
of Italy, was bounded on the W. by Liguria 
and Gallia Narbonensis (from which it was 
separated by the Alps), and on the X. by 
Rhaetia and Noricuni ; on the E. by the 
Adriatic and Yenetia (from which it was 
separated by the Athesis), and on the S. by 
Etruria and Umbria (from which it was 
separated by the river Rubicon). It was 
divided by the Po into Gallia Traxspadaxa, 
also called Italia Traxspadaxa, in the N., 
and Gallia Cispadaxa in the S. It was 
originally inhabited by Ligurians, Lnibrians, 
Etruscans, and other races ; but its fertility 
attracted the Gauls, who at different periods 
crossed the Alps, and settled in the country, 
after expelling the original inhabitants. 
After the 1st Punic war the Romans con- 
quered the whole country, and formed it into a 
Roman province. The inhabitants, however, 
did not bear the yoke patiently, and it was 
not till after the final defeat of the Boii in 
191 that the country became submissive to 
the Romans. The most important tribes 
were : In Gallia Transpadana, in the direction 
of W. to E., the Taerixi, Salassi, Lieici, 
Insebres, Cenomani ; in G. Cispadana, in the 
same direction, the Bon, Lingoxes, Senoues. 

GALLIEXUS (-i), Roman emperor a.d. 
260 — 268, succeeded his father Valerian, 
when the latter was taken prisoner by the 
Persians in 260. Gallienus was indolent, 
profligate, and indifferent to the public wel- 
fare ; and his reign was one of the most 
ignoble and disastrous in the history of Rome. 
Xumerous usurpers sprung up in different 
parts of the empire, who are commonly dis- 
tinguished as The Tliirty Tyrants. Gallienus 
was slain by his own soldiers in 268, while 
besieging Milan, in which the usurper Au- 
reolus had taken refuge. 



GALLINARIA (-ae). (1) An island off 
the coast of Liguria, celebrated for its number 
of hens, whence its name. — (2) Silva, a 
forest of pine-trees near Cumae in Campania. 
GALLOGRAECIA. [Galatia.] 
GALLUS, C. CORNELIUS (-i), a Roman 
poet, born in Forum Julii (Frejus) in Gaul, 
about b.c. 66, went to Italy at an early age, 
and rose to distinction under Julius Caesar 
and Augustus. He was appointed by the 
latter the first prefect of the province of 
Egypt ; but having incurred the displeasure 
of Augustus, while he was in Egypt, the 
senate sent him into exile ; whereupon he put 
an end to his life, b.c 26. Gallus lived on 
intimate terms with Asinius Pollio, Virgil, 
Varus, and Ovid, and the latter assigns to 
him the first place among the Roman elegiac 
poets. All his productions have perished. 

GALLUS, TREBOXIAXUS (-i), Roman 
emperor, a.d. 251 — 254, and the successor of 
Decius, purchased a peace with the Goths on 
very dishonourable terms, and was after- 
wards put to death by his own soldiers. 

GALLUS (-i), a river in Galatia, falling 
into the Sangarius, near Pessinus. From it 
the priests of Cybele are said to have ob- 
i tained their name of Galli. 

GAXDARIDAE, GAXDARITAE, or GAX- 
; DARAE (-arum), an Indian people, in the 
middle of the Punjab, between the rivers 
S Acesines [Chenab] and Hydraotes (Eavee), 
j whose king, at the time of Alexander's 
! invasion, was a cousin and namesake of the 
j celebrated Poms. 

GANGES (-is), the greatest river of India, 
1 which it divided into the 2 parts named by 
the ancients India intra Gangem (Hindostan) , 
and India extra Gangem (Burmah, Cochin 
China, Siam, and the Malay Peninsula). It 
! rises in the highest part of the Emodi 
Monies (Himalaya), and flows by several 
mouths into the head of the Gangeticus 
I Sinus (Bay of Bengal). The knowledge of 
j the ancients respecting it was very imperfect. 
! GANYMEDES (-is), son of' Tros and 
; Callirrhoe, and brother of Ilus and Assaracus, 
! was the most beautiful of all mortals, and 
I was carried off by the gods that he might fill 
' the cup of Zeus (Jupiter), and live among the 
' immortal gods. This is the Homeric account ; 
; but other traditions give different details. 
I He is called son either of Laomedon, or of 
Ilus, or of Erichthonius, or of Assaracus. 
I Later writers state that Zeus himself carried 
; him off, in the form of an eagle, or by means of 
| his eagle. There is, further, no agreement as 
I t® the place where the event occurred ; though 
later writers usually represent him as 
carried off from Mount Ida. Zeus compen- 
sated the father for his loss by a pair of 



GARAMANTES. 



175 



GELLIUS. 



divine horses. Astronomers placed Gany- 
medes among the stars under the name of 




Ganymedes. (Yisconti, Mus. Pio. Clem., vol, 3, tav. 49.) 

Aquarius. His name was sometimes cor- 
rupted in Latin into Catamitus. 




Ganymedes. (Zannoni, Gal. di Firenze, serie 4, 
vol. 2, pi. 101.) 



GAR AM ANTE S (-urn), the S.-most people 
known to the ancients in N. Africa, dwelt far 
S. of the Great Syrtis in the region called 
Phazania {Fezzan), where they had a 
capital city, Garama. They are mentioned 
by Herodotus as a weak unwarlike people. 

GARGAXUS MOXS {Monte Gargano), a 
mountain and promontory in Apulia, on 
which were oak forests. 



GARGARA (-orum), the S. summit of M. 
Ida, in the Troad, with a city of the same 
name at its foot. 

GARGETTUS (-i), a demus in Attica, on 
the X.W. slope of Mt. Hymettus ; the birth- 
place of_the philosopher Epicurus. 

G ARETES (-urn), a people in Aquitania, 
neighbours^ of the Ausci. 

GAROCELI (-orum), a people in Gallia 
Xarbonensis, near Mt. Cenis. 

GAREMXA (-ae : Garonne), one of the 
chief rivers of Gaul, rising in the Pyrenees, 
flowing N.W. through Aquitania, and be- 
coming a bay of the sea below Burdigala 
{Bordeaux). 

GARUMXI (-orum), a people ^in Aqui- 
tania, on the Garumna. 

GAUGAMELA (-orum), a village in As- 
syria, the scene of the last battle between 
Alexander and Darius, b.c. 331, commonly 
called the battle of Arbela. 

GAURUS MONS, GAURAXES or -XI M., 
a volcanic range of mountains in Campania, 
between Cumae and Xeapolis, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Puteoli, producing good wine, 
and memorable for the defeat of the Samnites 
by M. Valerius Corvus, b.c. 343. 

GAZA (-ae), the last city on the S. Yv\ 
frontier of Palestine, and the key of the 
| country on the side of Egypt, stood on an 
I eminence about 2 miles from the sea, and 
j was very strongly fortified. It was one of 
the 5 cities of the Philistines, and was taken 
by Alexander the Great after an obstinate 
defence of several months. 

GEBEXXA MOXS". [Cebenna.] 

GEDROSIA (-ae), the furthest province of 
the Persian empire on the S.E., and one of 
the subdivisions of Ariana, bounded on the 
W. by Carmania, on the X. by Drangiana 
and Arachosia, on the E. by India, or, as the 
country about the lower course of the Indus 
was called, Indo-Scythia, and on the S. by 
the Mare Erythraeum, or Indian Ocean. It 
is known in history chiefly through the 
distress suffered for want of water, in 
passing through it, by the army of Alexander. 

GEL A (-ae), a city on the S. coast of 
Sicily, on a river of the same name, founded 
by Rhodians from Lindos, and by Cretans, 
b.c. 690. It soon obtained great power and 
wealth ; and, in 582, it founded Agrigentum, 
Gelon transported half of its inhabitants to 
Syracuse ; the place gradually fell into 
: decay, and in the time of Augustus was not 
, inhabited. The poet Aeschylus died here. 

GELDUBA (-ae : Gelb, below Cologne^, a 
! fortified place of the Ubii, on the Rhine, in 
Lower Germany. 

GELLIUS, AULUS (-i), a Latin gram- 
marian, who lived about a.d. 117 — ISO. He 



GELON. 



176 



GENIUS. 



wrote a work, still extant, containing nume- 
rous extracts from Greek and Roman 
writers, which he called Nodes Atticae, 
because it was composed near Athens, during 
the long nights of winter. 

GELON (-5nis), tyrant of Gela, and after- 
wards of Syracuse, became master of his 
native city, b.c. 491. In 485 he obtained 
the supreme power in Syracuse, and hence- 
forth endeavoured, in every possible way, to 
enlarge and enrich it. In 480 he gained a 
brilliant victory at Himera over the Cartha- 
ginians, who had invaded Sicily with an 
immense army on the very same day as that 
of Salamis. He died in 478, after reigning 
7 years at Syracuse. He is represented as a 
man of singular leniency and moderation, 
and as seeking in every way to promote the 
weifare_of his subjects. . 

GELONI (-orum), a Scythian people, 
dwelling in Sarmatia Asiatica, to the E. of 
the river Tanais (Don). 

GEMONIAE (scalae) or GEMONII (gra- 
dus), a flight of steps cut out of the 
Aventine, down which the bodies of crimi- 



nals strangled in the prison were dragged, 
and afterwards thrown into the Tiber. 

GENABUM or CENABUM (-i : Orleans), 
a town in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the N. 
bank of the Ligeris, the chief town of the 
Carnutes, subsequently called Civitas Aure- 
lianorum, or Aurelianensis Urbs, whence its 
modern name. 

GENAUNI (-orum), a people in Vindelicia, 
the inhabitants of the Alpine valley, now 
called Valle di Non, subdued by Drusus. 

GENEVA or GENAVA (-ae : Geneva), the 
last town of the Allobroges, on the frontiers 
of the Helvetii, situated on the S. bank of 
the Rhone, at the spot where the river 
flowed out of the Lacus Lemannus. There 
was a bridge here over the Rhone. 

GENITRIX (-Icis), that is, "the mother," 
used by Ovid, as a surname of Cybele, in the 
place of mater, or magna mater ; but it is 
better known as a surname of Venus, to 
whom Caesar dedicated a temple at Rome, 
as the mother of the Julia Gens. 

GENIUS (-i) a protecting spirit, analogous 
to the guardian angels invoked by the Church 




Wine Genius. (A Mosaic, from Pompeii.) 



of Rome. The belief in such spirits existed | called them Daemons (^ctt^ovtq) • and the poets 
both in Greece and at Rome. The Greeks I represented them as dwelling on earth, un- 



GENSERIC. 



177 



GERMANIA. 



seen by mortals, as the ministers of Zeus 
(Jupiter), and as the guardians of men and 
of justice. The Greek philosophers took up 
this idea, and taught that daemons were 
assigned to men at the moment of their 
birth, that they accompanied men through 
life, and after death conducted their souls to 
Hades. The Romans seem to have received 
their notions respecting the genii from the 
Etruscans, though the name Genius itself is 
Latin (connected with gi-g?i-o, gen-ui, and 
equivalent in meaning to generator, or 
father). According to the opinion of the 
Romans, every human being at his birth 
obtained a genius, whom he worshipped as 
sanctus et sanctissimus deus, especially on his 
birthday, with libations of wine, incense, and 
garlands of flowers. The bridal bed was 
sacred to the genius, on account of his con- 
nection with generation, and the bed itself 
was called lectus genialis. On other merry 
occasions, also, sacrifices were offered to the 
genius, and to indulge in merriment was 
not unfrequently expressed by genio in- 
dulgere, genium curare or plaeare. Every 
place had also its genius. The genii are 
usually represented in works of art as 
winged beings. The genius of a place 
appears in the form of a serpent eating fruit 
placed before him. 

GENSERIC, king of the Yandals, and the 
most terrible of all the barbarian invaders of 
the empire. In a.d. 429 he crossed over 
from Spain, and made himself master of 
the whole of N. Africa. In 455 he took 
Rome and plundered it for 14 days. He 
died in 477, at a great age. He was an 
Arian, and persecuted his Catholic sub- 
ject's. 

GENTTUS (-i), king of the IUyrians, 
conquered by the Romans, b.c. 168. 

GENUA (-ae : Genoa), an important com- 
mercial town in Liguria, situated at the 
extremity of the Ligurian gulf [Gulf of 
Genoa), and subsequently a Roman muni- 
cipium. 

GEXUSTJS (-i), a river in Greek Illyria, 
N. of the Apsus. 

GEPIDAE (-arum), a Gothic people, who 
fought under Attila, and afterwards settled 
in Dacia, on the banks of the Danube. They 
were conquered by the Langobardi or Lom- 
bards. 

GERAE STL'S (4), a'promontory and har- 
bour at the S. extremity of Euboea, with a 
celebrated temple of Poseidon (Neptune). 

GERANEA (-ae), a range of mountains, 
running along the "W. coast of Megaris, 
terminating in the promontory Olniiae in the 
Corinthian^territory. 

GERENIA (-ae), an ancient town in 



Messenia, the birthplace of Nestor, who is 
hence called Gerenian. 

GERGOVIA (-ae). (1) A fortified town 
of the Arverni in Gaul, situated on a high 
and inaccessible hill, W. or 8.W. of the 
Elaver (Allier), probably in the neighbour- 
hood of the modern Clermont. — (2) A town 
of the Boii. in Gaul, of uncertain site. 

GERMANIA (-ae), a country bounded by 
the Rhine on the W., by the Vistula and the 
Carpathian mountains on the E., by the 
Danube on the S., and by the German Ocean 
and the Baltic on the N. It thus included 
much more than modern Germany on the N. 
and E., but much less in the W. and S. The 
N. and N.E. of Gallia Belgica were likewise 
called Germania Prima and Secunda under 
the Roman emperors [Gallia] ; and it was 
in contradistinction to these provinces that 
Germania proper was also called Germania 
Magna or G. Transrhenana or G. Barbara. 
The inhabitants were called Germani by the 
Romans. Tacitus says that Germani was the 
name of the Tungri, who were the first German 
people that crossed the Rhine ; and as these 
were the first German tribes with which the 
Romans came into contact, they extended the 
name to the whole nation. The Germans were 
a branch of the great Indo-Germanic race, who, 
along with the Celts, migrated into Europe 
from the Caucasus and the countries around 
the Black and Caspian seas, at a period long 
anterior to historical records. They are 
described as a people of high stature and of 
great bodily strength,, with fair complexions, 
blue eyes, and yellow or red hair. Many of 
their tribes were nomad, and every year 
changed their place of abode. The men 
found their chief delight in the perils and 
excitement of war. The women were held 
in high honour- Their chastity was without 
reproach. Both sexes were equally distin- 
guished for their unconquerable love of 
liberty. In each tribe we find the people 
divided into 4 classes : the nobles ; the free- 
men ; the freedmen or vassals ; and the 
slaves. A king or chief was elected from 
among the nobles — his authority was very 
limited, and in case of war breaking out was 
often resigned to the warrior that was chosen 
as leader. The Germani first appear in his- 
tory in the campaigns of the Cinibri and 
Teutones (b.c. 113), the latter of whom were 
undoubtedly a Germanic people. [Teutones.] 
Campaigns against the Germans were carried 
on by Julius Caesar, 5S — 53 ; by Drusus, 
12 — 9 ; by Varus most unsuccessfully, a.d. 9 ; 
and by Germanicus, who was gaining con- 
tinued victories when recalled by Tiberius, 
a.d. 16. No further attempts were made by 
the Romans to conquer Germany. They had 



GERMANICUS. 



178 



GLAUCUS. 



rather to defend their own empire from the 
invasions of the various German tribes, espe- 
cially against the 2 powerful confederacies of 
the Alemanni and Franks [Auemanni : 
Fraxci] ; and in the 4th and 5th centuries 
the Germans ohtained possession of some of 
the fairest provinces of the empire. — The 
Germans are divided hy Tacitus into 3 great 
tribes : 1. Ingaevones, on the Ocean. 2. Her- 
?niones, inhahiting the central parts. 3. Is- 
taevones, in the remainder of Germany, 
consequently in the E. and S. parts. To 
these we ought to add the inhabitants of the 
Scandinavian peninsula, the Hilleviones, di- 
vided into the Sinones and Sitones. 

GERMANICUS (-i), CAESAR (-axis), son 
of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia, daugh- 
ter of the triumvir Antony, was born n.c. 15, 
He was adopted by his uncle Tiberius in the 
lifetime of Augustus, and was raised at an 
early age to the honours of the state. He 
assisted Tiberius in his war against the Pan- 
nonians and Dalmatians (a.d. 7—10), and 
Germans (11, 12). He had the command of 
the legions in Germany, when the alarming 
mutiny broke out among the soldiers in 
Germany and Illyricum, upon the death of 
Augustus (14). After restoring order among 
the troops, he devoted himself to the conquest 
of Germany, and carried on the war with 
such vigour and success, that he needed only 
another year to reduce completely the whole 
country between the Rhine and the Elbe. 
But the jealousy of Tiberius saved Germany. 
He recalled Germanicus to Rome (17), and 
gave him the command of all the eastern 
provinces ; but at the same time he placed 
Cn. Piso over Syria, with secret instructions 
to check and thwart Germanicus. Germani- 
cus died in Syria in 19, and it was believed 
both by himself and by others that he had 
been poisoned by Piso. He was deeply 
lamented by the Roman people ; and Ti- 
berius was obliged to sacrifice Piso to the 
public indignation. [Piso.] By Agrippina 
he had 9 children, of whom the most no- 
torious were the emperor Caligula, and- 
Agrippina, the mother of Xero. Germani- 
cus was an author of some repute. He 
wrote several poetical works, most of which 
are lost. 

GERRA, one of the chief cities of Arabia, 
and a great emporium for the trade of Arabia 
and India, stood on the N. E. coast of Arabia 
Felix. The inhabitants, called Gerraei, were 
said to have been originally Chaldaeans, who 
were_ driven out of Babylon. 

GERYOX (-onis), or GERYONES (-ae), 
son of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe, a monster 
with 3 heads, or according to others, with 3 
bodies united together, was a king in Spain, 



and possessed magnificent oxen, which Her- 
cules carried away. [Hercules.] 

GESORIACUM (-i : Boulogne), a port of 
the Morini in Gallia Belgica, at which persons 
usually embarked to cross over to Britain : 
it was subsequently called Bononia, whence 
its modern name. 

GET A (-ae), SEPTIMIUS (-i), brother of 
Caracalla, by whom he was assassinated, a.d. 
212.^ [Caracalla.] 

GETAE (-arum), a Thracian people, called 
Daci by the Romans. Herodotus and Thucy- 
dides place them S. of the Ister {Danube) 
near its mouths ; but in the time of Alexan- 
der the Great they dwelt beyond this river 
and N. of the Triballi. 

GIG ANTES (-urn), the giants, sprang from 
the blood that fell from Uranus upon the 
earth, so that Ge (the earth) was their 
mother. They are represented as beings of 
a monstrous size, with fearful countenances 
and the tails of dragons. They made an 
attack upon heaven, being armed with huge 
rocks and trunks of trees ; but the gods with 
the assistance of Hercules destroyed them 
all, and buried many of them under Aetna 
and other volcanoes. It is worthy of remark, 
that most writers place the giants in volcanic 
districts ; and it is probable that the story 
of their contest with the gods took its origin 
from volcanic convulsions. 

GIGONUS, a town and promontory of 
Macedonia on the Thermaic gulf. 

GLABRIO (-onis), ACILIUS (4). (1) 
Consul, b.c. 191, when he defeated Antiochus 
at Thermopylae. — (2) Praetor urbanus in 
70, when he presided at the impeachment of 
Verres, and consul in 67, and subsequently 
the successor of L. Lucullus in the command 
of the war against Mithridates, in which 
however he was superseded by Cn. Pompey. 

GLANIS (-is), more usually written 
Clanis. 

GLAPHYRA. [Archelacts, Xo. 6.] 
GLAUCE (-es). (1) One of the Xereides, 
the name Glauce being only a personification 
of the colour of the sea. — (2) Daughter of 
Creon of Corinth, also called Creusa. [Creon.] 
GLAUCUS (-i). (1) Of Potniae, son of 
Sisyphus and father of Bellerophontes, torn 
to pieces by his own mares, because he had 
despised the power of Aphrodite (Venus). 
— (2) Son of Hippolochus, and grandson of 
Bellerophontes, who was commander of the 
Lycians in the Trojan war. He was con- 
nected with Diomedes by ties of hospitality ; 
and when they recognised one another in the 
battle, they abstained from fighting, and ex- 
changed arms. Glaucus was slain by Ajax. 
— (3) One of the sons of the Cretan 
king Minos by Pasiphae or Crete. YVhen 



GLYCEBA. 



1 



70 



GORGONES. 



a boy, he fell into a cask full of honey, 
and was smothered. He was discovered by 
the soothsayer Polyidus of Argos, who was 
pointed out by Apollo for this purpose. 
Minos then required him. to restore his son 
to life. Being unable to do this he was 
buried with Glaucus, when a serpent revealed 
a herb which restored the dead body to life. 
— (4) Of Anthedon in Boeotia, a fisher- 
man, who became a sea-god by eating a part 
of the divine herb which Cronos (Saturn) 
had sown. It was believed that Glaucus 
visited every year all the coasts and islands 
of Greece, accompanied by marine monsters, 
and gave his prophecies. Fishermen and 
sailors paid particular reverence to him, and 
watched his oracles, which were believed to 
be very trustworthy, — (5) Of Chios, a statu- 
ary in metal, distinguished as the inventor 
of the art of soldering metals, flourished 
B.C. 490, 

GLYCERA (-ae), " the sweet one," a fa- 
vourite name of courtesans. 

GNOSES, GNOSSUS. [Cnostjs.] 
GOLGI (-orum), a town in Cyprus, of 
uncertain site, a Sicyonian colony, and one 
of the chief seats of the worship of Aphrodite 
(Venus). 

GOMPHI (-orum), a town in Hestiaeotis 
in Thessaly, a strong fortress on the confines 
of Epirus, commanding the chief pass between 
Thessaly and Epirus. 

GONNI (-orum), GONXUS (-i), a strongly 
fortified town of the Perrhaebi in Thessaly, 
on the river Peneus and at the entrance of 
the vale of Tempe. 

GOBDIANUS, M. ANTONIUS'(-i), the name 
of 3 Pvoman emperors, father, son, and grand- 
son. The father was a man distinguished by 
intellectual and moral excellence, and had 
governed Africa for many years, when he was 
proclaimed emperor at the age of 80. He 
associated his son with him in the empire, 
but reigned only two months. His son was 
slain in battle, and he thereupon put an end 
to his own life, a.d. 238. His grandson 
was proclaimed emperor by the soldiers in 
Borne a.d. 238, after the murder of Balbinus 
and Pupienus, although he was not more 
than 12 years old. He reigned 6 years, from 
238 to 244, when he was assassinated by 
Misitheus in Mesopotamia. 

GORDIUM' (-i), the ancient capital of 
Phrygia, situated on the Sangarius, the royal 
residence of the kings of the dynasty of 
Gordius, and the scene of Alexander's cele- 
brated exploit of " cutting the Gordian knot." 
[Gordius.] 

GORDIUS (-i), an ancient king of Phrygia, 
and father of Midas, was originally a poor 
peasant. Internal disturbances having broken 



out in Phrygia, an oracle informed the in- 
habitants that a waggon would bring them a 
king, who would put an end to their troubles. 
Shortly afterwards Gordius suddenly appeared 
riding in his waggon in the assembly of the 
people, who at once acknowledged him as 
king. Gordius, out of gratitude, dedicated 
his chariot to Zeus (Jupiter), in the acropolis 
of Gordium. The pole was fastened to the 
yoke by a knot of bark ; and an oracle de- 
clared that whosoever should untie the knot 
should reign over all Asia. Alexander, on 
his arrival at Gordium, cut the knot with his 
sword, and applied the oracle to himself. 

GOBDYEXE or COBDUEXE (-es), a moun- 
tainous district in the S. of Armenia Major, 
between the Arsissa Palus {Lake Van) and 
the Gordyaei Montes {Mountains of Kur- 
distan). Its warlike inhabitants, called 
Gordyaei, or Cordueni, were no doubt the 
same people as the Cardtjchi of the earlier 
Greek geographers, and the modern Kurds. 

GOBGE (-es), daughter of Oeneus and 
sister of Deianlra, both of whom retained 
their original forms, when their other sisters 
were metamorphosed by Artemis (Diana) into 
birds. 

GOBGIAS (-ae). (1) Of Leontini, in Sicily, 
a celebrated rhetorician and sophist, born 
about b.c. 480, and lived upwards of 100 
years. In b.c. 427 he was sent by his fellow- 
citizens as ambassador to Athens, for the 
purpose of soliciting its protection against 
Syracuse. A dialogue of Plato bears his 
name. Gorgias wrote several works, which 
are lost, with the exception of two decla- 
mations — the Apology of Palamedes, and the 
Encomium on Helena, the genuineness of 
which, however, is doubtful. — (2) Of Athens, 
gave instruction in rhetoric to young 3VI. 
Cicero, when he was at Athens. 

GOBGOXES (-urn), the name of 3 frightful 




The Gorgon Medusa. (Marble Head, at Munich.) 



maidens, Stheno, Eitryale, and Medlsa 



GORTYX. 



ISO 



GRACCHUS. 



daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, whence they 
are sometimes called Phoecydes. Later 
traditions placed them in Libya. Instead of 
hair their heads were covered with hissing 
serpents ; and they had wings, brazen claws, 
and enormous teeth. Medusa, who alone of 
the sisters was mortal, was, according to 
some legends, at first a beautiful maiden, but 
her hair was changed into serpents by Athena 
(Minerva), in consequence of her having 
become by Poseidon (Xeptune) the mother of 
Ciirysaor and Pegasus, in one of Athena's 
temples. Her head now became so fearful 
that every one who looked at it was changed 
into stone. Hence the great difficulty which 
Perseus had in killing her. [Persees.] 
Athena afterwards placed the head in the 
centre of her shield or breastplate. 




The Gorgon Medusa. (Florentine Gem.) 



GORTYX, GORTYXA, one of the most 
ancient cities in Crete, on the river Lethaeus, 
90 stadia from its harbour Leben, and 130 
stadia from its other harbour Matalia. 

GORTYXIA (-ae), a town in Emathia in 
Macedonia, of uncertain site. 

GOTHI [-oram), GOTHOXES, GCTTOXES 
(-urn;, a powerful German people, who origi- 
nally dwelt on the Prussian coast of the Baltic 
at the mouth of the Vistula, but afterwards 
migrated S. At the beginning of the 3rd 
century they appear on the coasts of the 
Black Sea, and in a.d. 27 2 the emperor 
Aurelian surrendered to them the whole of 
Dacia. About this time we find them sepa- 
rated into 2 great divisions, the Ostrogoths 
or E. Goths, and the Visigoths or W. Goths. 
The Ostrogoths settled in Moesia and Pan- 
nonia, while the Visigoths remained X. of the 
Danube. The Visigoths under their king 
Alaric invaded Italy, and took and plundered 
Rome [410), A few years afterwards they 



settled permanently in the S.W. of Gaul, and 
established a kingdom of which Tolosa was 
the capital. From thence they invaded 
! Spain, where they also founded a kingdom, 
1 which lasted for more than 2 centuries, till 
it was overthrown by the Arabs. The Ostro- 
l goths meantime extended their dominions 
almost up to the gates of Constantinople ; and 
: under 'their king, Theodoric the Great, they 
obtained possession of the whole of Italy 
[493). The Ostrogoths embraced Christianity 
; at an early period ; and it was for their use 
that riphilas translated the sacred Scriptures 
into Gothic, in the 4th century. 

GOTHIXI, a Celtic people 'in the S.E. of 
Germany, subject to the Quadi. 

GRACCHCS (-i), the name of a celebrated 
! family of the Sempronia gens. CI) Tib. Sem- 
peoxius Gracchts, a distinguished general in 
the 2nd Punic war. Ins.c. 212 he fell in battle 
against Mago, at Campi Veteres, in Lucania. 
I His body was sent to Hannibal, who honoured 
: it with a magnificent burial. — (2) Tib. Sem- 
j proxies Graccees, distinguished as the 
i father of the tribunes Tiberius and Caius 
j Gracchus. For public services rendered 
j when tribune of the plebs (187) to P. Scipio 
I Africanus, he was rewarded with the hand of 
| his youngest daughter, Cornelia. He was 
twice consul and once censor. He had 12 
i children by Cornelia, all of whom died at 
an early age, except the 2 tribunes, and a 
daughter, Cornelia, who was married to P. 
Scipio Africanus the younger. — (3) Tib. Sem- 
peoxies Geacchxs, elder son of Xo. 2, lost 
j his father at an early age, and was educated. 
1 together with his brother Caius, by his illus- 
I trious mother. Cornelia, who made it the 
; object of her life to render her sons worthy 
, of their father and of her own ancestors. 
| The distressed condition of the Roman people 
i deeply excited the sympathies of Tiberius. 
; He had observed with grief the deserted state 
; of some parts of the country, and the im- 
; mense domains of the wealthy, cultivated 
only by slaves ; and he resolved to use every 

■ effort to remedy this state of things by en- 
: deavouring to create an industrious middle 

■ class of agriculturists, and to put a check 

■ upon the unbounded avarice of the ruling 
, party. With this view, when tribune of the 

plebs, 133, he proposed a bill for the renew- 
ing and enforcing of the Licinian law, which 
enacted that no citizen should hold more than 
! 500* jugera of the public land. He added 
a clause, permitting a father of 2 sons 
to hold 250 jugera for each; so that a 
i father of two sons might hold in all 1000 
: jugera. To this measure the aristocracy 
j offered the most vehement opposition ; never- 
| theless, through the wigour and energy of 



GRADIYUS. 



1S1 



GRAECIA. 



Tiberius, it was passed, and triumvirs were 
appointed for carrying it into execution. 
These were Tib. Gracchus ; App. Claudius, his 
father-in-law ; and his brother, C. Gracchus. 
About this time Attalus died, and on the 
proposition of Gracchus his property was 
divided among the poor, that they might 
purchase farming implements, &c. When 
the time came for the election of the tribunes 
for the following year, Tiberius again offered 
himself as a candidate ; but in the very midst 
of the election he was publicly assassinated 
by P. Scipio Xasica. He was probably about 
35 years of age at the time of his death. 
Tib. was a sincere friend of the oppressed, 
and acted from worthy motives, whatever his 
political errors may have been. Much of the 
odium that has been thrown upon him and 
his brother has risen from a misunderstanding 
of the Roman agrarian laws. — (4) C. Sem- 
proxius Gracchus, brother of the preceding, 
was tribune of the plebs, 123. His reforms 
were far more extensive than his brother's, and 
such was his influence with the people that he 
carried all he proposed ; and the senate were 
deprived of some of their most important pri- 
vileges.- His first measure was the renewal 
of the agrarian law of his brother. He also 
enacted that the judices, who had hitherto 
been elected from the senate, should in future 
be chosen from the equites ; and that in every 
year, before the consuls were elected, the 
senate should determine the 2 provinces 
which the consuls should have. Caius was 
elected tribune a second time, 122. The 
senate, finding it impossible to resist the 
measures of Caius, resolved to destroy his 
influence with the people. For this purpose 
they persuaded M. Livius Drusus, one of the 
colleagues of Caius, to propose measures still 
more popular than those of Caius. The 
people allowed themselves to be duped by the 
treacherous agent of the senate, and the 
popularity of Caius gradually waned. He 
failed in obtaining the tribuneship for the 
following year (121) ; and when his year of 
office expired, his enemies began to repeal 
several of Ms enactments. Caius appeared 
in the forum to oppose these proceedings, 
upon which a riot ensued, and while his 
friends fought in his defence, he fled to the 
grove of the Furies, where he fell by the 
hands of his slave, whom he had commanded 
to put him to death. About 3000 of his 
friends were slain, and many were thrown 
into prison, and there strangled. 

GRADIVUS (4), i.e. the marching (pro- 
bably from gradior), a surname of Mars, who 
is hence called gradivus pater and rex gra- 
divas. Xunia appointed 12 Salii as priests of 
this god. 



GRAEAE (-arum), that is, "the old 
women," daughters of Phorcys and Ceto, 
were 3 in number, Pephredo, Enyo, an&JDino, 
also called Phorcydes. They had grey hair 
from their birth ; and had only one tooth and 
one eye in common, which they borrowed 
from each other when thev wanted them. 

GRAECIA (-ae) or HELLAS (-ados), a 
country in Europe, the inhabitants of which 
were called Graeci or Hellenes. Among 
the Greeks Hellas did not signify any par- 
ticular country, bounded by certain geogra- 
phical limits, but was used in general to 
signify the abode of the Hellenes, wherever 
they might happen to be settled. Thus the 
Greek colonies of Cyrene in Africa, of Syra- 
cuse in Sicily, of Tarentum in Italy, and of 
Smyrna in Asia, are said to be in Hellas. 
In the most ancient times Hellas was a small 
district of Phthiotis in Thessaly. As the 
inhabitants of this district, the Hellenes, 
gradually spread over the surrounding . 
country, their name was adopted by other 
tribes, till at length the whole of the X. of 
Greece from the Ceraunian and Cambunian 
mountains to the Corinthian isthmus was 
designated by the name of Hellas. Pelopon- 
nesus was generally spoken of, during the 
flourishing times of Greek independence, as 
distinct from Hellas proper ; but subsequently 
Peloponnesus and the Greek islands were also 
included under the general name of Hellas, 
in opposition to the land of the barbarians, 
The Romans called the land of the Hellenes 
Graecia (whence we have derived the name 
of Greece), probably from their first becom- 
ing acquainted with the tribe of the Graeci, 
who appear at an early period to have dwelt 
on the W. coast of Epirus. The greatest 
length of Greece proper from Mt. Olympus 
to Cape Taenarus is about 250 English miles ; 
its greatest breadth from the W. coast of 
Acarnania to Marathon in Attica is about 
180 miles.' Its area is somewhat less than 
that of Portugal. On the X. it was separated 
by the Cambunian and Ceraunian mountains 
from Macedonia and Illyria ; and on the 
other 3 sides it is bounded by the sea, namely, 
by the Ionian sea on the W., and by the 
Aegaean on the E. and S. It is one of the 
most mountainous countries of Europe, and 
possesses few extensive plains and few con- 
tinuous valleys. The inhabitants were thus 
separated from one another by barriers which 
it was not easy to surmount, and were natu- 
rally led to form separate political commu- 
nities. At a later time the N. of Greece was 
generally divided into 10 districts ; Epirvs, 
Thessalia, Acarnania, Aetolia, Doris, Lo- 
cris, Phocis, Boeotia, Attica, and Megarts. 
The S. of Greece or Peloponnesus was usually 



GRAECIA MAGNA. 



182 



GYNDES. 



divided into 10 districts likewise : Coeinthia, 
Sicyo> t ia, Phliasia, Achaia, Elis, Messenia, 
Laconia, Cyntjria, Argolis, and Arcadia. 
An account of the geography, early inha- 
bitants, and history of each of these districts 
is given in separate articles. The most cele- 
brated of the original inhabitants of Greece 
■were the Pelasgians, from whom a consi- 
derable part of the Greek population was 
undoubtedly descended. [Pelasgi.] The 
Hellenes traced their origin to a mythical 
ancestor Hellen, from whose sons and grand- 
sons they were divided into the 4 great tribes 
of Dorians, Aeolians, Achaeans and lonians. 
[Hellen.] 

GRAECIA MAGNA or G. MAJOR, a name 
given to the districts in the S. of Italy, in- 
habited by the Greeks. This name was never 
used simply to indicate' the S. of Italy ; it 
was always confined to the Greek cities and 
their territories, and did not include the 
surrounding districts, inhabited by the 
Italian tribes. It appears to have been ap- 
plied chiefly to the cities on the Tarentine 
gulf, Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, Caulonia, 
Siris (Heraclea), Metapontum, Locri and 
Rhegium; but it also included the Greek 
cities on the W. coast, such as Gumae and 
Neapolis. Strabo extends the appellation 
even to the Greek cities of Sicily. 

GRAMPIUS MONS {Grampian Sills), a 
range of mountains in Britannia Barbara or 
Caledonia, separating the Highlands and Low- 
lands of Scotland. Agricola penetrated as far 
as these mountains and defeated Galgacus at 
their foot. 

GRANICUS (-i), a small river of Mysia, 
rising in Mt. Ida, and falling into the 
Propontis (Sea of Marmara) E. of Priapus : 
memorable as the scene of the victory of 
Alexander the Great over the Persians (b.c. 
334), and, in a less degree, for a victory of 
Lucullus over Mithridates, b.c. 73. 

GRATIAE. [Charites.] 

GRATIANUS (-i), emperor of the Western 
Empire, a.d. 367 — 383, son of Valentinian I. 
He was deposed and slain by the usurper 
Maximus. 

GRATIUS FALISCUS (-i), a contemporary 
of Ovid, and the author of an extant poem on 
the chase. 

GRAVISCAE (-arum), an ancient city of 
Etruria, subject to Tarquinii, and colonised 
by the Romans b.c 183. It was situated in 
the Maremma, and its air was unhealthy, 
whence Virgil calls it intempestae Graviscae. 

GRUDII (-Orum) , a people in Gallia Belgica, 
subject to the Nervii, N. of the Scheldt. 

GRUMENTUM (-i), a town in the interior 
of Lucania, on the road from Beneventum to 
Heraclea. 



GRYLLUS (4), elder son of Xenophon, 
fell at the battle of Mantinea, b.c 362, after 
he had, according to some accounts, given 
Epaminondas his mortal wound. 

GRYNIA (-ae) or -IUM (-i), an ancient 
city in the S. of Mysia, celebrated for its 
temple and oracle of Apollo, who is hence 
called Grynaeus Apollo. 

GRYPS (-ypis) or GRYTHUS (-i), a griffin, 
a fabulous animal, with the body of a lion, and 
the head and wings of an eagle, dwelling in 
the Rhipaean mountains, between the Hy- 
perboreans and the one-eyed Arimaspians, 
and guarding the gold of the north. The 
Arimaspians mounted on horseback, and at- 
tempted to steal the gold, and hence arose 
the hostility between the horse and the griffin. 
The belief in griffins came from the East, 
where they are mentioned among the fabulous 
animals which guarded the gold of India. 

GUGERNI or GUBERNI (-orum), a people 
of Germany, who crossed the Rhine, and 
settled on its left bank, between the Ubii and 
Batavi. 

GULUSSA (-ae), a Numidian, 2nd son of 
Masinissa, and brother to Micipsa and Mas- 
tan abal. He left a son, named Massiva. 

GUTTONES. [Gothi.] 

GYARUS (-i) or GYARA (-orum), one of 
the Cyclades, a small island S. W. of Andros, 
poor and unproductive, and inhabited only by 
fishermen. Under the Roman emperors it 
was a place of banishment. 

GYAS or GYES, or GYGES (-ae), son of 
Uranus (Heaven) and Ge (Earth), one of the 
giants with 100 hands, who made war upon 
the gods. 

GYGAEUS LACUS, a small lake in Lydia, 
N. of Sarclis. 

GYGES (-ae), first king of Lydia of the 
dynasty of the Mermnadae, dethroned Can- 
daules, and succeeded to the kingdom, as re- 
lated under Candatjles. He reigned b.c 716 
— 678. He sent magnificent presents to 
Delphi, and " the riches of Gyges " became a 
proverb. 

GYLIPPUS (-i), a Spartan, son of Clean- 
dridas, sent as the Spartan commander to 
Syracuse, to oppose the Athenians, b.c 414. 
Under his command the Syracusans annihi- 
lated the great Athenian armament, and took 
Demosthenes and Nicias prisoners, 413. In 
404 he was commissioned by Lysander, after 
the capture of Athens, to carry home the 
treasure ; but by opening the seams of the 
sacks underneath, he abstracted a consider- 
able portion. The theft was discovered, and 
Gylippus went into exile. 

GYMNESIAE. [Baleares.] 

GYNDES (-ae), a river of Assyria, rising 
I in the country of the Matieni (in the nioun- 



GYRTON. 



183 



HADES. 



tains of Kurdistan), and flowing into the 
Tigris, celebrated through the story that 
Cyrus the Great drew off its waters by 360 
channels. 

GYRTON (-onis), GYRTONA (-ae), an an- 
cient town in Pelasgiotis in Thessaly, on the 
Peneus. 

GYTHEEM, GYTHIOI (-i), an ancient 
sea-port town of Laconia, situated near the 
head of the Laconian bay, S. W. of the mouth 
of the river Eurotas. 



TTADES or AIDES (-ae) or PLUTO (-onis), 
the god of the nether world. In ordi- 
nary life he was usually called Pluto (the 
giver of wealth), because people did not like 
to pronounce the dreaded name of Hades or 
Aides. The Roman poets use the names Dis, 
Oecus, and Tartaucs, as synonymous with 
Pluto. Hades was son of Cronus (Saturn) 
and Rhea, and brother of Zeus (Jupiter) and 
Poseidon (Neptune). His wife was Per- 
sephone or Proserpina, the daughter of 
Demeter, whom he carried off from the upper 
world, as is related elsewhere. [See p. 140.] 
In the division of the world among the 3 
brothers, Hades obtained the nether world, 
the abode of the shades, over which he ruled. 
His character is described as fierce and in- 
exorable, whence of all the sods he was most 



hated by mortals. The sacrifices offered to 




Hades. (From a Statue in the Vatican, 



him and Persephone consisted of black sheep ; 




Hermes (Mercury) presenting a Soul to Hades (Pluto) and Persephone (Proserpina). 
(Pict. Ant. Sepolcri Xasonum, pi. 3.) 



and the person who offered the sacrifice had I power was a staff, with which, like Hermes, 
to turn away his face. The ensign of his | he drove the shades into the lower world. 



HADRIA. 



184 



HALICARXASSUS. 



There lie sat upon a throne with his consort 
Persephone. He possessed a helmet which 
rendered the wearer invisible, and which he 
sometimes lent to both gods and men. Like 
the other gods, he was not a faithful husband ; 
the Furies are called his daughters ; the 
nymph Mintho, whom he loved, was meta- 
morphosed by Persephone into the plant called 
mint ; and the nymph Leuce, whom he like- 
wise loved, was changed by him after death 
into a white poplar. Being the king of the 
lower world, Pluto is the giver of all the 
blessings that come from the earth : hence 
he gives the metals contained in the earth, 
and is called Pluto. In works of art he 
resembles his brothers Zeus and Poseidon, 
except that his hair falls over his forehead, 
and that his appearance is dark and gloomy. 
His ordinary attributes are the key of Hades 
and Cerberus. 

HADRIA. [Adria.] 

HADRIANOPOLIS (-is : Adrianople), a 
town in Thrace on the right bank of the He- 
brus, in an extensive plain, founded by the 
emperor Hadrian. 

HADRIAXUS, P. AELIUS (-i), usually 
called Hadrian, Roman emperor, a.d. 117 — 
138, was born at Pome, a.d. 76. He enjoyed 
the favour of Plotina, the wife of Trajan, and 
mainly through her influence succeeded to the 
empire. He spent the greater part of his 
reign in travelling through the provinces of 
the empire, in order that he might personally 
inspect their condition. He resided for some 
time at Athens, which was his favourite city, 
and with whose language and literature he 
was intimately acquainted. In his reign the 
Jews revolted, and were not subdued till after 
a fierce struggle, which lasted 3 years. Ha- 
drian was succeeded by Antoninus Pius, 
whom he had adopted a few months pre- 
viously. The reign of Hadrian was one of 
the happiest periods in Eoman history. His 
policy was to preserve peace with foreign 
nations, and to promote the welfare of the 
provinces. He erected many magnificent 
works in various parts of the empire, and 
more particularly at Athens. There are still 
extensive remains of his magnificent villa 
at Tibur, where numerous works of ancient 
art have been discovered. His mausoleum, 
which he built at Rome, forms the ground- 
work of the present castle of St. Angelo. 

HADRUMETUM or ADRUMETUM (-i), a 
flourishing city founded by the Phoenicians 
in N. Africa, and the capital of Bycazena under 
the Romans. 

HAEMOX (-Snis). (1) Son of Pelasgus 
and father of Thessalus, from whom the an- 
cient name of Thessaly, Haemonia, or 
Aehonia, was believed to be derived. The 



Roman poets frequently use the adjective 
Haemonius as equivalent to Thessalian. — (2) 
Son of Creon of Thebes, was in love with An- 
tigone, and killed himself on hearing that she 
was condemned by his father to be entombed 
alive. 

HAEMOXIA. [Haet.iox, No. 1.] 

HAEMUS (-i : Balkan), a lofty range of 
mountains, separating Thrace andMoesia. The 
name is probably connected with the Greek 
XUiluv, and the Latin Mems ; and the moun- 
tains were so called on account of their cold 
and snowy climate. The pass over them 
most used in antiquity was in the W. part of 
the range, called " Succi " or " Succorum 
angustiae," also "Porta Trajani " (Ssidu 
Berbend), between Philippopolis and Serdica. 

HALES A (-ae), a town on the N. coast of 
Sicily, on the river HALEsrs, founded by the 
Greek mercenaries of Archonides, a chief of 
the Siculi, and originally called Archoxidio>\ 

HALESUS (-i), a chief of the Auruncans 
and Oscans, the son of a soothsayer, and an 
ally of Turnus, slain by Evander. He came 
to Italy from Argos in Greece, whence he is 
called Agamemnoiuus, Aiiides, or Argolicus. 
He is said to have founded Falerii. 

HALIACMOX (-onis : Vistriza), an impor- 
tant river in Macedonia, rising in the Tym- 
phaean mountains, forming the boundary 
between Eordaea and Pieria, and falling into 
the Thermaic gulf. Caesar incorrectly makes 
it the boundary between Macedonia and Thes- 

HALIARTES (-i), an ancient town in 
Boeotia, S. of the lake Copais, destroyed by 
Xerxes in his invasion of Greece (b.c. 480), 
but afterwards rebuilt. Under its walls Ly- 
sander lost his life (395). 

HALIAS (-ados), a district on the coast of 
Argolis between Asine and Hermione, so 
called because fishing was the chief occupa- 
tion of its inhabitants. Their town was called 
Haliae or Halies. 

HALICARXASSUS (-i : Budrum), a cele- 
brated city of Asia Minor, stood in the S. W. 
part of Caria, opposite to the island of Cos. 
It was founded by Dorians from Troezene. 
With the rest of the coast of Asia Minor, 
it fell under the dominion of the Persians, at 
an early period of whose rule Lygdamis made 
himself tyrant of the city, and founded a 
dynasty which lasted for some generations. 
His daughter Artemisia assisted Xerxes in his 
expedition against Greece. Halicarnassus was 
celebrated for the Mausoleum, a magnificent 
edifice which Artemisia II. built as a tomb for 
her husband Mausolus (b.c. 352), and which 
was adorned with the works of the most 
eminent Greek sculptors of the age. Frag- 
ments of these sculptures, which were dis- 



HALICYAE. 



185 



HANNIBAL. 



covered built into the walls of the citadel of 
Bud rum, are now in the British Museum. 
Halicarnassus was the birthplace of the his- 
torians Heeodotus and Dionysius. 

HALICYAE (-arum), a town in the N. W. 
of Sicily, between Entella and Lilybaeum, long 
in the possession of the Carthaginians, and in 
Cicero's time a mimicipium. 

HALIRRHOTHIUS (-i), son of Poseidon 
(Neptune) and Euryte, attempted to violate 
Alcippe, daughter of Ares (Mars) and Agrau- 
los, but was slain by Ares. Ares was brought 
to trial by Poseidon for this murder, on the 
hill at Athens, which was hence called 
Areopagus, or the Hill of Ares. 

HALIZONES (-urn), a people of Bithynia, 
with a capital city Alybe. 

HALONESUS (-i), an island of the Aegaean 
sea, off the coast of Thessaiy, and E. of Scia- 
thos and Peparethos, with a town of the same 
name upon it. The possession of this island 
occasioned great disputes between Philip and 
the Athenians : there is a speech on this sub- 
ject among the extant orations of Demosthenes, 
but it was probably written by Hegesippus. 

HALYCUS (-i), a river in" the S. of Sicily, 
flowing into the sea near Heraclea Minoa. 

HALYS (-ys : Mzil-Irmak, i. e. the Red 
Eiver), the greatest river of Asia Minor, 
rising in the Anti-Taurus range of mountains, 
on the borders of Armenia Minor and Pontus, 
and, after flowing through Cappadocia and 
Galatia, and dividingPaphlagonia fromPontus, 
falling into the Euxine Sea between Sinope and 
Amisus. In early times it divided the Indo- 
European races which peopled the W. part of 
Asia Minor from the Semitic (Syro- Arabian) 
races of the rest of S. W. Asia ; and it sepa- 
rated the Lydian empire from the Medo- 
Persian. 

HAMADRYADES. [Nymphae.] 

HAMAXITUS (-i), a small town on the 
coast of the JTroad. 

HAMAXOBII (-orum), a people in Euro- 
pean Sarmatia, in the neighbourhood of the 
Palus Maeotis, were a nomad race, as their 
name signifies. 

HAMILCAR (-aris), the name of several 
Carthaginian generals, of whom the most 
celebrated was Hamilcar Barca, the father of 
Hannibal. The surname Barca probably sig- 
nified " lightning." It was merely a personal 
appellation, and is not to be regarded as a 
family name, though from the great distinc- 
tion that this Hamilcar obtained, we often 
find the name of Barcine applied either to his 
family or to his party in the state. He was 
appointed to the command of the Cartha- 
ginian forces in Sicily, in the 18th year of 
the 1st Punic War, 247. At this time the 
Romans were masters of almost the whole of 



Sicily ; but he maintained himself for years, 
notwithstanding all the efforts of the Romans 
to dislodge him, first on a mountain named 
Hercte, in the immediate neighbourhood of 
Panormus, and subsequently on the still 
stronger position of Mt. Eryx. After the 
great naval defeat of the Carthaginians by 
Lutatius Catulus (241), which brought the 
1st Punic war to an end, he had to carry on 
war in Africa with the Carthaginian mer- 
cenaries, whom he subdued after a struggle 
of 3 years (240 — 238). Hamilcar then crossed 
over into Spain, in order to establish a new 
empire for the Carthaginians in that country. 
In the course of nearly 9 years, he obtained 
possession of a considerable portion of Spain, 
partly by force of arms and partly by nego- 
tiation. He fell in battle against the Yettones 
in 229. He was succeeded in the command 
by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. He left 3 sons, 
Hannibal^Hasdrubal, and Mago. 

HANNIBAL (-alis), a common name among 
the Carthaginians, signifying " the grace or 
favour of Baal ; " the final syllable, bal, 
having reference to this tutelary deity of the 
Phoenicians. The most celebrated person of 
this name was the son of Hamilcar Barca. 
He was born b.c. 247. He was only 9 years 
old when his father took him with him into 
Spain, and made him swear upon the altar 
eternal hostility to Rome. Child as he then 
was, Hannibal never forgot his vow, and his 
whole life was one continual struggle against 
the power and domination of Rome. Though 
only 18 years old at the time of his father's 
death (229), he had already displayed so much 
courage and capacity for war, that he vras 
entrusted by Hasdrubal (the son-in-law and 
successor of Hamilcar) with the chief com- 
mand of most of the military enterprises 
planned by that general. He secured to him- 
self the devoted attachment of the army under 
his command ; and, accordingly, on the 
assassination of Hasdrubal (221), the soldiers 
unanimously proclaimed their youthful leader 
commander-in-chief, which the government 
of Carthage forthwith ratified. Hannibal 
was at this time in the 26th year of his age. 
In 2 campaigns he subdued all the country S. 
of the Iberus, with the exception of the 
wealthy town of Saguntum. In the spring 
of 219 he proceeded to lay siege to Saguntum, 
which he took after a desperate resistance, 
which lasted nearly 8 months. Saguntum 
lay S. of the Iberus, and was therefore not 
included under the protection of the treaty 
which had been made between Hasdrubal and 
the Romans.; but as it had concluded an 
alliance with the Romans, the latter regarded 
its attack as a violation of the treaty between 
the 2 nations. On the fall of Saguntum, the 



HANNIBAL. 



186 



HANNIBAL. 



Romans demanded the surrender of Hannibal ; 
■when this demand was refused, "war was 
declared ; and thus began the long and ardu- 
ous struggle called the 2nd Punic War. In 
the spring of 218 Hannibal quitted his winter 
quarters at New Carthage and commenced 
his march for Italy, across the Pyrenees, and 
through Gaul to the foot of the Alps. He 
probably crossed the Alps by the pass of the 
Little St. Bernard, called in antiquity the 
Graian Alps. Upon reaching the N. of Italy, 
he encountered the Roman army under the 
command of the consul P. Scipio. He de- 
feated the latter, first on the river Ticinus, 
and secondly in a more decisive engagement 
upon the Trebia. After passing the winter 
in the N. of Italy among the Gaulish tribes, 
he marched early in 2 1 7 into Etruria through 
the marshes on the banks of the Arno. In 
struggling through these marshes, his army 
suffered severely, and he himself lost the sight 
of one eye by an attack of ophthalmia. The 
consul Flaminius hastened to meet him, and 
a battle was fought on the lake Trasimenus, 
in which the Boman army was destroyed, 
and the consul himself was slain. The 
Pvomans had collected a fresh army, and 
placed it under the command of the dictator 
Fabius Maximus, who prudently avoided a 
general action, and only attempted to harass 
and annoy the Carthaginian army. Mean- 
while the Bomans had made great prepara- 
tions for the campaign of the following year 
(216). The 2 new consuls, L. Aemilius 
Paulus and C. Terentius Yarro, marched into 
Apulia, at the head of an army of little less 
than 90,000 men. To this mighty host 
Hannibal gave battle in the plains on the 
right bank of the Aufidus, just below the town 
of Cannae. The Boman army was again 
annihilated : the consul Aemilius Paulus, and 
a great number of the most distinguished 
B-omans perished. This victory was followed 
by the revolt from Borne of most of the nations 
in the S. of Italy. Hannibal established his 
army in winter quarters in Capua, which had 
espoused his side. Capua was celebrated for 
its wealth and luxury, and the enervating 
effect which these produced upon the army 
of Hannibal became a favourite theme of 
rhetorical exaggeration in later ages. The 
futility of such declamations is sufficiently 
shown by the simple fact that the superiority 
of that army in the field remained as decided 
as ever. Still it may be truly said that the 
winter spent at Capua, 216 — 215, was in great 
measure the turning point of Hannibal's for- 
tune. The experiment of what he could effect 
with his single army had now been fully tried, 
and, notwithstanding all his victories, it had 
decidedly failed ; for Borne was still unsub- 



dued, and still provided with the means of 
maintaining a protracted contest. From this 
time the Bomans in great measure changed 
their plan of operations, and, instead of 
opposing to Hannibal one great army in the 
field, they hemmed in his movements on all 
sides, and kept up an army in every province 
of Italy, to thwart the operations of his 
lieutenants. In the subsequent campaigns, 
Hannibal gained several victories ; but his 
forces gradually became more and more 
weakened ; and his only object now was to 
maintain his ground in the S. until his bro- 
ther Hasdrubal should appear in the N. of 
Italy, an event to which he had long looked 
forward with anxious expectation. In 207 
Hasdrubal at length crossed the Alps, and 
descended into Italy; but he was defeated 
and slain on the Metaurus. [Hasdexbal.] 
The defeat and death of Hasdrubal was 
decisive of the fate of the war in Italy. 
From this time Hannibal abandoned all 
thoughts of offensive operations, and col- 
lected together his forces within the penin- 
sula of Bruttium. In the fastnesses of that 
wild and mountainous region he maintained 
his ground for nearly 4 years (207 — 203). 
He crossed over to Africa towards the end of 
203 in order to oppose P. Scipio. In the 
following year (202) the decisive battle was 
fought near Zama. Hannibal was completely 
defeated with great loss. All hopes of re- 
sistance were now at an end, and he was one of 
the first to urge the necessity of an immediate 
peace. The treaty between Borne and Carthage 
was not finally concluded until the next year 
(201). By this treaty Hannibal saw the 
object of his whole life frustrated, and Car- 
thage humbled before her rival. Some years 
afterwards he was compelled, by the jealousy 
of the Bomans, and by the enmity of a 
powerful party at Carthage, to flee from his 
native city. He took refuge at the court of 
Antiochus III., king of Syria, who was at 
this time (193) on the eve of war with Borne. 
Hannibal in vain urged the necessity of 
carrying the war at once into Italy, instead 
of awaiting the Bomans in Greece. On the 
defeat of Antiochus (190), the surrender of 
Hannibal was one of the conditions of the 
peace granted to the king. Hannibal, how- 
ever, foresaw his danger, and fled toPrusias, 
king of Bithynia. Here he found for some 
years a secure asylum ; but the Bomans could 
not be at ease so long as he lived ; and T. 
Quintius Flamininus was at length dispatched 
to the court of Prusias to demand the sur- 
render of the fugitive. The Bithynian king 
was unable to resist ; and Hannibal, per- 
ceiving that flight was impossible, took 
poison, to. avoid falling into the hands of his 



HANNO. 



187 



HARPYIAE. 



enemies, about the year 183. Of Hannibal's 
abilities as a general it is unnecessary to 
speak ; but in comparing Hannibal with any 
other of the great leaders of antiquity, we 
must ever bear in mind the peculiar circum- 
stances in which he was placed. Feebly and 
grudgingly supported by the government at 
home, he stood alone, at the head of an army 
composed of mercenaries of many nations. 
Yet not only did he retain the attachment of 
these men, unshaken by any change of for- 
tune, for a period of more than 1 5 years, but 
he trained up army after army ; and long 
after the veterans that had followed him over 
the Alps had dwindled to an inconsiderable 
remnant, his new levies were still as invin- 
cible as their predecessors. 

HANNO (-onis), a name common among 
the Carthaginians. The chief persons of 
this name were : — (1) Surnamed the Great, 
apparently for his successes in Africa, though 
we have no details of his achievements. He 
was the leader of the aristocratic party, and, as 
such, the chief adversary of Hamilcar Barca 
and his family. On all occasions, from the 
landing of Barca in Spain, till the return of 
Hannibal from Italy, a period of above 35 
years, Hanno is represented as thwarting the 
measures of that able and powerful family, 
and taking the lead in opposition to the war 
with Borne. — (2) A Carthaginian navigator, 
of uncertain date, under whose name we 
possess a Periplus, which was originally 
written in the Punic language, and after- 
wards translated into Greek. It contains an 
account of a voyage undertaken beyond the 
Pillars of Hercules, in order to found Liby- 
phoenician towns. 

HABMA (-drum), a small place in Boeotia, 
near Tanagra. 

HARMATUS (-untis), a city and promon- 
tory on the coast of Aeolis in Asia Minor, on 
the N. side of the Sinus Elaiticus. 

HARMODIUS (-i) and ARISTOGITON 
(-onis), two noble Athenians, murderers of 
Hipparchus, brother of the tyrant Hippias, 
in b.c. 514. Aristogiton was strongly at- 
tached to the young and beautiful Harmodius, 
who returned his affection with equal warmth. 
Hipparchus endeavoured to withdraw the 
youth's lovo to himself, and, failing in this, 
resolved to avenge the slight by putting upon 
him a public insult. Accordingly, he took 
care that the sister of Harmodius should be 
summoned to bear one of the sacred baskets 
in some religious procession, and when she 
presented herself for the purpose, he caused 
her to be dismissed and declared unworthy of 
the honour. This fresh insult determined 
the 2 friends to slay both Hipparchus and his 
brother Hippias as well. They communi- 



cated their plot to a few friends, and selected 
for their enterprise the day of the festival of 
the great Panathenaea, the only day on which 
they could appear in arms without exciting 
suspicion. When the appointed time ar- 
rived, the 2 chief conspirators observed one 
of their accomplices in conversation with 
Hippias. Believing, therefore, that they 
were betrayed, they slew Hipparchus. Har- 
modius was immediately cut down by the 
guards. Aristogiton at first escaped, but was 
afterwards taken, and died by torture ; but 
he died without revealing any of the names 
of the conspirators. Four years after this 
Hippias was expelled, and thenceforth Har- 
modius and Aristogiton obtained among the 
Athenians of all succeeding generations the 
character of patriots, deliverers, and martyrs. 
To be born of their blood was esteemed among 
the highest of honours, and their descendants 
enjoyed an immunity from public burdens. 

HARMONIA (-ae), daughter of Ares, 
(Mars), and Aphrodite (Yenus), given by 
Zeus (Jupiter), to Cadmus as his wife. 
On the wedding-day Cadmus received a pre- 
sent of a necklace, which afterwards became 
fatal to all who possessed it. Harmonia 
accompanied Cadmus when he was obliged to 
quit Thebes, and shared his fate. [Cadmus.] 

HARPAGIA (-ae), or IUM (-i), a small 
town in Mysia, between Cyzicus and Priapus, 
the scene of the rape of Ganymedes, accord- 
ing to some legends. 

HARPAGUS (-i), a noble Median, who is 
said to have preserved the infant Cyrus. He 
was afterwards one of the generals of Cyrus, 
and conquered the Greek cities of Asia Minor. 

HARPALUS (-i), a Macedonian, appointed 
by Alexander the Great superintendent of the 
royal treasury, with the administration of 
the satrapy of Babylon. Having embezzled 
large sums of money, he crossed over to 
Greece in b.c. 324, and employed his trea- 
sures in gaining over the leading men at 
Athens to support him against Alexander 
and his vicegerent, Antipater. He is said to 
have corrupted Demosthenes himself. 

HARPALYCE (-es), daughter of Harpaly- 
cus, king in Thrace, brought up by her father 
as a warrior. 

HARPASUS (-i). (1) A river of Caria, 
flowing X. into the Maeander. — (2) A river 
of Armenia Major, flowing S. into the Araxes. 

HARPYIAE (-arum), the Harpies, that is, 
the Robbers or Spoilers, described by Homer 
as carrying off persons, who had utterly 
disappeared. Thus they are said to have 
carried off the daughters of Pandareos, which 
is represented on one of the Lycian monu- 
ments, now in the British Museum. Hesiod 
represents them as fair-locked and winged 



HAREDES. 



ISS 



HEBKUS. 



maidens ; but subsequent writers describe 
them as disgusting monsters, being birds 




A- Harpy. 5 ritisli iltiseum. Prom a Tonib at Xantlitis. ] 

with the heads of maidens, with long ! 
claws and -Frith faces pale with hunger. J 
They were sent by the gods to tomient j 
the blind Phineus, and whenever a meal j 
was placed before him, they darted down 
from the air and either carried it off, or ren- 
dered it unfit to be eaten. Phineus was de- 
livered from them by Zetes and Calais, sons of 
Boreas, and 2 of the Argonauts. Later writers 
mention 3 Harpies ; but their names are not 
the same in all accounts. Virgil places them 
in the islands called Strophades, in the Ionian 
sea, where they took up their abode after they 
had been driven away from Phineus. 

HARt'DES ^om), a German people in the 
army of Ariovistus (b.c. 58}, supposed to be 
the same as the Chaevdes, who are placed 
in the Chersonesus Cimbrica. 

HASDREBAL '-alis), a Carthaginian name, 
probably signifying one whose help is Baal. 
The chief persons of this name are : — (I' The 
son-in-law of Hamilcar Barca, on whose 
death, in 229, he succeeded to the command in 
Spam. He founded New Carthage, and con- | 
eluded with the Romans the celebrated treaty 
which fixed the Iberus as the boundary I 
between the Carthaginian and Roman domi- 
nions. He was assassinated by a slave, whose 
master he had put to death "(221), and was ! 
succeeded in the command by Haxxieal. 



— (2) Son of Hamilcar Barca, and brother 
of Hannibal. When Hannibal set out for 
Italy (218), Hasdrubal was left in the com- 
mand in Spain, and there fought for some 
years against the 2 Scipios. In 207 he 
crossed the Alps and marched into Italy, in 
order to assist Hannibal ; but he was defeated 
on the Metaurus, by the consuls C. Claudius 
Xero and M. Livius Salinator, his amiy was 
destroyed, and he himself fell in the battle. 
His head was cut off and thrown into Hanni- 
bal's camp. — [3) Son of Gisco, one of the Car- 
thaginian generals in Spain during the 2nd 
Punic war, who must be distinguished from 
the brother of Hannibal, above-mentioned. 

HEBE >es}. called JUVENTAS (-atis), by 
the Romans, the goddess of youth, was a 
daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and of Hera (Juno N . 
She waited upon the gods, and filled their 
cups with nectar, before Ganymedes obtained 
this office. She married Hercules after he 
was received among the gods, and bore to 
him 2 sons. Later traditions represent her 
as a divinity who had it in her power to 
make aged persons young again. At Rome 
there were several temples of Juventas. 




Hebe. (Prom a Bas-relief at Rome.) 



HEBROX ;-onis), a city in the S. of Ju- 
daea, the first capital of the kingdom of 
David, who reigned there 7J years, as king 
of Judah only. 

HEBRES -i : Maritza), the principal river 
in Thrace, rising in the mountains of Scomius 
and Rhodope, and fairing into the Aegaean 
sea near Aenos, after forming by another 
branch an estuary called Stextoeis Laces. — 
The Hebrus was celebrated in Greek legends. 
On its banks Orpheus was torn to pieces by 
the Thracian women ; and it is frequently 



HECALE. 



189 



HECTOR. 



mentioned in connexion with the worship of 
Dionysus. 

HECALE (-es), a poor old -woman, who hos- 
pitably received Theseus, when he had gone 
out to hunt the Marathonian bull. 

HECATAEES (-i), of Miletus, one of the 
earliest and most distinguished of the Greek 
historians and geographers. In b.c. 500 he en- 
deavoured to dissuade his countrymen from re- 
volting from the Persians. Previous to this he 
had visited Egypt and many other countries. 
His works have perished. 

HECATE (-es), a mysterious divinity, com- 
monly represented as a daughter of Persaeus 
or Perses and Asteria, and hence called 
Perseis. She was one of the Titans, and the 
only one of this race who retained her power 
under the rule of Zeus (Jupiter). She was 
honoured by all the immortal gods, and the 
extensive power possessed by her was pro- 
bably the reason that she was subsequently 
identified with several other divinities. 
Hence she is said to have been Selene or 
Luna in heaven, Artemis or Diana in earth, 
and Persephone or Proserpina in the lower 
world. Being thus, as it were, a threefold 
goddess, she is described with 3 bodies or 
3 heads. Hence her epithets Tergemina, Tri- 




latter was found, remained with her as her 
attendant and companion. She thus became 
a deity of the lower world, and is described 
in this capacity as a mighty and formidable 
divinity. She was supposed to send at night 
all kinds of demons and terrible phantoms 
from the lower world. She taught sorcery 
and witchcraft, and dwelt at places where 2 
roads crossed, on tombs, and near the blood 
of murdered persons. She herself wandered 
about with the souls of the dead, and her 
approach was announced by the whining and 
howling of dogs. At Athens, at the close of 
every month, dishes with food were set out 
for her at the points where 2 roads crossed ; 
and this food was consumed by poor people. 
The sacrifices offered to her consisted of dogs, 
honey, and black female lambs. 

HECATGMPYIiOS (-i), a city in the middle 
of Parthia, enlarged by Seleucus, and after- 
wards used by the Parthian kings as a royal 
residence. 

HECATONNESI (-orum), that is, the 100 
islands, the name of a group of small islands, 
between Lesbos and the coast of Aeolis. 

HECTOPv (-oris), the chief hero of the 
Trojans in their war with the Greeks, was 
the eldest son of Priam and Hecuba, the hus- 




„ . ,, _ . . . . Hector. (Aegina Marbles.) 

Hecate. (Causei, Museum Roinanum, vol. 1, tav. 21.) 

band of Andromache, and father of Scaman- 
f or mis, Triceps, &c. She took an active part drius. He fought with the bravest of the 
in the search after Proserpina, and when the | Greeks, and at length slew Patroclus, the 



HECUBA. 



190 



HELENUS. 



friend of Achilles. The death of his friend 
roused Achilles to the fight. The other Tro- 
jans fled before him into the city. Hector 
alone remained without the walls, though his 
parents implored him to return ; hut when 
he saw Achilles, his heart failed him, and he 
took to flight. Thrice did he race round the 
city, pursued hy the swift-footed Achilles, 
and then fell pierced by Achilles' spear. 
Achilles tied Hector's body to his chariot, 
and thus dragged him into the camp of the 
Greeks ; but later traditions relate that he 
first dragged the body thrice round the walls 
of Ilium. At the command of Zeus (Jupiter), 
Achilles surrendered the body to the prayers 
of Priam, who buried it at Troy with great 
pomp. Hector is one of the noblest concep- 
tions of the poet of the Iliad. He is the 
great bulwark of Troy, and even Achilles 
trembles when he approaches him. He has 
a presentiment of the fall of his country, but 
he perseveres in his heroic resistance, pre- 
ferring death to slavery and disgrace. Be- 
sides these virtues of a warrior, he is distin- 
guished also by those of a man : his heart is 
open to the gentle feelings of a son, a hus- 
band, and a father. 

HECUBA >ae; andHECUBE (-es), daughter 
cf Dymas in Phrygia, or of Cisseus, king of 
Thrace. She was the wife of Priam, king of 
Troy, to whom she bore Hector, Paris, and 
many other children. After the fall of Troy, 
she was carried away as a slave by the 
Greeks. On the coast of Thrace she re- 
venged the murder of her son Polydorus, by 
slaying Polymestor. [PoLYDonrs.] She was 
metamorphosed into a dog, and leapt into the 
sea at a place called Cynossema, or " the 
tomb of the dog." 

HEGESIX17S (-i), of Pergamum, the suc- 
cessor of Evander, and the immediate pre- 
decessor of Carneades in the chair of the 
Academy, flourished about B.C. 185. 

HEGESIPPUS (-i), an Athenian orator, 
and a contemporary of Demosthenes, to 
whose political party he belonged. The 
grammarians ascribe to him the oration on 
Halonesus, which has come down to us under 
the name of Demosthenes. 

HELENA (-ae) and HELEXE (-es), 
daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) and Leda, and 
sister of Castor and Pollux (the Dioscuri). 
She was of surpassing beauty. In her youth 
she was carried off by Theseus and Pirithous 
to Attica. When Theseus was absent in 
Hades, Castor and Pollux undertook an ex- 
pedition to Attica, to liberate their sister. 
Athens was taken, Helen delivered, and 
Aethra, the mother of Theseus, made pri- 
soner, and carried as a slave of Helen, to 
Sparta. On her return home, she was 



sought in marriage by the noblest chiefs 
from all parts of Greece. She chose Mene- 
i laus for her husband, and became by him the 
i mother of Hermione. She was subsequently 
j seduced by Paris and carried off to Troy. 
| [Eor details, see Paris and Mexelaes." The 
: Greek chiefs who had been her suitors, re- 
' solved to revenge her abduction, and accord- 
ingly sailed against Troy. Hence arose the 
celebrated Trojan war, which lasted 10 years, 
i During the course of the war she is repre- 
sented as showing great sympathy with the 
! Greeks. After the death of Paris, towards 
I the end of the war, she married his brother 
Deiphobus. On the capture of Troy, which 
she is said to have favoured, she betrayed 
I Deiphobus to the Greeks, and became recon- 
ciled to Menelaus, whom she accompanied to 
[ Sparta. Here she lived with him for some 
years in peace and happiness. The accounts of 
Helen's death differ. According to the prophecy 
of Proteus in the Odyssey, Menelaus and Helen 
were not to die, but the gods were to conduct 
them to Elysium. Others relate that she and 
Menelaus were buried at Therapne inLaconia. 
Others, again, relate that after the death 
I of Menelaus she was driven out of Pelopon- 
nesus by the sons of the latter, and fled to 
! Rhodes, where she was tied to a tree and 
strangled by Polyxo : the Bhodians expiated 
! the crime by dedicating a temple to her 
! under the name of Helena Dendritis. Ac- 
I cording to another tradition she married 
Achilles in the island of Leuce, and bore him 
a son, Euphorion L 

HELENA, FLATIA JULIA (-ae), mother 
i of Constantine the Great, was a Christian, 
and is said to have discovered at Jerusalem 
; the sepulchre of our Lord, together with the 
wood of the true cross. 

HELENA (-ae), a small and rocky island, 
| between the S. of Attica and Ceos, formerly 
called Cranae. 

HELEXUS (4), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
; celebrated for his prophetic powers. He de- 
! serted his countrymen and joined the Greeks. 
! There are various accounts respecting his 
desertion of the Trojans. According to some 
- he did it of his own accord ; according to 
1 others, he was ensnared by Ulysses, who was 
1 anxious to obtain his prophecy respecting the 
' fall of Troy, Others, again, relate that, on 
the death of Paris, Helenus and Deiphobus 
contended for the possession of Helena, and 
; that Helenus, being conquered, fled to Mt. 

Ida, where he was taken 'prisoner by the 
I Greeks. After the fall of Troy, he fell to the 
j share of Pyrrhus. He foretold to Pyrrhus the 
sufferings which awaited the Greeks who re- 
turned home by sea, and prevailed upon him 
to return- by land to Epirus. After the death 



HELIADAE. 



191 



HELLE. 



of Pyrrhus he received a portion of that 
country, and married Andromache. When 
Aeneas in his wanderings arrived in Epirus, 
he was hospitably received by Helenus. 

HELIADAE (-arum) and HELIADES(-um) , 
the sons and daughters of Helios (the Sun). 
.The name Heliades is given especially to 
Pkuethusa, Lampetie and Phoebe, the daugh- 
ters of Helios and the nymph Clymene, and 
the sisters of Phaethon. They bewailed the 
death of their brother Phaethon so bitterly on 
the banks of the Eridanus, that the gods in 
compassion changed them into poplar-trees 
and their tears into amber. [Eridanus.] 

HELICE (-es). (1) Daughter of Lycaon, 
beloved by Zeus (Jupiter). Hera, out of 
jealousy, metamorphosed her into a she-bear, 
whereupon Zeus placed her among the stars, 
under the name of the Great Bear. (2) The 
ancient capital of Achaia, swallowed up by 
an earthquake together with Bura, b.c. 373. 

HELICON (-onis), a celebrated range of 
mountains in Boeotia, between the lake 
Copais and the Corinthian gulf, covered with 
snow the greater part of the year, sacred to 
Apollo and the Muses ; the latter are hence 
called JSeUcomades and Heltconides. Here 
sprung the celebrated fountains of the Muses, 
Aganippe and Hippocrene. 

HELIODOPUS (-i). (1) A rhetorician at 
Pome in the time of Augustus, whom Horace 
mentions as the companion of his journey to 
Brundisium. — (2) A Stoic philosopher at 
Pome, who became a delator in the reign of 
Nero. 

HELIOGABALUS. [Elagabalus.] 
HELIOPOLIS (-is : i. e. the City of the 
Sun). (1) (Heb. Baalath : Baalbek, Pu.), a 
celebrated city of Syria, a chief seat of the 
worship of Baal, one of whose symbols was 
the Sun. Hence the Greek name of the 
city. It was situated in the middle of 
Coele-Syria, at the W. foot of Anti-Libanus, 
and was a place of great commercial import- 
ance, being on the direct road from Egypt 
and the Ped Sea, and also from Tyre to Syria, 
Asia Minor, and Europe. Its ruins, which 
are very extensive and magnificent, are of 
the Roman period. (2) O. T. On ; a celebrated 
city of Lower Egypt, on the E. side of the 
Pelusiac branch of the Nile, a little below the 
apex of the Delta, and a chief seat of the 
Egyptian worship of the Sun. Its priests 
"were_renowned for their learning. 

HELIOS (-i), called SOL (-olis) by the 
Pomans, the god of the sun. He was the 
son of Hyperion and Thea, and a brother of 
Selene and Eos. Erom his father, he is fre- 
quently called Hyperion ides, or Hyperion, 
the latter of which is an abridged form of the 
patronymic, Hyperionion. Homer describes 



Helios as rising in the E. from Oceanus, tra- 
versing the heaven, and descending in the 
evening into the darkness of the W. and 
Oceanus. Later poets have marvellously 
embellished this simple notion. They tell of 
a magnificent palace of Helios in the E., from 
which he starts in the morning in a chariot 
drawn by four horses. They also assign him 
a second palace in the W., and describe his 
horses as feeding upon herbs growing in the 
islands of the Blessed. Helios is described 
as the god who sees and hears everything, 
and as thus able to reveal to Hephaestus 
(Vulcan) the faithlessness of Aphrodite 
(Venus), and to Demeter (Ceres) the abduc- 
tion of her daughter. At a later time Helios 
became identified with Apollo, though the 2 
gods were originally quite distinct. The 
island of Thrinacia (Sicily) was sacred to 
Helios, and there he had flocks of sheep and 
oxen, which were tended by his daughters 
Phaetusa and Lampetia. He was worshipped 
in many parts of Greece, and especially in 
the island of Rhodes, where the famous 
colossus was a representation of the god. 
The sacrifices offered to him consisted of 
white rams, boars, bulls, goats, lambs, and 
especially white horses, and honey. Among 
the animals sacred to him, the cock is 
especially mentioned. 




Helios (the Sun). (Coin of Rhodes, in the 
British Museum.) 



HELLANICUS, of Mytilene in Lesbos, one 
of the most eminent of the early Greek his- 
torians, was born about b.c. 496, and died 
411. All his works have perished. 
HELLAS, HELLENES. [Graecia.] 
HELLE (-es), daughter of Athamas and 
Nephele, and sister of Phrixus. When Phrixus 
was to be sacrificed [Phrixus], Nephele res- 
cued her 2 children, who rode away through 
the air upon the ram with the golden fleece, 



HELLEN. 



192 



HEPHAESTUS. 



the gift of Hermes ; but, between Sigeum and 
the Chersonesus, Helle fell into the sea, which 
was thence called the sea of Helle (Helles- 
pont us). 

HELLEN (-enos), son of Deucalion and 
Pyrrha, and father of Aeolus, Dorus, and 
Xuthus. He was king of Phthia in Thessaly, 
and was succeeded by his son Aeolus. He 
was the mythical ancestor of all the Hellenes ; 
from his 2 sons Aeolus and Dorus were de- 
scended the Aeolians and Dorians ; and from 
his 2 grandsons Achaeus and Ion, the sons of 
Xuthus, the Achaeans and Ionians. 

HELLESPONTUS (4 : Straits of the Bar- 
danelles), the long narrow strait connecting 
the Propontis (Sea of Marmara) with the 
Aegean Sea. The length of the strait is 
about 50 miles, and the width varies from 6 
miles at the upper end to 2 at the lower, and 
in some places it is only 1 mile wide, or even 
less. The narrowest part is between the 
ancient cities of Sesttjs and Abydtjs, where 
Xerxes made his bridge of boats [Xerxes], 
and where the legend related that Leander 
swam across to visit Hero. [Leander.] The 
name of the Hellespont (i. e. the Sea of Helle) 
was derived from the story of Helle's being 
drowned in it [Helle]. The Hellespont was 
the boundary of Europe and Asia, dividing 
the Thracian Chersonese in the former from 
the Troad and the territories of Abydus and 
Lampsacus in the latter. The district just 
mentioned, on the S. side of the Hellespont, 
was also called Hellespontus, and its inha- 
bitants Hellespontii. 

HELLOMENUM (-i), a seaport town of 
the Acarnanians on the island Leucas. 

HELORUS or HELORUM (-i), a town on 
the E. coast of Sicily, S. of Syracuse, at the 
mouth of the river Helorus. 

HELOS. (1) A town in Laconia, on the 
coast, in a marshy situation, whence its name 
(iXoq=marsh). It was commonly said that 
the Spartan slaves, called Helotes"(EtA^T£?), 
were originally the Achaean inhabitants of 
this town, who were reduced by the Dorian 
conquerors to slavery ; but this account of 
the origin of the Helotes seems to have been 
merely an invention, in consequence of the 
similarity of their name to that of the town 
of Helos. — (2) A town or district of Elis on 
the Alphcus. 

HELVECONAE (-arum), a people in Ger- 
many, between the Viadus and the Vistula, 
S. of the Rugii and N. of the Burgundiones, 
reckoned by Tacitus among the Ligii. 

HELVETII (-6rum), a brave and powerful 
Celtic people, who dwelt between M. Jurassus 
(Jura), the Lacus Lemannus (Lake of Geneva), 
the Rhone, and the Rhine as far as the Lacus 
Brigantinus (Lake of Constance). Their 



country, called Ager Helvetiorum (but never 
Helvetia), thus corresponded to the W. part 
of Switzerland. Their chief town was Aven- 
ticum. They were divided into 4 pagi or 
cantons, of which the Pagus Tigurlnus was 
the most celebrated. The Helvetii are first 
mentioned in the war with the Cimbri. In 
b.c. 107 the Tigurini defeated and killed the 
Roman consul L. Cassius Longinus, on the 
lake of Geneva, while another division of the 
Helvetii accompanied the Cimbri and Teu- 
tones in their invasion of Gaul. Subsequently 
the Helvetii invaded Italy along with the 
Cimbri ; and returned home in safety, 
after the defeat of the Cimbri by Marius and 
Catulus in 101. About 40 years afterwards, 
they resolved, upon the advice of Orgetorix, 
one of their chiefs, to migrate from their 
country with their wives and children, and 
seek a new home in the more fertile plains of 
Gaul. In 58 they endeavoured to carry their 
plan into execution, but they were defeated 
by Caesar, and driven back into their own 
territories. The Romans now planted colonies 
and built fortresses in their country (No- 
viodunum, Vindonissa, Aventicum), and the 
Helvetii gradually adopted the customs and 
language^of their conquerors. 

HELVIA (-ae), mother of the philosopher 
Seneca. 

HELVIDIUS PRISCUS. [Priscus.] 
HELVII (-orum), a people in Gaul, be- 
tween the Rhone and Mt. Cebenna, which 
separated them from the Arverni, were for a 
long time subject to Massilia, but afterwards 
belonged to the province of Gallia Nar- 
bonensis. Their country produced good 
wine. 

HELViUS CINNA. [Cinna.] 

HENETI (-orum), an ancient people in 
Paphlagonia, dwelling on the river Par- 
thenius, fought on the side of Priam against 
the Greeks, but had disappeared before the 
historical times. They were regarded by 
many ancient writers as the ancestors of the 
Veneti in Italy. [Veneti.] 

HENIOCHI (-orum), a people in Colchis, 
N. of the Phasis, notorious as pirates. 

HENNA. [Enna.] 

HEPHAESTION (-onis), a Macedonian, 
celebrated as the friend of Alexander the Great, 
with whom he had been brought up. He 
died at Ecbatana, b.c. 325, to the great grief 
of Alexander. 

HEPHAESTUS (-i), called VULCANUS (-i) 
by the Romans, the god of fire. He was, ac- 
cording to Homer, the son of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and of Hera (Juno) . Later traditions state that 
he had no father, and that Hera gave birth 
to him independent of Zeus, as she was jea- 
lous of Zeus having given birth to Athena 



HEPHAESTUS. 



193 



II ERA. 



(Minerva) independent of her. He was born 
lame and weak, and was in consequence so 
much disliked by his mother, that she threw 
him down from Olympus. The marine 
divinities, Thetis and Eurynome, received 
him, and he dwelt with them for 9 years in 
a grotto, beneath Oceanus. He afterwards 
returned to Olympus, and he appears in 
Homer as the great artist of the gods of 
Olympus. Although he had been cruelly 
treated by his mother, he always showed her 
respect and kindness ; and on one occasion 
took her part, when she was quarrelling with 
Zeus, which so much enraged the father of 
the gods, that he seized Hephaestus by the 
leg, and hurled him down from heaven.- 
Hephaestus was a whole day falling, but in 
the evening he alighted in the island of 
Lemnos, where he was kindly received by the 
Sintians. Later writers describe his lame- 
ness as the consequence of this fall, while 
Homer makes him lame from his birth. He 
again returned to Olympus, and subsequently 
acted the part of mediator between his pa- 
rents. On that occasion he offered a cup of 
nectar to his mother and the other gods, who 
burst out. into immoderate laughter on seeing 
him busily hobbling from one god to another. 
Hephaestus appears to have been originally 
the god of tire simply ; but as fire is indis- 
pensable in working metals, he was after- 
wards regarded as an artist. His palace in 
Olympus was imperishable and shining like 
stars. It contained his workshop, with the 
anvil and 20 bellows, which worked spon- 
taneously at his bidding. All the palaces in 
Olympus were his workmanship. He made 
the armour of Achilles ; the fatal necklace of 
Harmonia ; the fire-breathing bulls of Aeetes, 
king of Colchis, &c. In later accounts, the 
Cyclops are his workmen and servants, and 
his workshop is no longer in Olympus, but in 
some volcanic island. In the Iliad the wife 
of Hephaestus is Charis ; in Hesiod, Aglaia, 
the youngest of the Charites ; but in the 
Odyssey, as well as in later accounts, Aphro- 
dite (Venus) appears as his wife. Aphrodite 
proved faithless to her husband, and was in 
love with Ares (Mars), the god of war ; but 
Helios (the Sun) disclosed their amours to 
Hephaestus, who caught the guilty pair in an 
invisible net, and exposed them to the laugh- 
ter of the assembled gods. — The favourite 
abode of Hephaestus on earth was the island 
of Lemnos ; but other volcanic islands also, 
such as Lipara, Hiera, Imbros, and Sicily, 
are called his abodes or workshops. The 
Greeks frequently placed small dwarf-like 
statues of the god near the hearth. During 
the best period of Grecian art, he was repre- 
sented as a vigorous man with a beard, and 



is characterised by his hammer or some other 
instrument, his oval cap, and the chiton, 
which leaves the right shoulder and arm un- 
covered. — The Roman Yulcanus was an old 
Italian divinity. [Vulcaxus.] 




Hephaestus (Yulcanus). (From an Altar in- the 
Vatican.) 

HERA (-ae) or HERE (-es), called JUNO by 
the Romans. The Greek Hera, that is, 
Mistress, was a daughter of Cronos (Saturn) 
ani Rhea, and sister and wife of Zeus (Jupi- 
ter). According to Homer, she was brought 
up by Oceanus and Tethys, and afterwards 
became the wife of Zeus^ without the know- 
ledge of her parents. Later writers add 
that she, like the other children of Cronos, was 
swallowed by her father, but afterwards re- 
stored. In the Iliad, Hera is treated by the 
Olympian gods with the same reverence as 
her husband. Zeus himself listens to her 
counsels, and communicates his secrets to 
her. She is, notwithstanding, far inferior to 
him in power, and must obey him uncon- 
ditionally. She is not, like Zeus, the queen 
of gods and men, but simply the wife of the 
supreme god. The idea of her being the 
queen of heaven, with regal wealth and power, 
is of much later date. Her character, as de- 
scribed by Homer, is not of a very amiable 
kind ; and her jealousy, obstinacy, and quar- 
relsome disposition, sometimes make her 
husband tremble. Hence arise frequent dis- 
putes between Hera and Zeus ; and on one 
occasion Hera, in conjunction with Poseidon 
(Neptune) and Athena (Minerva), contem- 
plated putting Zeus into chains. Zeus, in 
such cases, not only threatens, but beats her. 
Once he even hung her up in the clouds, with 
her hands chained, and with two anvils sus- 
pended from her feet ; and on another occasion 

o 



HERA. 



194 



HERACLIDAE. 



when Hephaestus (Vulcan) attempted to 
help her, Zeus hurled him down from Olympus. 
— By Zeus she was the mother of Ares (Mars), 
Hebe, and Hephaestus. — Hera was, properly 
speaking, the only really married goddess 
among the Olympians, for the marriage of 
Aphrodite (Venus) with Hephaestus can 
scarcely he taken into consideration. Hence, 
she is the goddess of marriage and of the 
birth of children, and is represented as the 
mother of the Ilithyiae. — She is represented 
in the Iliad riding in a chariot drawn by 2 
horses, in the harnessing and unharnessing 
of which she is assisted by Hebe and the 
Horae. Owing to the judgment of Paris 
[Paris], she was hostile to the Trojans, and 
in the Trojan war she accordingly sided with 
the Greeks. She persecuted all the children 
of Zeus by mortal mothers, and hence appears 
as the enemy of Dionysus (Bacchus), Her- 
cules, and others. — Hera was worshipped in 
many parts of Greece, but more especially at 
Argos, in the neighbourhood of which she 
had a splendid temple, on the road to Myce- 
nae. She had also a splendid temple in Samos. 
— The worship of the Roman Juno is spoken 
of in a separate article. [Juno]. Hera was 
usually represented as a majestic woman of 
mature age, with a beautiful forehead, large 




ITera (Juno). (Yisccmti, Mus. Pio. Clem., vol.4, tav.3.) 

and widely opened eyes, and with a grave 
expression commanding reverence. Her hair 
was adorned with a crown or a diadem. A 



veil frequently hangs down the back of her 
head, to characterise her as the bride of Zeus, 
and the diadem, veil, sceptre, and peacock, 
are her ordinary attributes. 

HERACLEA (-ae), that is, the city of 
Heracles or Hercules, was the name of 
several cities. I. In Europe. (1) In Luca- 
nia, on the river Siris, founded by the 
Tarentines. — (2) In Acarnania, on the 
Ambracian gulf. — (3) The later name of 
Perinthus in Thrace. [Perinthus.] — (4) 
H. Lyncestis, also called Pelagonia, in 
Macedonia, on the Via Egnatia, W. of the 
Erigon, the capital of one of the 4 districts 
into which Macedonia was divided by the 
Romans. — (5). H. Minoa, on the S. coast of 
Sicily, at the mouth of the river Halycus, 
between Agrigentum and Selinus. According 
to tradition it was founded by Minos, when 
he pursued Daedalus to Sicily, and it may 
have been an ancient colony of the Cretans. 
It was colonised by the inhabitants of Se- 
linus, and its original name was Minoa, 
which it continued to bear till about b.c. 500, 
when the town was taken by the Lacedae- 
monians, under Euryleon, who changed its 
name into that of Heraclea. It fell at an 
early period into the hands of the Cartha- 
ginians, and remained in their power till the 
conquest of Sicily by the Romans. — (6) 
Sintica, in Macedonia, a town of the Sinti, 
on the left bank of the Strymon, founded by 
Amyntas, brother of Philip. — (7) H. Tra- 
chiniae, in Thessaly. [Trachis.] — II. In 
Asia. (1) H. Pontica, a city on the S. 
shore of the Pontus Euxinus, on the coast of 
Bithynia, in the territory of the Mariandyni, 
founded about b.c. 550, by colonists from 
Megara and from Tanagra, in Boeotia. — (2) 
H. ad Latmum, a town of Ionia, S.E. of 
Miletus, at the foot of Mt. Latmus, and upon 
the Sinus Latmicus ; formerly called Lat- 
mus. Near it was a cave, with the tomb of 
Endymion. 

HERACLEUM (-i), a town on the coast'of 
the Delta of Egypt, a little W. of Canopus ; 
from which the Canopic mouth of the Nile 
was often called also the Heracleotic mouth. 

HERACLIDAE (-arum), the descendants 
of Heracles or Hercules, who, in conjunction 
with the Dorians, conquered Peloponnesus 
80 years after the destruction of Troy, or 
b.c. 1104, according to mythical chronology. 
In this invasion they were led by Temenus, 
Cresphontes, and Aristodemus, the three 
sons of Aristomachus. Aristodemus died 
before entering Peloponnesus, but his twin 
sons received his share of the conquest. 
Temenus obtained Argos; Procles and Eu- 
rystheus, the sons of Aristodemus, Lacedae- 
mon ; and Cresphontes, Messenia. This 



HERACLIDES. 



195 



HERCULES. 



legend represents the conquest of the Achaean 
population by Dorian invaders, who hence- 
forward appear as the ruling race in the 
Peloponnesus. 

HERACLIDES (-ae) PONTICTJS, so called 
because he was born at Heraclea, in Pontus, 
was a Greek philosopher, and a disciple of 
Plato and Aristotle. He wrote several 
works, almost all of which are lost. 

HERACLITUS (4). (1) Of Ephesus, a 
philosopher of the Ionian school, nourished 
about b.c. 513. He considered fire to be the 
primary form of all matter. — (2) An Aca- 
demic philosopher of Tyre, a friend of 
Antiochus, and a pupil of Clitomachus and 
Philo_. 

HERAEA (-ae), a town in Arcadia, on the 
right bank of the Alpheus, near the borders 
of Elis. 

HERAEI MOXTES, a range of mountains 
in Sicily, running from the centre of the 
island S.E., and ending in the promontory 
Pachynum. 

HERAEUM. [Argos.] 

HERBITA, a town in Sicily, X. of Agy- 
riuni, in the mountains, the residence of the 
tvrant Archonides. 

' HERCULAXEUM or HERCULAXUM [4] , 
an ancient city in Campania, near the coast, 
between Xeapolis and Pompeii, was originally 
founded by the Oscans, was next in the pos- 
session of the Tyrrhenians, and subsequently 
was chiefly inhabited by Greeks. It was 
taken by the Romans in the Social war (b.c. 
89, 88), and was colonised by them. In a.d. 
63 a great part of it was destroyed by an | 
earthquake ; and in 7 9 it was overwhelmed, 
along with Pompeii and Stabiae, by the great 
eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. It was buried I 
under showers of ashes and streams of lava, j 
from 70 to 100 feet under the present surface j 
of the ground. On its site stand the modern | 
Portici and part of the village of Hesi?ia. ! 
The ancient city was accidentally discovered I 
by the sinking of a well in 17 20; and 
many buildings and works of art have been ! 
discovered at the place. 

HERCULES (-is and 4), called HERA- 
CLES by the Greeks, the most celebrated of 
all the heroes of antiquity. According to 
Homer, Hercules was the son of Zeus ' 
(Jupiter) by Alcmene, the wife of Amphi- j 
tryon, of Thebes in Boeotia. Zeus visited j 
Alcmene in the form of Amphitryon, while t 
the latter was absent, warring against the 
Taphians ; and pretending to be her hus- ' 
band, he became by her the father of j 
Hercules. On the day on which Hercules 
was to be born, Zeus boasted of becoming 
the father of a hero destined to rule over the I 
race of Perseus, who was the grandfather I 



both of Amphitryon and of Alcmene. Hera 
(Juno) prevailed upon him to swear that the 
descendant of Perseus, born that day, should 
be the ruler. Thereupon she hastened to 
Argos, and there caused the wife of Sthe- 
nelus, the son of Perseus, to give birth to 
Eurystheus ; whereas she delayed the birth 
of Hercules, and thus robbed him of the 
empire which Zeus had destined for him. 
Zeus was enraged at the imposition practised 
upon him, but could not violate his oath. 
Alcmene brought into the world 2 boys, 
Hercules, the son of Zeus, and Iphicles, the 
son of Amphitryon, who was one night 
younger than Hercules. As he lay in his 
cradle, Hera sent 2 serpents to destroy him, 
but the infant hero strangled them with his 
own hands. As he grew up, he was in- 
structed by Amphitryon in driving the 
chariot, by Autolycus in wrestling, by 
Eurytus in archery, by Castor in fighting 
in heavy armour, and by Linus in singing 
and playing the lyre. Linus was killed by 
his pupil with the lyre, because he had cen- 
sured him ; and Amphitryon, to prevent 
similar occurrences, sent him to feed his 
cattle. In this manner he spent his life till 
his 18th year. His first great adventure 
happened while he was watching the oxen 
of his father. A huge lion, which haunted 
Mt. Cithaeron, made great havoc among the 
flocks of Amphitryon and Thespius (or Thes- 
tius), king of Thespiae. Hercules promised 
to deliver the country of the monster ; and 
Thespius, who had 50. daughters, rewarded 
Hercules by making him his guest, so long 
as the chase lasted, and by giving up his 
daughters to him. Hercules slew the lion, 
and henceforth wore its skin as his ordinary 
garment, and its mouth and head as his 
helmet. Others related that the lion's skin 
of Hercules was taken from the Xemeanlion. 
He next defeated and killed Erginus, king of 
Orchomenos, to whom the Thebans used to 
pay tribute. In this battle Hercules lost his 
father Amphitryon ; but Creon rewarded 
him with the hand of his daughter, Megara, 
by whom he became the father of several 
children. The gods made him presents of 
arms, and he usually carried a huge club, 
which he had cut for himself in the neigh- 
bourhood of Xemea. Soon afterwards Her- 
cules was driven mad by Hera, and in this 
state he killed his own children by Megara 
and 2 of Iphicles. In his grief he sentenced 
himself to exile, and went to Thespius, who 
purified him. He then consulted the oracle 
of Delphi as to where he should settle. The 
Pythia first called him by the name of Her- 
cules — for hitherto his name had been 
Aicides or Alcaeus — and ordered him to live 



HERCULES. 



196 



HERCULES, 



at Tiryns, and to serve Eurystheus for the 
space 'of 12 years, after which, he should 
become immortal. Hercules accordingly 
went to Tiryns, and did as he was bid by 
Eurystheus. The accounts of the 12 labours 
which Hercules performed at the bidding of 
Eurystheus, are found only in the later 
writers. The only one of the 12 labours 
mentioned by Homer is Ms descent into the 
lower world to carry off Cerberus. We also 




Hercules and Nemean Lion. (From a Roman Lamp.) 



find in Homer the fight of Hercules with a 
sea-monster ; his expedition to Troy to fetch 
the horses which Laomedon had refused 




Hercules and Hydra, (From a Marble at Naples.) 



him ; and his war against the Pylians, when 
he destroyed the whole family of their king 
Helens, with the exception of Nestor, The 



1 12 labours are usually arranged in the 
following order : — (1) The fight with the 
mean lion. The valley of Nemea, be- 
tween Cleonae and Phlius, was inhabited by 
a monstrous lion, the offspring of Typhon 
! and Echidna. Eurystheus ordered Hercules 
to bring him the skin of this monster. After 
; using in vain his club and arrows against the 
lion, he strangled the animal with his own 
hands, and returned to Tiryns, carrying the 
dead lion on his shoulders. — (2) Fight against 
the Lernean hydra. This monster, like the lion, 
was the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, 
and was brought up by Hera. It ravaged 
i the country of Lerna, near Argos, and 
; dwelt in a swamp near the well of Amy- 
j mone. It had 9 heads, of which the middle 
i one was immortal. Hercules struck off its 
j heads with his club ; but in the place of the 
| head he cut off, 2 new ones grew forth each 
time. However, with the assistance of his 
faithful servant Iolaus, he burned away the 
heads of the hydra, and buried the ninth, or 
immortal one, under a huge rock. Having 
thus conquered the monster, he poisoned his 
arrows with its bile, whence the wounds in- 
flicted by them became incurable. — (3) Capture 
of the Arcadian stag. This animal had golden 
antlers and brazen feet. Hercules was ordered 
; to bring the animal alive to Eurystheus. He 
{ pursued it in vain for a whole year : at 
i length he wounded it with an arrow, caught 
I it, and carried it away on his shoulders. — 




Hercules and Arcadian Stag. (From a Statue 
at Naples.) 



(4) Destruction of the Trymanthian loar. 
This animal, which Hercules was also ordered 
to bring alive to Eurystheus, had descended 
from mount Erymanthus into Psophis. Her- 
i cules chased it through the deep snow, and 



HERCULES. 



197 



HERCULES. 



haying- thus worn it out, he caught it in 
a net, and carried it to Eurvstheus. Other 




Hercules and Boar, ^vith Eurystheus. (From 
a Marble at Naples.) 



traditions place the hunt of the Eryrnanthian 
boar in Thessaly. It must be observed that 
this and the subsequent labours of Hercules 
are connected with certain subordinate 
labours, called Parerga. The first of these 
is the fight of Hercules with the Centaurs. 
In his pursuit of the boar he came to the 
centaur Pholus, who had received from Dio- 
nysus (Bacchus) a cask of excellent wine. 
Hercules opened it, contrary to the wish of 
his host, and the delicious fragrance attracted 
the other centaurs, who besieged the grotto 
of Pholus. Hercules drove them away ; they 
fled to the house of Chiron ; and Hercules, 
eager in his pursuit, wounded Chiron, his old 
friend, with one of his poisoned arrows ; in 
consequence of which Chiron died. [Chiron.] 
Pholus likewise was wounded by one of the 
arrows, which by accident fell on his foot 
and killed him. — (5) Cleansing of the stables 
of Augeas. Eurvstheus imposed upon Her- 
cules the task of cleansing in one day the 
stalls of Augeas, king of Elis. Augeas had 
a herd of 3000 oxen, whose stalls had not 
been cleansed for 30 years. Hercules, with- 
out mentioning the command of Eurvstheus, 
went to Augeas, and offered to cleanse his 
stalls in one day, if he would give him the 
10th part of his cattle. Augeas agreed to 
the terms ; and Hercules, after taking Phy- 
leus, the son of Augeas, as his witness, turned 



the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the 
stalls, which were thus cleansed in a single 




Hercules cleaning the Stables of Augeas. 
(From a Belief at Borne.) 



day. But Augeas, who learned that Her- 
cules had undertaken the work by the com- 
mand of Eurvstheus, refused to give him the 
reward. His son Phyleus then bore witness 
against his father, who exiled him from 
Elis. At a later time Hercules invaded Elis, 
and killed Augeas and his sons. After this 
he is said to have founded the Olympic games. 
— (6) Destruction of the Stymphalian birds. 




Hercules and the Stymphalian Birds. (From 
a Gem at Florence.) 



ise voracious birds had been brought up 



HERCULES. 



19S 



HERCULES, 



by Ares. Tliey had brazen claws, wings, 
and beaks, used their feathers as arrows, and 
ate human flesh. They dwelt on a lake near 
Stymphalus in Arcadia, from which Herctd.es 
was ordeied by Eurystheus to expel them, 
"ft lien Hercules undertook the task, Athena 
provided him with a brazen rattle, by the 
noise of which he startled the birds ; and, as 
they attempted to fly away, he killed them 
with his arrows. According' to some ac- 
counts, he only drove the birds away, and 
they appeared again in the island of 
Aretias, where they were found by the 
Argonauts. — (7) Capture of the Cretan bull. 
The bull had been sent out of the sea by 
Poseidon, that Minos might offer it in sacri- 
fice. But Minos was so charmed with the 
beauty of the animal, that he kept it, and 
sacrificed another in it's stead. Poseidon 
punished Minos, by driving the bull mad, 
and causing it to commit great havoc in the 
island. Hercules was ordered by Eurystheus 
to catch the bull, which he succeeded in 
doing. He brought the bull home on his 
shoulders ; but he then set the animal free 
again. The bull now roamed through Greece, 
and at last came to Marathon, where we meet 




Hercules and Bull. (From a Bas-relief 
in the Vatican. ) 



it again in the stories of Theseus. — (8) Cap- 
tare of the mares of the Thracian Diomedes. 
This Diomedes, king of the Bistones in 
Thrace, fed his horses with human flesh. 
Eurystheus ordered Hercules to bring him 
these animals. "With a few companions, he 
seized the animals, and conducted them to 



the sea coast. But here he was overtaken 
by the Bistones. During the fight he en- 
trusted the mares to his friend Abderus, who 
was devoured by them. Hercules defeated 
the Bistones, killed Diomedes, whose body 
he threw before the mares, built the town, of 
! Abdera in honour of his unfortunate friend, 
| and then returned to Eurystheus with the 
mares, which had become tame after eating 
the flesh of their master. The mares were 
I afterwards set free, and destroyed on Mt. 




Hercules and Horses of Diomedes. (Prom the 
Museo Borbonico.) 



Olympus by wild beasts. — (9) Seizure of the 
girdle of the queen of the Amazons. Hippo- 
lyte, the queen of the Amazons, possessed a 
girdle, which she had received from Ares. 
Aclmete, the daughter of Eurystheus, wished 
to obtain this girdle ; and Hercules was 
therefore sent to fetch it. After various ad- 
ventures in Europe and Asia, he at length 
reached the country of the Amazons. Hip- 
polyte at first received him kindly, and 
promised him her girdle ; but Hera having 
excited the Amazons against him, a contest 

; ensued, in which Hercules killed their queen. 

I He then took her girdle, and carried it with 
him. On his way home he landed in Troas, 
where he rescued Hesione from the monster 
sent against her by Poseidon ; in return for 
which service her father, Laomedon, promised 
him the horses he had received from Zeus as 
a compensation for Ganymedes. But, as 

! Laomedon did not keep his word, Hercules 
on leaving threatened to make war against 
Troy, a threat which he afterwards carried 
into execution. — (10) Capture of the oxen of 
Geryones in Erythia. Geryones, the monster 
with 3 bodies, lived in the fabulous island of 
Ervthla (the reddish), so called because it 



HERCULES. 



199 



lay in the W., under the rays of the setting: 
sun. This island was originally placed off the 
coast of Epirus, but was afterwards identified 
either with Gades or the Balearic islands. 
The oxen of Geryones were guarded by the 
giant Eurytion and the two-headed dog Or- 
thus ; and Hercules was commanded by 
Eurystheus to fetch them. After traversing 
various countries, he reached at length the 
frontiers of Libya and Europe, where he 
erected 2 pillars (Calpe and Abyla) on the 
2 sides of the straits of Gibraltar, which 
were hence called the pillars of Hercules. 
Being annoyed by the heat of the sun, Her- 
cules shot at Helios (the sun), who so much 
admired his boldness, that he presented him 
with a golden cup or boat, in which he sailed 
to Erythia. He there slew Eurytion and his 
dog, as well as Geryones, and sailed with his 



rl Mm m 



to take the burden of heaven on his shoulders 
again. Hercules, however, contrived by a 
stratagem to get the apples, and hastened 
away. On his return Eurystheus made him 
a present of the apples ; but Hercules dedi- 
cated them to Athena (Minerva), who restored 
them to their former place. Some traditions 
add that Hercules killed the dragon Ladom — 




•Hercules and Geryon. (Museo Borbonico.) 

booty to Tartessus, where he returned the 
golden cup (boat) to Helios. On his way 
home he passed through Gaul, Italy, EHy- 
ricum, and Thrace, and met with numerous 
adventures, which are variously embellished 
by the poets. Many attempts were made to 
deprive him of the oxen, but he at length 
brought them in safety to Eurystheus, who 
sacrificed them to Hera. — (11) Fetching the J 
golden apples of the Hesperides. This was 
particularly difficult, since Hercules did not 
know where to find them. They were the 
apples which Hera had received at her wed- 
ding from Ge (the Earth), and which she 
had entrusted to the keeping of the Hespe- 
rides and the dragon Ladon, on Mt. Atlas, in 
the country of the Hyperboreans. [Hes- 
perides.] On arriving at Mt. Atlas, Hercules 
sent Atlas to fetch the apples, and in the mean- 
time bore the weight of heaven for him. 
Atlas returned with the apples, but refused \ 





Hercules and the Hesperides. (From a Bas-relief 
at Rome.) 

(12) Bringing Cerberus from the loicer world. 
This was the most difficult of the 12 labours 
of Hercules. He descended into Hades, near 
Taenarumin Laconia, accompanied by Hermes 
(Mercury) and Athena. He delivered Theseus 
and Ascalaphus from their torments. He 
obtained permission from Pluto to carry 
Cerberus to the upper world, provided he 
could accomplish it without force of arms, 
Hercules succeeded in seizing the monster 
and carrying it to the upper world ; and 
after he had shown it to Eurystheus, he 
carried it back again to the lower world. 
Besides these 1 2 labours, Hercules performed 
several other feats without being commanded 
by Eurystheus. Several of them were in- 
terwoven with the 1 2 labours, and have been 
already described : those which had no con- 
nection with the 12 labours are spoken of 
below. After Hercules had performed the 
12 labours, he was released from the servi- 
tude of Eurystheus, and returned to Thebes. 



HERCULES. 



200 



HERCULES. 



He there gave Megara in marriage to Iolaus ; 
and he wished to gain in marriage for him- 




Hercules and Cerberus, (jlillin, Tombeaux 
de Canosa.) 

self Iole, the daughter of Eurytus, king of 
Oechalia. Eurytus promised his daughter to 
the man who should conquer him and his 
sons in shooting with the how. Hercules 
defeated them ; hut Eurytus and his sons, 
with the exception of Iphitus, refused to 
give Iole to him, "because he had murdered his 
own children. Shortly afterwards he killed 
his friend Iphitus, in a fit of madness. 
Though purified from this murder, he was, 
nevertheless, attacked by a severe illness. 
The oracle at Delphi declared that he would 
be restored to health, if he would serve 3 
years for wages, and surrender his earnings 
to Eurytus, as an atonement for the murder 
of Iphitus. Thereupon he became a servant 
to Omphale, queen of Lydia, and widow of 
Tmolus. Later writers describe Hercules as 
living effeminately during his residence with 
Omphale : he spun wool, it is said, and some- 
times put on the garments of a woman, 
while Oinphale wore his lion's skin. Ac- 
cording to other accounts he nevertheless 
performed several great feats during this 
time. He undertook an expedition to Col- 
chis, which brought him into connection 
with the Argonauts ; he took part in the 
Calydonian hunt, and met Theseus on his 
landing from Troezene on the Corinthian 
isthmus. YvTien the time of his servitude 
had expired, he sailed against Troy, took the 
city, and killed Laomedon, its king. It was 
about this time that the gods sent for him 
in order to fight against the Giants. [Gi- 
g antes.] Soon after his return to Argos, he 
marched against Augeas, as has been related 
above. He then proceeded against Pylos, 
which he took, and killed the whole family 



of Neleus, with the exception of Nestor. 
He then proceeded to Calydon, where he ob- 
tained Dei'anlra, the daughter of Oeneus, for 
his wife, after fighting with Achelous for 
her. [Deiantra ; Achelous.] After Hercules 
had been married to Deianira nearly 3 years, 
he accidentally killed at a banquet in the 
house of Oeneus the boy Eunomus. In ac- 
cordance with the law, Hercules went into 
exile, taking with him his wife Deianira. 
On their road they came to the river Evenus, 
across which the centaur Nessus carried 
travellers for a small sum of money. Her- 
cules himself forded the river, but gave 
Deianira to Nessus to carry across. Nessus 
attempted to outrage her : Hercules heard 
her screaming, and shot an arrow into the 
heart of Nessus. The dying centaur called 
out to Deianira to take his blood with her, 
as it was a sure means of preserving the 
love of her husband. After this he took up 
his abode at Trachis, whence he marched 
against Eurytus of Oechalia. He took 
Oechalia, killed Eurytus and his sons, and 
carried off his daughter Iole as a prisoner. 
On his return home he landed at Cenaeum, a 
promontory of Euboea, erected an altar to 
Zeus, and sent his companion, Lichas, to 
Trachis, in order to fetch him a white gar- 
ment, which he intended to use during the 
sacrifice. Deianira, afraid lest Iole should 
supplant her in the affections of her husband, 
steeped the white garment he had demanded 
in the blood of Nessus. This blood had been 
poisoned by the arrow with which Hercules 
had shot Nessus ; and, accordingly, as soon 
as the garment became warm on the body of 
Hercules, the poison penetrated into all his 
limbs, and caused him the most excruciating 
agony. He seized Lichas by his feet, and 
threw him into the sea. He wrenched off 
the garment, but it stuck to his flesh, and 
with it he tore away whole pieces from his 
body. In this state he was conveyed to 
Trachis. Deianira, on seeing what she had 
unwittingly done, hanged herself. Hercules 
commanded Hyllus, his eldest son by 
Deianira, to marry Iole as soon as he should 
arrive at the age of manhood. He then 
ascended Mt. Oeta, raised a pile of wood, on 
which he placed himself, and ordered it to 
be set on fire. "When the pile was burning, 
a cloud came down from heaven, and amid 
peals of thunder carried him to Olympus, 
where he was honoured with immortality, 
became reconciled to Hera, and married her 
daughter Hebe. He was in course of time 
worshipped throughout all Greece both as a 
god and as a hero. His worship, however, 
prevailed more extensively among the Dorians 
than among any other of the Greek races. 



HERCULES. 201 HERMES. 



The sacrifices offered to him consisted prin- ILERDOXIA (-ae), a town in Apulia, de- 
cipally of bulls, boars, ranis, and lambs, j stroyed by Hannibal. 

The works of art in which Hercules is re- HERILLUS (-i), of Carthage, a Stoic phi- 
presented are extremely numerous ; but i losopher, the disciple of Zeno of Cittium. 
whether he appears as a child, a youth, a ! HERMAEUM (-i), or, in Latin, MER- 
struggling hero, or as the imm ortal inhabitant j CURII PROMONTORIUM ( Cape Bon), 
of Olympus, his character is always one of the extreme N.E. point of the Carthaginian 
heroic strength and energy. Tbe finest re- territory, opposite to Lilybaeum, the space 
presentation of the hero that has come down between the two being the shortest distance 
to us is the so-called Farnese Hercules. The between Sicilv and Africa, 
hero is resting, leaning on his right arm, ! HERMAGORAS (-ae). (1) Of Temnos, a 
and his head reclining on his left hand : the distinguished Greek rhetorician of the time 
whole figure is a most exquisite combination ; of Cicero, belonging to the Rhodian school 
of peculiar softness with the greatest strength, of oratory. — (2) A Greek rhetorician, who 
The worship of Hercules at Rome and in taught rhetoric at Rome in the time of 
Italy is connected by Roman writers with Augustus. 

the 'hero's expedition to fetch the oxen of HERMAPHRODITES (4), son of Her- 
Geryones. They stated that Hercules, on his mes and Aphrodite (Yenus), and consequently 
return, visited Italy, where he abolished great-grandson of Atlas, whence he is called 
human sacrifices among the Sabines, esta- Atlantiades or Atlantius. He had inherited 
blished the worship of fire, and slew Cacus, the beauty of both his parents, and thus ex- 
a robber, who had stolen his oxen. [Cacus*] ; cited the love of the nymph of the fountain of 
The aborigines, and especially Erander, j Salmacis, near Halicarnassus. She tried in 
honoured Hercules with divine worship; ; vain to win his affections ; and as he was 
and Hercules, in return, taught them the one clay bathing in the fountain, she em- 
way in which he was to be worshipped, and ; braced him, and prayed to the gods that she 
entrusted the care of his worship to 2 dis- ; might be united with him for ever. The gods 
tinguished families, the Potitii and Pinarii. I granted the request, and the bodies of the 
[Pin ajria Gexs.] At Rome Hercules was | youth and the nymph became united together, 
connected with the Muses, whence he is called j but retained the characteristics of each sex. 
Musagetes, and was represented with a lyre, j HERMES (-ae), called MERCERIES (-i), 
of which there is no trace in Greece. The | by the Romans. The Greek Hermes was a 
Greeks and Romans also give the name of j son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Maia, the daughter 
Hercules to heroes distinguished by their of Atlas, and was born in a cave of Mt. 
bodily strength among other nations of the i Cyllene in Arcadia,, whence he is called 
ancient world. Thus we find mention of the ' Atlantiades or CyUenius. A few hours after 
Egyptian, Indian, and Phoenician Hercules. 1 his birth he displayed his natural propensi- 
HERCULES (-is and -i), son of Alexander j ties; escaping from his cradle, he went to 
the Great by Barsine, the widow of the , Pieria, and carried off some of the oxen of 
Rhodian Memnon, murdered byPolysperchon, 
B.C. 310. 

HERCULIS COLUMN AE. [Abtla ; 
Calpe.] 

HERCULIS MOXOECI PORTUS. [Mo- 

XOECUS.] 

HERCULIS PORTUS. _[Cosa.] 

HERCULIS PROMONTORIUM [G. Spar- 
tivento), the most S.-ly point of Italy in I 
Bruttium. 

HERCYNIA SILYA (-ae), an extensive 
range of mountains in Germany, covered j 
with forests, described by Caesar as 9 days' 
journey in breadth, and more than 60 days' j 
journey in length, extending E. from the 
territories of the Helvetii, Xemetes, and 
Rauraci, parallel to the Danube, to the fron- 
tiers of the Dacians. Under this general 
name Caesar appears to have included all the 
mountains and forests in the S. and centre of (Osterley, Denk. der alt. Kunst, theil2, tav. 29.) 
Germany. The name is still preserved in the 

modern Sarz and Erz. j Apollo, which he drove to Pylos. He then 




Hermes (ZVIercury) making a Lyre. 



HERMES. 



202 



HERMES, 



returned to Cyllene, and finding a tortoise at 
the entrance of his native cave, he placed 
strings across its shell, and thus invented 
the lyre, on which he immediately played. 
Apollo, by his prophetic power, had mean- 
time discovered the thief, and went to 
Cyllene to charge Hermes with the crime. 
His mother, Maia, showed to the god the 
child in its cradle ; but Apollo carried the 
boy before Zeus, who compelled him to re- 
store the oxen. But when Apollo heard the 
sounds of the lyre, he was so charmed that he 
allowed Hermes to keep the animals, and 
became his friend. Zeus made Hermes 
his herald, and he was employed by the 
gods, and more especially by Zeus, on a 
variety of occasions which are recorded in 
ancient story. Thus he led Priam to Achilles 
to fetch the body of Hector ; tied Ixion to 
the wheel ; conducted Hera (Juno), Aphro- 
dite (Tenus), and Athena (Minerva) to Paris ; 
rescued Dionysus (Bacchus) after his birth 
from the flames ; sold Hercules to Omphale ; 
and was ordered by Zeus to carry off lo, who 
was metamorphosed into a cow, and guarded 
by Argus, whom he slew. [Argus.] He 
was also employed by the gods to conduct 
the shades of the dead from the upper 
into the lower world. Being the herald of 
the gods, he is the god of eloquence, since 
the heralds are the public speakers in the 
assemblies and on other occasions. He was 



such as the lyre and syrinx, the alphabet, 
numbers, astronomy, music, the art of fight- 
ing, gymnastics, the cultivation of the olive 
tree, measures, weights, and many other 
things. From being the herald of the gods, 
he was regarded as the god of roads, who 
protected travellers ; and numerous statues 
of him, called Hermae, were erected on roads, 
and at doors and gates. He was also the god 
of commerce and of good luck, and as such 
presided over the game of dice. Hermes was 
believed to have been the inventor of sacri- 
fices, and hence was the protector of sacrificial 
animals. For this reason he was especially 
! worshipped by shepherds, and is mentioned 
! in connection with Pan and the nymphs. 
! Hermes was likewise the patron of all 
the gymnastic games of the Greeks. All 
gymnasia were under his protection : and the 
Greek artists derived their ideal of the god 
from the gymnasium, and represented him 
as a youth whose limbs were beautifully 
and harmoniously developed by gymnastic 
exercises. The most ancient seat of the 
worship of Hermes is Arcadia, the land of his 
birth, whence his worship was carried to 
Athens, and ultimately spread through all 
Greece. The festivals celebrated in his 
honour were called Henna ea. Among the 
things sacred to him were the palm tree, the 
tortoise, the number 4, and several kinds of 
fish : and the sacrifices offered to him con- 




Hermes (Mercury). (Museo Borbonico, torn. 6, tav. 2.) 




Hermes (Mercury) . (Pitture e Bronzi d'Ercolano, 
vol. 4. tav. 31.) 



also the god of prudence and cunning, both 
in words and actions, and even of fraud, 
perjury, and theft. Being endowed with this 

shrewdness and sagacity, he was regarded | sisted of incense, honey, cakes," pigs, and 
as the author of a variety of inventions, | especially lambs and young goats. The prin- 



HERMINIUS. 



203 



HERODES, 



cipal attributes of Hermes are : — 1. A tra- 
velling hat with a broad brim, which in 
later times was adorned with 2 small wings. 

2. The staff which he bore as a herald, and 
had received from Apollo. In late works of 
art the white ribbons which surrounded the 
herald's staff were changed into 2 serpents. 

3. The sandals which carried the god across 
land and sea with the rapidity of wind, and 
which were provided at the ankles with 
wings, whence he is called alipes. — The 
Roman MEB.cuB.njs is spoken of separately. 

HERMINIUS (-i) MONS [Sierra de la 
Estrella), the chief mountain in Lusitania, 
S. of the Durius. 

HERMIONE (-es). (1) The beautiful 
daughter of Menelaus and Helena. She had 
been promised in marriage to Orestes before 
the Trojan war ; but Menelaus after his 
return home married her to Xeoptolemus 
(Pyrrhus). After the murder of the latter, 
[Neoptouemtjs], Hermione married Orestes, 
and bore him a son Tisamenus. — (2) A 
town of Argolis, but originally independent 
of Argos, was situated on a promontory on 
the E. coast, and on a bay of the sea, which 
derived its name from the town (Hermioni- 
cus Sinus). It was originally inhabited by 
the Dryopes. 

HERMIOXES._ [Gebmania.] 

HERMO CRATES, one of the Syracusan 
generals, when the Athenians attacked Sy- 
racuse, b.c. 414. He was banished by the 
Syracusans (410), and having endeavoured 
to effect his restoration by force of arms, 
was slain, 407. 

HERMOGEXES, a celebrated Greek rhe- 
torician, was a native of Tarsus, and lived 
in the reign of M. Aurelius, a.d. 161— ISO. 
Several of his works are extant, 

HERMOGEXES, M. TIGELLItTS (-i), a 
notorious detractor of Horace, who calls him 
however optimus cantor et modulator. 

HERMOLAUS (4), a Macedonian youth, 
and a page of Alexander the Great, formed a 
conspiracy against the king's life, b.c 327, 
but the plot was discovered, and Hermolaus 
and his accomplices were stoned to death by 
the Macedonians. 

HERMOPOLIS (-is), i.e. "the city of 
Hermes (Mercury)." (1) Parva, a city of 
Eower Egypt, stood upon the canal which 
connected the Canopic branch of the Xile 
with the Lake Mareotis. — (2) Magna, an 
ancient city in Middle Egypt, stood on the 
W. bank of the Xile, a little below the con- 
fines of Upper Egypt. 

HERMUXDURI (-orum), one of the most : 
powerful nations of Germany, belonged to 
the Suevic race, and dwelt between the Maine 
and the Danube. 



HERMUS (-i), a considerable river of Asia 
Minor, rising in Mt. Dindymene, and after 
flowing through the plain of Sardis, falling 
into the Gulf of Smyrna, between Smyrna 
and Phocaea. It formed the boundary be- 
tween Aeolia and Ionia. 

HERXICI (-orum), a people in Latium, 
belonging to the Sabine race, who inhabited 
the mountains of the Apennines between the 
lake Eucinus and the river Trerus, and were 
bounded on the X. by the Marsi and Aequi, 
and on the S. by the Yohci. Their chief 
town was Anagnia. They were a brave and 
warlike people, and long offered a formidable 
resistance to the Romans. The Romans 
formed a league with them on equal terms in 
the 3rd consulship of Sp. Cassius, b.c. 486. 
They were finally subdued by the Romans, 
306.*_ 

HERO. [Leander.] 

HERO (-us), an eminent mathematician, 
was a native of Alexandria, and lived in the 
reigns of the Ptolemies Philadelphus and 
Evergetes (b.c. 285 — 222). He is celebrated 
on account of his mechanical inventions. 
Several of his works are extant, 

HERODES (-is), commonly called Herod. 
(1) Surnamed the Great, king of the Jews, 
was the son of Antipater. He received the 
kingdom of Judaea, from Antony and Octa- 
vian, in b.c 40. He possessed a jealous 
temper and ungovernable passions. He put- 
to death his beautiful wife Marianine, whom 
he suspected without cause of adultery, and 
with whom he was violently in love ; and at 
a later period he also put to death his two 
sons by Marianine, Alexander and Aristo- 
bulus. His government, though cruel and 
tyrannical, was vigorous. In the last year 
of his reign Jesus Christ was born ; and it 
must have been on his deathbed that he 
ordered the massacre of the children at 
Bethlehem. He died in the 3 7th year of his 
reign, and the 70th of his age, b.c 4.* 
— (2) Herodes Antipas, son of Herod the 
Great, by Malthace, a Samaritan, obtained 
the tetrarchy of Galilee and Peraea, on his 
father's death, while the kingdom of Judaea 
devolved on his elder brother Archelaus. He 
married Herodias, the wife of his half-bro- 
ther, Herod Philip, she having, in defiance 
of the Jewish law, divorced her first husband. 
He was deprived of his dominions by Cali- 
gula, and sent into exile at Lyons, a.d. 39. 
It was this Herod Antipas who imprisoned 
and put to death John the Baptist, who had 
reproached him with his unlawful connexion 



* The death of Herod took place in the same year 
with the actual birth of Christ, as is mentioned above, 
but it is well known that this is to be placed 4 years 
before the date in general use as the Christian era. 



HERODIANUS. 



204 



HEROPOLIS. 



with Herodias. It was before biro, also that 
Christ was sent by Pontius Pilate at Jerusa- 
lem, as belonging' to his jurisdiction, on 
account of his supposed Galilean origin. — 
(3) Herodes Agrippa. [Agrippa.] — (4) He- 
rodes Atticus, the rhetorician. [Attices.] 
. HERODIANUS (-i), the author of an ex- 
tant history, in the Greek language, of the 
Roman empire in 8 books, from the death of 
M. Aurelius to the commencement of the 
reign of Gordianus III. (a.d. 180—238). 

HERODOTUS (-i), a Greek historian, and 
the father of history, was born at Halicar- 
nassus, a Doric colony in Caria, b.c. 484. 
He belonged to a noble family at Halicar- 
nassus. He was the son of Lyxes and Dryo ; 
and the epic poet Panyasis was one of his 
relations. Herodotus left his native city at 
an early age, in order to escape from the 
oppressive government of Lygdamis, the 
tyrant of Halicarnassus,' who put to death 
Panyasis. He probably settled at Samos for 
some time, and there became acquainted with 
the Ionic dialect; but he spent many years 
in his extensive travels in Europe, Asia, and 
Africa. At a later time he returned to 
Halicarnassus, and took a prominent part in 
expelling Lygdamis from his native city. 
Subsequently he again left Halicarnassus, and 
settled at Thurii, an Athenian colony in 
Italy, where he died. Whether he accom- 
panied the first colonists to Thurii in 443, or 
followed them a few years afterwards, cannot 
be determined with certainty. It is also 
disputed where Herodotus wrote his history. 
Lucian relates that Herodotus read his work 
to the assembled Greeks at Olympia, which 
was received with such universal applause, 
that the 9 books of the work were in conse- 
quence honoured with the names of the 9 
Muses. The same writer adds that the young 
Thucydides was present at this recitation and 
was moved to tears. But this celebrated 
story, which rests upon the authority of 
Lucian alone, must be rejected for many 
reasons. Nor is there sufficient evidence in 
favour of the tradition that Herodotus read 
his work at the Panathenaea at Athens in 
446 or 445, and received from the Athenians 
a reward of 10 talents. It is more probable 
that he wrote his work at Thurii, when he 
was advanced in years ; though he appears 
to have been collecting materials for it during 
a great part of his life. It was apparently 
with this view that he undertook his exten- 
sive travels through Greece and foreign 
countries ; and his work contains on almost 
every page the results of his personal obser- 
vations and inquiries. There was scarcely 
a town of any importance in Greece Proper 
and on the coasts of Asia Minor with which 



he was not perfectly familiar. In the N. of 
Europe he visited Thrace and the Scythian 
tribes on the Black Sea. In Asia he travelled 
through Asia Minor and Syria, and visited 
the cities of Babylon, Ecbatana, and Susa. 
He spent some time in Egypt, and travelled 
as far S. as Elephantine. The object of his 
work is to give an account of the struggles 
between the Greeks and Persians. He traces the 
enmity between Europe and Asia to the mythi- 
cal times. He passes rapidly over the mythical 
ages to come to Croesus, king of Lydia, who 
was known to have committed acts of hos- 
tility against the Greeks. This induces him 
to give a full history of Croesus and of the 
kingdom of Lydia. The conquest of Lydia 
by the Persians under Cyrus then leads him 
to relate the rise of the Persian monarchy, 
and the subjugation of Asia Minor and 
Babylon. The nations which are mentioned 
in the course of this narrative are again 
discussed more or less minutely. The history 
of Cambyses and his expedition into Egypt 
induce him to enter into the details of Egyp- 
tian history. The expedition of Darius 
against the Scythians causes him to speak of 
Scythia and the N. of Europe. In the mean- 
time the revolt of the Ionians breaks out 
which eventually brings the contest between 
Persia and Greece to an end. An account of 
this insurrection is followed by the history 
of the invasion of Greece by the Persians ; 
and the history of the Persian war now runs 
in a regular channel until the taking of Sestos 
by the Greeks, b.c. 478, with which event 
his work concludes. In order to form a fair 
judgment of the historical value of the work 
of Herodotus, we must distinguish between 
those parts in which he speaks from his own 
observations and those in which he merely 
repeats what he was told by priests and 
others. In the latter case he was undoubtedly 
often deceived ; but whenever he speaks from 
his own observations, he is a real model of 
truthfulness and accuracy ; and the more 
the countries which he describes have been 
explored by modern travellers, the more 
firmly has his authority been established. 
The dialect in which he wrote is the Ionic, 
intermixed with epic or poetical expressions, 
and sometimes even with Attic and Doric 
forms. The excellencies of his style consist 
in its antique and epic colouring, its trans- 
parent clearness, and the lively flow of the 
narrative. 

HEROPOLIS (-is), or HERO (-us), a city in 
Lower Egypt, standing on the border of the 
Desert E. of the Delta, upon the canal con- 
necting the Nile with the W. head of the Red 
Sea, which was called from it Sinus Heroo- 
politicus. - 



HEROSTRATUS. 



205 



HESTIA. 



HEROSTRATUS (-i), an Ephesian, who 
set fire to the temple of Artemis at Ephesus 
on the same night that Alexander the Great 
was born, b.c. 356, in order to immortalise 
himself. 

HERSE (-es), daughter of Cecrops and 
sister of Agranlos, beloved by Hermes. Re- 
specting her story, see Agraelos. 

HERSILIA (-ae), the wife of Romulus, 
worshipped after her death under the name 
of Hora or Horta.^ 

HERULI or ERULI (-orum), a pow- 
erful German race, who are said to have 
come originally from Scandinavia, attacked 
the Roman empire on its decline. Under 
the command of Odoacer, who is said to have 
been an Herulian, they destroyed the Western 
Empire, a.d. 476. 

HESIODUS (-i), one of the earliest Greek 
poets, frequently mentioned along with 
Homer. As Homer represents the Ionic school 
of poetry in Asia Minor, so Hesiod represents 
the Boeotian school of poetry. The only points 
of resemblance between the 2 schools consist in 
their versification and dialect. In other re- 
spects they entirely differ. The Homeric school 
takes for its subject the restless activity of 
the heroic age, while the Hesiodic turns its 
attention to the quiet pursuits of ordinary 
life, to the origin of the world, the gods and 
heroes. Hesiod lived about a century later 
than Homer, and is placed about b.c. 735. 
"We learn from his own poem on Works and 
Days, that he was born in the village of 
Ascra in Boeotia, whither his father had 
emigrated from the Aeolian Cyme in Asia 
Minor. After the death of his father, he 
was involved in a dispute with his brother 
Perses about his small patrimony, which was 
decided in favour of his brother. He then 
emigrated to Orchomenos, where he spent 
the remainder of his life. This is all that 
can be said with certainty about the life of 
Hesiod. Many of the stories related about 
him refer to his school of poetry, and not to 
the poet personally. In this light we may 
regard the tradition, that Hesiod had a 
poetical contest with Homer, which is said 
to have taken place either at Chalcis or Aulis. 
The two principal works of Hesiod, which 
have come down to us, are his Works and 
Days, containing ethical, political, and eco- 
nomical precepts, and a Theogony, giving an 
account of the origin of the world and the 
birth_of the gods. 

HESIONE (-es), daughter of Laomedon, 
king of Troy, was chained by her father to a 
rock, in order to be devoured by a sea- 
monster, that he might thus appease the 
anger of Apollo and Poseidon. Hercules 
promised to save her, if Laomeclon would 



give him the horses which he had received 
! from Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes. 
Hercules killed the monster, but Laomedon 
refused to keep his promise. Thereupon 
Hercules took Troy, killed Laomedon, and 
gave Hesione to his friend and companion 
Telamon, to whom she bore Teucer. Her 
brother Priam sent Antenor to claim her 
back, and the refusal on the part of the 
Greeks is mentioned as one of the causes of 
the Trojan war. 

HESPERIA (-ae), the Western land (from 
io-Ti^os, vesper), the name given by the Greek 
poets to Italy, because it lay W. of Greece. 
In imitation of them, the Roman poets gave 
the name of Hesperia to Spain, which they 
sometimes called ultima Hesperia, to dis- 
tinguish it from Italy, which they occasionally 
called Hesperia Magna. 

HESPERIDES (-urn), the celebrated guar- 
dians of the golden apples which Ge (Earth) 
gave to Hera at her marriage with Zeus. 
According to some they were the daughters 
of Atlas and Hesperis (whence their names, 
Atlantides or Hesperides) ; but their parent- 
age is differently related by others. Some 
traditions mentioned 3 Hesperides, viz., Aegle, 
Arefhusa, and Hesperia; others, 4, Aegle, 
Crytheia, Hestia, and Arethusa ; and others, 
again, 7. In the earliest legends, they are 
described as living on the river Gceanus, in 
the extreme W. ; but they were afterwards 
placed near Mt. Atlas, and in other parts of 
Libya. They were assisted in watching the 
golden apples by the dragon Ladon. It was 
one of the labours of Hercules to obtain 
possession of these apples. [See p. 199.1 

HESPERIDEM INSULAE. [Hesperium.] 

HESPERIS. [Berenice.] 

HESPERIUM (4 : C. Verde or C. Hoxo), 
a headland on the W. coast of Africa, was 
one of the farthest points along that coast 
I to which the knowledge of the ancients ex- 
tended. At a day's journey from it was a 
group of islands called Hesperidlm Ixsulae, 
wrongly identified by some with the Fortu- 
natae Insulae ; they are either the Cape de 
Verde islands, or, more probably, the Bissagos, 
at the mouth of the JRio Gj-aude. 

HESPERUS (-i), the evening star, son of 
Astraeus and Eos (Aurora), of Cephalus and 
Eos, or of Atlas. He was also regarded as 
the same as the morning star. [Lucifer.] 

HESTIA (-ae), called YE ST A (-ae) by 
the Romans, the goddess of the hearth, or 
rather of the fire burning on the hearth, was 
one of the 12 great divinities of the Greeks. 
She was a daughter of Cronos (Saturn) and 
Rhea, and, according to common tradition, 
I was the first-born of Rhea, and consequently 
. the first of the children swallowed by Cronos. 



HESTIAEOTIS. 



206 



HIERONYMUS. 



She was a maiden divinity ; and when 
Apollo and Poseidon (Xeptmie) sued for her 
hand, she swore by the head of Zeus to 
remain a virgin for ever. As the hearth was 
looked upon as the centre of domestic life, so 
Hestia was the goddess of domestic life, and 
as such, was believed to dwell in the inner 
part of every house. Being the goddess of 
the sacred fire of the altar, Hestia had a share 
in the sacrifices offered to all the gods. Hence 
the first part of every sacrifice was presented 
to her. Solemn oaths were sworn by the god- 
dess of the hearth ; and the hearth itself was 
the sacred asylum where suppliants implored 
the protection of the inhabitants of the house. 
A town or city is only an extended family, 
and therefore had likewise its sacred hearth. 
This public hearth usually existed in the pry- 
taneum of a town, where the goddess had her 
especial sanctuary. There, as at a private 
hearth, Hestia protected . the suppliants. 
"When a colony was sent out, the emigrants 
took the fire which was to burn on the hearth 
of their new home from that of the mother 
town. The worship of the Roman Vesta is 
spoken of under Vesta. 




Hestia (Yesta). (From an ancient Statue.) 

HESTIAEOTIS (-is). (1) The N.W. part 
of Thessaly. [Thessalia.] — (2) Or Histiaea, 
a district in Euboea. [Etjboea.] 

HETRICULUM (-i), a town of the Bruttii. 

HIBERNIA (-ae), also called IERNE, 
IVERNA, or JUVERNA (-ae), the island of 
Ireland, appears to have derived its name 
from the inhabitants of its S. coast, called 



Juverni ; but its original name was probably 
Bergion or Yergion. It is mentioned by 
Caesar ; but the Romans never made any 
attempt to conquer the island, though they 
obtained some knowledge of it from the com- 
mercial intercourse which was carried on 
between it and Britain. 

HIEMPSAL (-His). (1) Son of Micipsa, 
king of Numidia, and grandson of Masinissa, 
murdered by Jugurtha, soon after the death 
of Micipsa, b.c. 118. — (2) King of Numidia, 
grandson or great-grandson of Masinissa, 
and father of Juba, appears to have received 
the sovereignty of part of Numidia after the 
Jugurthine war. He was expelled from his 
kingdom by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, 
the leader of the Marian party in Africa, but 
was restored by Pompey in 81. Hiempsal 
wrote some works in the Punic language, 
which are cited by Sallust. 

HlERAPOLIS (-is). (1) A city of Great 
Phrygia, near the Maeander, was an early 
seat of Christianity, and is mentioned in 
St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians. — (2) 
Eormerly Bambyce, a city in the N.E. of 
Syria, one of the chief seats of the worship of 
Astarte. 

HIERON (-onis). (1) Tyrant of Syra- 
cuse (b.c 478—467), and brother of Gelon, 
whom he succeeded in the sovereignty. He 
gained a great victory over the Etruscan 
fleet near Cumae, b.c. 474. He was a 
patron of literature ; and the poets Aes- 
chylus, Pindar, and Simonides, took up 
their residence at his court. — (2) King of 
Syracuse (b.c 270 — 216), a noble Syracusan, 
descended from the great Gelon, was volun- 
tarily elected king by his fellow-citizens, 
after his defeat of the Mamertines, in b.c 
270. He sided with the Carthaginians at the 
commencement of the first Punic war (b.c. 
264), but in the following year he concluded 
a peace with the Romans ; and from this time 
till his death, a period of little less than 
half a century, he continued the stedfast 
friend and ally of the Romans. He died in 
216, at the age of 92. He was succeeded by 
his grandson, Hieronymus. 

HIEROXYMUS (-i). (1) Of Cardia, ac- 
companied Alexander the Great to Asia, and 
after the death of that monarch (b.c 323), 
served under his countryman Eumenes. He 
afterwards fought under Antigonus, his son 
Demetrius, and grandson Antigonus Gonatas. 
He survived Pyrrhus, and died at the ad- 
vanced age of 104. Hieronymus wrote a 
history of the events from the death of 
Alexander ^to that of Pyrrhus, which is lost. 
— (2) King of Syracuse, succeeded his grand- 
father, Hieron II., b.c 216, at 15 years of 
age, and was assassinated after a short reign 



HIEROSOLYMA. 



207 



HIPPOMENES. 



of only 13 months. — (3) Of Rhodes, a peri- 
patetic philosopher, and a disciple of Aristotle. 
HIEROSOLYMA. [Jerusalem.] 
HILLEYIONES. [Germaxia.] 
HIMERA (-ae). (1) [Fiume Salso), one 
of the principal rivers in the S. of Sicily, at 
one time the honndary between the terri- 
tories of the Carthaginians and Syracusans, 
receives near Enna the water of a salt spring, | 
and hence has salt water as far as its mouth. 
— (2) A smaller river in the N. of Sicily, 
flowing into the sea between the towns of 
Himera and Thermae. — (3) A celebrated 
Greek city on the N. coast of Sicily, W. of the 
month of the river Himera [No. 2], was 
founded by the Chalcidians of Zancle, b.c 
64S, and afterwards received Dorian settlers, 
so that the inhabitants spoke a mixed dialect, 
partly Ionic (Chalcidian), and partly Doric. 
In b.c. 409 it was taken by the Carthaginians, 
and levelled to the ground. It was never 
rebuilt ; but on the opposite bank of the 
river Himera, the Carthaginians founded a 
new town, which, from a warm medicinal 
spring in its neighbourhood, was called 
Thermae. The poet Stesichorus was born at 
the ancient Himera, and the tyrant Aga- 
thocles, at Thermae. 

HIPPARCHUS (-i). (1) Son of Pisis- 1 
tratus. [Pisistr atid ae . j — (2) A celebrated 
Greek astronomer, a native of Nicaea, in 
Bithynia, who flourished b.c. 160 — 145, and 
resided both at Rhodes and Alexandria. The 
catalogue which Hipparchus constructed of 
the stars is preserved by Ptolemy. 

HIPPIAS (-ae). (1) Son of Pisistratus. 
[Pisistr atid ae,] — (2) A celebrated Sophist, 
was a native of Elis, and the contemporary 
of Socrates, 

HIPPO (-onis). (1) H. Regius, a city on 
the coast of Nuniidia, once a royal residence, 
and afterwards celebrated as the bishopric of 
St. Augustine. — (2) H. Diarrhytus or Za- 
ritus, a city on the N. coast of the Cartha- 
ginian territory W. of Utica. — (3) A town of 
the Carpetani in Hispania Tarraconensis, S. 
of Toletum. 

HIPPOCOON (-ontis), son of Oebalus and 
Batea. After his father's death, he expelled 
his brother Tyndareus, in order to secure the 
kingdom to himself ; but Hercules led Tyn- 
dareus back, and slew Hippocoon and his 
sons. 

HIPPOCRATES (-is), the most celebrated 
physician of antiquity, was born in the island 
of Cos, about b.c. 460. He wrote, taught, 
and practised his profession at home ; tra- 
velled in different parts of the continent of 
Greece ; and died at Larissa in Thessaly, 
about 3.57, at the age of 104. He had 2 
sons, Thessalus and Dracon, and a son-in- 



law, Polybus, all of whom followed the same 
profession. The writings which have come 
down to us under the name of Hippocrates 
were composed by several different persons, 
and are of very different merit. 

HIPPOCRENE (-es), the "Fountain of the 
Horse," was a fountain in Mt. Helicon in 
Boeotia, sacred to the Muses, said to have 
been produced by the horse Pegasus striking 
the ground with his feet. 

HIPPODAMIA (-ae). (1) Daughter of 
Oenomaus, king of Pisa in Elis. [Oeno- 
matjs and Pelops.] — (2) Wife of Pirithous, 
at whose nuptials took place the celebrated 
battle between the Centaurs and Lapithae. 

rPlRITEOUS.] 

HIPPOLYTE (-es). (1) Daughter of Ares 
and Otrera, was queen of the Amazons, and 
sister of Antiope and Melanippe. She wore 
a girdle given to her by her father ; and when 
Hercules came to fetch this girdle, he 
slew her. According to another tradition, 
Hippolyte, with an army of Amazons, 
marched into Attica, to take vengeance on 
Theseus for having carried off Antiope ; 
but being conquered by Theseus, she fled to 
Megara, where she died of grief. In some 
accounts Hippolyte, and not Antiope, is said 
to have been married to Theseus. — (2) Or 
Asttdamia, wife of Acastus, fell in love with 
Peleus. [Acastus.] 

HIPPOLYTUS (-i), son of Theseus by Hip- 
polyte, queen of the Amazons, or by her 
sister Antiope. Theseus afterwards married 
Phaedra, who fell in love with Hippolytus ; 
but as her offers were rejected by her step- 
son, she accused him to his father of having 
attempted her dishonour* Theseus thereupon 
cursed his son, and devoted him to destruc- 
tion ; and, accordingly, as Hippolytus was 
riding in his chariot along the sea-coast, 
Poseidon sent forth a bull from the water, 
at which the horses took fright, overturned 
the chariot, and dragged Hippolytus along 
| the ground till he was dead. Theseus after- 
wards learned the innocence of his son, and 
Phaedra, in despair, made away with herself. 
Artemis (Diana) induced Aesculapius to re- 
store Hippolytus to life again ; and, according 
to Italian traditions, Diana, having changed 
his name to Yirbius, placed him under the 
protection of the nymph Egeria, in the grove 
of Alicia, in Latium, where he was honoured 
with divine worship. Horace, following the 
more ancient tradition, says that Diana could 
not restore Hippolytus to life, 

HIPPOMENES '(-is). (1) Son of Megareus, 
and great-grandson of Poseidon (Neptune), 
conquered Atalanta in a foot-race. [Ata- 
laxta, No. 2.] — (2) A descendant of Codnis, 
the 4th and last of the decennial archons. 



HIPPONAX. 



208 



HISPANIA. 



Incensed at the barbarous punishment which 
he inflicted on his daughter, the Attic nobles 
deposed him. 

HIPPONAX (-actis), of Ephesus, a Greek 
Iambic poet, nourished B.C. 546 — 520. He 
was celebrated for the bitterness of his 
satires. 

HIPPONICUS. [Callias and Htpponicus.] 

HIPPONIOI. [Vibo.] 

HIPPONOUS. [Beeeerophox.] 

HIBPOTADES (-ae), son of Hippotes, that 
is, Aeolus. Hence the Aeoliae Insulae are 
called Hippotadae regnum. 

HIPPOTHOUS (-i), son of Cercyon, and 
father of_ Aepytus, king of Arcadia. 

HIB.PINI (-orum), a Samnite people, 
dwelling in the S. of Samnium, between 
Apulia, Lucania, and Campania. Their chief 
town was Aeculanum. 

HIRTIUS (4), A., a friend of Caesar the 
dictator, and consul with Pansa, B.C. 43. 
Hirtius and his colleague fell at the battle of 
Mutina, fighting against Antony. [Augus- 
tus.] Hirtius divides with Oppius the claim 
to the authorship of the 8th book of the Gallic 
war, as well as to that of the histories of 
the Alexandrian, African, and Spanish wars. 
It is not impossible that he wrote the first 
three, but he certainly did not write the 
Spanish war. 

HISPALIS (-is), more rarely HISPAL 
(-alis : Seville), a town of the Turdetani in 
Hispania Baetica, founded by the Phoe- 
nicians, situated on the left bank of the 
Baetis, and in reality a seaport, for, although 
500 stadia from the sea, the river is navi- 
gable for the largest vessels up to the town. 
Under the Eomans it was an important 
place ; under the Goths and Vandals the chief 
town in the S. of Spain ; and under the 
Arabs the capital of a separate kingdom. 

HISPANIA (-ae : Spain), a peninsula in 
the S.W. of Europe, connected with the land 
only on the N.E., where the Pyrenees form 
its boundary, and surrounded on all other 
sides by the sea, and on the N. by the Can- 
tabrian sea. The Greeks and Bomans had 
no accurate knowledge of the country till the 
time of the Boman invasion in the 2nd Punic 
war. It was first mentioned by Hecataeus 
(about B.c. 500) under the name of Iberia; 
but this name originally indicated only the 
E. coast : the W* coast beyond the pillars of 
Hercules was called Tartessis (Ta,oTr,<r<rU). 
It was called by the Greeks Iberia, a name 
usually derived from the river Iberus, and 
by the Bomans Hispania. Spain was cele- 
brated in antiquity for its mineral treasures. 
Gold was found in abundance in various parts 
of the country ; and there were many silver 
mines, of which the most celebrated were 



near Carthago Nova, Ilipa, Sisapon, and Cas- 
( tulo. The precious stones, copper, lead, tin, 
and other metals, were also found in more or 
less abundance. The most ancient inhabitants 
of Spain were the Tberi, who dwelt on both 
sides of the Pyrenees, and were found in the 
S. of Gaul, as far as the Rhone. Celts after- 
wards crossed the Pyrenees, and became 
mingled with the Iberi, whence arose the 
mixed race of the Celtiberi, who dwelt chiefly 
in the high table land in the centre of the 
country. [Celtieeei.] But besides this 
| mixed race of the Celtiberi, there were also 
several tribes, both of Iberians and Celts, who 
: were never united with one another. The 
| unmixed Iberians, from whom the modern 
Basques are descended, dwelt chiefly in the 
Pyrenees and on the coasts, and their most 
! distinguished tribes were the Astubes, Can- 
! tabei, Vaccaei, &c. The unmixed Celts 
| dwelt chiefly on the river Anas, and in the 
N.TV. corner of the country or Gallaecia. Be- 
sides these inhabitants, there were Phoe- 
nician and Carthaginian settlements on the 
coasts, of which the most important were 
! Gades and Carthago Nova-; there were like- 
wise Greek colonies, such as Empobiab and 
Saguntum ; and lastly the conquest of the 
| country by the Bomans introduced many 
Bomans among the inhabitants, whose civi- 
lisation and language gradually spread over 
the whole peninsula. Under the empire 
I some of the most distinguished Eatin writers 
\ were natives of Spain, such as the 2 Senecas, 
Lucan, Martial, Quintilian, Silius Italicus, 
j Pomponius Mela, Prudentius, and others. 
The ancient inhabitants of Spain were a 
proud, brave, and warlike race ; lovers of 
their liberty, and ready at all times to sacri- 
fice their lives rather than submit to a foreign 
master. The history of Spain begins with 
the invasion of the country by the Cartha- 
I ginians, b.c. 238. Under the command of 
Hamilcar (238 — 229), and that of his son-in- 
| law and successor, Hasdrubal (228 — 221), 
j the Carthaginians conquered the greater part 
' of the S.E. of the peninsula as far as the 
Iberus ; and Hasdrubal founded the impor- 
tant city of Carthago Nova. These successes 
j of the Carthaginians excited the jealousy of 
j the Bomans ; and a treaty was made between 
| the 2 nations about 228, by which the Car- 
thaginians bound themselves not to cross the 
Iberus. The town of Saguntum. although on 
the W. side of the river, was under the pro- 
tection of the Bomans ; and the capture of 
this town by Hannibal in 219, was the imme- 
diate cause of the 2nd Punic war. In the 
course of this war the Bomans drove the 
Carthaginians out of the peninsula, and be- 
came masters of theii possessions in the S. 



HISTIAEA. 



209 



HOMERU8. 



of the country. But many tribes in the 
centre of the country retained their indepen- 
dence ; and those in the N. and N. W. of 
the country had been hitherto quite unknown 
both to the Carthaginians and Romans. 
There now arose a long- and bloody struggle 
between the Romans and the various tribes 
in Spain, and it was nearly 2 centuries before 
the Romans succeeded in subduing entirely 
the whole of the peninsula. The Celtiberians 
were conquered by the elder Cato (195), and 
Tib. Gracchus, the father of the 2 tribunes 
(179). The Lusitanians, who long resisted 
the Romans under their brave leader Yiria- 
thus, were obliged to submit, about the year 
137, to D. Brutus, who penetrated as far as 
Gallaecia ; but it was not till Numantia was 
taken by Scipio Africanus the younger, in 
133, that the Romans obtained the undis- 
puted sovereignty over the various tribes in 
the centre of the country, and of the Lusita- 
nians to the S. of the Tagus. Julius Caesar, 
after his praetorship, subdued the Lusita- 
nians N. of the Tagus (60). The Cantabri, 
Astures, and other tribes in the mountains of 
the N., were finally subjugated by Augustus 
and his generals. The Romans had, as early 
as the end of the 2nd Punic war, divided 
Spain into 2 provinces, separated from one 
another by the Iberus, and called Hispania 
Citerior and Hispania Ulterior, the former 
being to the E., and the latter to the AY. of 
the river. In consequence of there being 2 
provinces, we frequently find the country 
called Hispaniae. The provinces were go- 
verned by 2 proconsuls or 2 propraetors, the 
latter of whom also frequently bore the title 
of proconsuls. Augustus made a new division 
of the country, and formed 3 provinces, Tar- 
raconensis, Baetica, and Lusitania. The pro- 
vince Tarraconensis, which derived its name 
from Tarraco, the capital of the province, 
was by far the largest of the 3, and compre- 
hended the whole of the N., AY., and centre 
of the peninsula. The province Baetica, 
which derived its name from the river Baetis, 
was separated from Lusitania on the N. and 
AY. by the river Anas, and from Tarraco- 
nensis on the E. by a line drawn from the 
river Anas to the promontory Charidemus in 
the Mediterranean. The province Lusitania 
corresponded very nearly in extent to the 
modern Portugal. In Baetica, Corduba or 
Hispalis was the seat of government ; in 
Tarraconensis, Tarraco ; and in Lusitania, Au- 
gusta Emerita. On the fall of the Roman 
empire Spain was conquered by the Vandals, 
a.d. 409. 

HISTIAEA. [Hestiaeotis.] 

HISTIAEUS (-i), tyrant of Aliletus was 
left with the other Ionians to guard the bridge 



I of boats over the Danube, when Darius in- 
j vaded Scythia (b.c. 513). He opposed the 
, proposal of Miltiades, the Athenian, to de- 
I stroy the bridge, and leave the Persians to 
I their fate, and was in consequence rewarded 
i by Darius with a district in Thrace, where 
he built a town called Myrcinus, apparently 
] with the view of establishing an indepen- 
dent kingdom. This excited the suspicions 
I of Darius, who invited Histiaeus to Susa, 
j where he treated him kindly, but prohi- 
i bited him from returning. Tired of the 
restraint in which he was kept, he induced 
his kinsman Aristagoras to persuade the 
! Ionians to revolt, hoping that a revolution 
in Ionia might lead to his release. His 
design succeeded, Darius allowed Histiaeus 
to depart (496) on his engaging to reduce 
Ionia. Here Histiaeus threw off the mask, 
and carried on war against the Per- 
| sians. He was at length taken prisoner, 
and put to death by Artaphernes, satrap of 
Ionia. 

HOMERUS (-i), the great epic poet of 
Greece. His poems formed the basis of 
| Greek literature. Every Greek who had re- 
ceived a liberal education was perfectly well 
[ acquainted with them from his childhood, 
and had learnt them by heart at school ; but 
I nobody could state anything certain about 
their author. His date and birthplace were 
equally matters of dispute. Seven cities 
claimed Homer as their countryman (Smyrna, 
Rhodus, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, 
Athenae) ; but the claims of Smyrna and 
Chios are the most plausible. The best modern 
writers place his date about b.c. 850. AA'ith 
the exception of the simple fact of his being 
an Asiatic Greek, all other particulars re- 
specting his life are purely fabulous. The 
common tradition related that he was the son 
of Alaeon (hence called Jfaeonides rates), and 
that in his old age he was blind and poor. — 
Homer was, universally regarded by the an- 
cients as the author of the 2 great poems of 
the Iliad and the Odyssey. Such continued 
to be the prevalent belief in modern times, 
till the year 1795, when the German Pro- 
fessor, F. A. AVolf, wrote his famous Prole- 
gomena, in which he endeavoured to show 
that the Iliad and Odyssey were not two 
complete poems, but small, separate, inde- 
pendent epic songs, celebrating single exploits 
of the heroes, and that these lays were for 
the first time written down and united, as the 
Iliad and Odyssey, by Pisistratus, the tyrant 
of Athens. This opinion gave rise to a long 
and animated controversy respecting the 
origin of the Homeric poems, which is not yet 
settled, and which probably never will be. 
The following, however, may be regarded as 



HOMOLE. 



210 



HORAE. 



the most probable conclusion. An abundance 
of heroic lays preserved the tales of the Trojan 
war. These unconnected song's were, for 
the first time, united by a great genius called 
Homer, and he was the one individual who 
conceived in his mind the lofty idea of that 
poetical unity which we must acknowledge 
and admire in the Iliad and Odyssey. But 
as writing was not known, or at least little 
practised, in the age in which Homer lived, 
it naturally followed that in such long works 
many interpolations were introduced, and 
that they gradually became more and more 
dismembered, and thus returned into their 
original state of separate independent songs. 
They were preserved by the rhapsodists, who 
were minstrels, and who sang lays at the 
banquets of the great and at public festivals. 
Solon directed the attention of his country- 
men towards the unity of the Homeric 
poem c ; but the unanimous voice of antiquity 
ascribed to Pisistratus the merit of having 
collected the disjointed poems of Homer, and 
of having first committed them to writing. 
The ancients attributed many other poems to 
Homer besides the Iliad and the Odyssey ; 
but the claims of none of these to this honour 
can stand investigation. The hymns, which 
still bear the name of Homer, probably owe 
their origin to the rhapsodists. The Batra- 
chomyoiyiachia, or Battle of the Frogs and 
Mice, an extant poem, and the Margites, a 
poem which is lost, and which ridiculed a 
man who was said to know many things and 
who knew all badly, were both frequently 
ascribed by the ancients to Homer, but were 
clearly of later origin. — The Odyssey was 
evidently composed after the Iliad ; and 
many writers maintain that they are the 
works of 2 different authors. But it has 
been observed in reply, that there is not a 
greater difference in the 2 poems than we 
often find in the productions of the same 
man in the prime of life and in old age ; 
and the chief cause of difference in the 
2 poems is owing to the difference of the 
subject. The Alexandrine grammarians 
paid great attention to the text of the 
Homeric poems ; and the edition of the 
Iliad and the Odyssey by Aristarchus has 
been the basis of the text to the present 
day. ^ 

HOMOLE (-es). (1) A lofty mountain in 
Thessaly, near Tempe, with a sanctuary of 
Pan. — (2) Or Homolium (-i), a town in 
Magnesia in Thessaly, at the foot of Mt. Ossa, 
near the Peneus. 

HONOR or HONOS (-oris), the personifi- 
cation of honour at Pome, to whom temples 
were built both by Marcellus and by Marius, 
close to the temple of Honos. Marcellus also 



built one to Yirtus ; and the two deities are 
frequently mentioned together. 




Honos et Yirtus. (Coin of Galba, British Museum.) 

HONORIUS FLAVIUS (-i), Roman em- 
peror of the West, a.d. 395 — 423, was the 
2nd son of Theodosius the Great. In his 
reign Alaric took and plundered Rome. 

HORAE (-arum), daughters of Zeus (Jupi- 
ter) and Themis, the goddesses of the order of 
nature and of the seasons, who guarded the 
doors of Olympus, and promoted the fertility of 
the earth by the various kinds of weather which 
they gave to mortals. At Athens 2 Horae, 
Thallo (the Hora of Spring) and Carpo (the 
Hora of autumn), were worshipped from very 
early times ; but they are usually repre- 
sented as three or four in number. Hesiod 
gives them the names of Eunomia (good 




Horae (Seasons). (From a coin of Commodus.) 

order), Bice (justice), and Irene (peace). In 
works- of art the Horae are represented as 



HORATIUS COCLES. 



211 



HORATIUS FLACCUI5 



blooming maidens or youths, carrying the 
different products of the seasons. 



HORATIA GEXS, one of the most ancient 
patrician gentes at Rome. 3 brothers of this 




race fought with the Curiatii, 3 brothers from , before the birth of the poet, who was of in- 
Alba, to determine whether Rome or Alba i genuous birth, but who did not altogether 
was to exercise the supremacy. The battle escape the taunt, which adhered to persons 
was long undecided. 2 of the Horatii fell ; even of remote servile origin. His father's 
but the 3 Curiatii, though alive, were severely J occupation was that of collector (coactor), 
wounded. Seeing this, the surviving Hora- j either of the indirect taxes farmed by the 
tius, who was still unhurt, pretended to fly, 1 publicans, or at sales by auction. With the 
and vanquished his wounded opponents, by profits of his office he had purchased a small 
encountering them severally. He returned : farm in the neighbourhood of Yenusia, where 
in triumph, bearing his threefold spoils. As the poet was born. The father devoted his 
he approached the Capene gate, his sister whole time and fortune to the education of 
Horatia met him, and recognised on his j the future poet. Though by no means rich, 
shoulders the mantle of one of the Curiatii, he declined to send the young Horace to the 
her betrothed lover. Her importunate grief , common school, kept in Yenusia by one 
drew on her the wrath of Horatius, who Flavius, to which the children of the rural 
stabbed her, exclaiming, "So perish every aristocracy resorted. Probably about his 12th 
Roman woman who bewails a foe." For this , year, his father carried him to Rome, to re- 
murder he was adjudged by the duumviri to j ceive the usual education of a knight's or 
be scourged with covered head, and hanged j senator's son. He frequented the best schools 
on the accursed tree. Horatius appealed to in the capital. One of these was kept by 
his peers, the burghers or populus ; and his Orbilius, a retired military man, whose flog- 
father pronounced him guiltless, or he would ging propensities have been immortalised by 
have punished him by the paternal power, j his pupil. In his 18th year Horace proceeded 
The populus acquitted Horatius, but pre- to Athens, in order to continue his studies at 
scribed a form of punishment. With veiled j that seat of learning. AYhen Brutus came to 
head, led by his father, Horatius passed under j Athens after the death of Caesar, Horace 
a yoke or gibbet — tigillum sororium, " sisters' ! joined his army, and received at once the 
gibbet. rank of a military tribune, and the command 
HORATIUS COCLES. [Cocles.] of a legion. He was present at the battle of 

HORATIUS FLACCUS, Q. (-i), the poet, | Philippi, and shared in the flight of the re- 
was born December 8th, b.c. 65, at Yenusia j publican army. In one of his poems he play- 
in Apulia. His father was a libertinus or ; fully alludes to his flight, and throwing 
freedman. He had received his manumission j away his shield. He now resolved to devote 

p 2 



HORATIUS FLACCUS, 



212 



HORATIUS FLACCfS. 



himself to more peaceful pursuits, and having 
obtained his pardon, he ventured at once to 
return to Rome. He had lost all his hopes 
in life ; his paternal estate had been swept 
away in the general forfeiture ; but he was 
enabled, however, to obtain sufficient money 
to purchase a clerkship in the quaestor's 
office ; and on the profits of that place he 
managed to live with the utmost frugality. 
Meantime some of his poems attracted the 
notice of Yarius and Virgil, who introduced 
him to Maecenas (b.c. 39). Horace soon be- 
came the friend of Maecenas, and this friend- 
ship quickly ripened into intimacy. In a 
year or two after the commencement of their 
friendship (37), Horace accompanied his 
patron on that journey to Brundusium, so 
agreeably described in the 5th satire of the 
1st book. About the year 34 Maecenas be- 
stowed upon the poet a Sabine farm, sufficient 
to maintain him in ease, comfort, and even in 
content [satis beatus u?ricis Sabinis), during 
the rest of his life. The situation of this 
Sabine farm was in the valley of Ustica, 
within view of the mountain Lucretilis, and 
near the Digentia, about 1 5 miles from Tibur 
{Tivoli). A site exactly answering to the 
villa of Horace, and on which were found 
ruins of buildings, has been discovered in 
modern times. Besides this estate, his ad- 
miration of the beautiful scenery in the 
neighbourhood of Tibur inclined him either 
to hire or to purchase a small cottage in that 
romantic town ; and all the later years of his 
life were passed between these two country 
residences and Eome. He continued to live 
on the most intimate terms with Maecenas ; 
and this intimate friendship naturally intro- 
duced Horace to the notice of the other great 
men of his period, and at length to Augustus 
himself, who bestowed upon the poet sub- 
stantial marks of his favour. Horace died 
on Xov. 17th, b.c. 8, aged nearly 57. — 
Horace has described his own person. He 
was of short stature, with dark eyes and dark 
hair, but early tinged with grey. In his 
youth he was tolerably robust, but suffered 
from a complaint in his eyes. In more ad- 
vanced life he grew fat, and Augustus jested 
about his protuberant belly. His health was 
not always good, and he seems to have in- 
clined to be a valetudinarian. His habits, 
even after he became richer, were generally 
frugal and abstemious ; though on occasions, 
both in youth and maturer age, he seems to 
have indulged in conviviality. He liked 
choice wine, and in the society of friends 
scrupled not to enjoy the luxuries of his 
time. He was never married. — The philoso- 
phy of Horace was that of a man of the 
world. He playfully alludes to his Epicu- 



| reanism, but it was practical rather than 
speculative Epicureanism. His mind, in- 
deed, was not in the least speculative. Com- 
mon life wisdom was his study, and to this 
he brought a quickness of observation and a 
sterling common sense, which have made his 
works the delight of practical men. The 

| Odes of Horace want the higher inspirations 
of lyric verse. But as works of refined art, 
of the most skilful felicities of language and 
of measure, of translucent expression, and of 

; agreeable images, embodied hi words which 
imprint themselves indelibly on the memory, 
they are unrivalled. — In the Satires of Horace 
there is none of the lofty moral indignation, 
the fierce vehemence of invective, which 
characterised the later satirists. It is the 
folly rather than the wickedness of vice which 
he touches vrith such playful skill. Nothing 
can surpass the keenness of his observation, 
or his ease of expression : it is the finest 
comedy of manners, in a descriptive instead 
of a dramatic form. — In the Epodes, there is 
bitterness provoked, it should seem, by some 
personal hatred, or sense of injury, and the 
ambition of imitating Archilochus ; but in 
these he seems to have exhausted all the ma- 
lignity and violence of his temper. — But the 
Epistles are the most perfect of the Horatian 
poetry, the poetry of manners and society, 

j the beauty of which consists in a kind of 
ideality of common sense and practical wis- 
dom. * The title of the Art of Poetry for the 
Epistle to the Pisos is as old as Quintiiian, 
but it is now agreed that it was not intended 
for a complete theory of the poetic art. It is 
conjectured with great probability that it was 
intended to dissuade one of the younger Pisos 
from devoting himself to poetry, for which 
he had little genius, or at least to suggest the 
difficulties of attaining to perfection. — The 
chronology of the Horatian poems is of great 
importance, as illustrating the life, the times, 
and the writings of the poet. The 1st book 
of Satires, which was the first publication, 
appeared about b.c 35, in the 30th year of 

j Horace. — The 2nd book of Satires was pub- 
lished about 33, in the 32nd year of Horace. 
— The Epodes appeared about 31, in the 34th 
year of Horace. — The 3 first books of the Odes 
were published about 24 or 23, in the 41st or 
42nd year of Horace. — The 1st book of the 
Epistles was published about 20 or 19, in the 
45th or 46th year of Horace. — The Carmen 
Seculars appeared in 17, in the 4Sth year of 
Horace. — The 4th book of the Odes was pub- 
lished in 14 or 13, in his 51st or 52nd year, 
— The dates of the 2nd book of Epistles, and 
of the Ars Poetica, are admitted to be uncer- 
tain, though both appeared before the poet's 
death, B.C. 8. 



HORTA. 



213 



HYCCARA. 



HORTA (-ae) or HORTANUM (-i), a town 
in Etruria, at the junction of the Nar and the 
Tiber, so called from the Etruscan goddess 
Horta, whose temple at Rome always re- 
mained open. 

HORTEN3IUS, Q. (-i), the orator, was 
born in b.c. 114, eight years before Cicero. 
At the early age of 19 he spoke with great 
applause in the forum, and at once rose to 
eminence as an advocate. In the civil wars 
he joined Sulla, and was afterwards a constant 
supporter of the aristocratical party. His 
chief professional labours were in defending 
men of this party, when accused of mal- 
administration and extortion in their pro- 
vinces, or of bribery and the like in canvass- 
ing for public honours. He had no rival in 
the forum, till he encountered Cicero, and he 
long exercised an undisputed sway over the 
courts of justice. In 81 he was quaestor ; in 
75 aedile ; in 72 praetor; and in 69 consul 
with Q. Caecilius Metellus. He died in 50. 
The eloquence of Hortensius was of the 
florid or (as it was termed) " Asiatic " style, 
fitter for hearing than for reading. His 
memory was so ready and retentive, that he 
is said to have been able to come out of a sale- 
room and repeat the auction-list backwards. 
His action was very elaborate ; and the pains 
he bestowed in arranging the folds of his toga 
have been recorded by ancient writers. 
Roscius, the tragedian, used to follow him 
into the forum to take a lesson in his own 
art. He possessed immense wealth, and had 
several splendid villas. — His son Q. Hortex- 
sitjs Hortalus, was put to death by M. Antony 
after the battle of Philippi. 

HORUS (4), the Egyptian god of the sun, 
who was also worshipped in Greece, and at 
Rome. 

HOSTILIA (-ae), a small town in Gallia 
Cisalpina, on the Po, and on the road from 
Mutina to Verona; the birthplace of Cor- 
nelius Nepos. 

HOSTILIUS TULLUS. [Ttjlltjs Hos- 

TILITTS.] 

HUNNI (-orum), an Asiatic people who 
dwelt for some centuries in the plains of 
Tartary, and were formidable to the Chinese 
empire long before they were known to the 
Romans. A portion of the nation crossed 
into Europe, and were allowed by Valens to 
settle in Thrace, a.d. 376. Under their king 
Attila (a.d. 434 — 453), they devastated the 
fairest portions of the empire ; but a few 
years after Attila' s death their empire was 
completely destroyed. 

HYACINTHUS (-i), son of the Spartan 
king Amyclas, was a beautiful youth, beloved 
by Apollo and Zephyrus. He returned the 
love of Apollo ; but as he was once playing at 



quoits with the god, Zephyrus, out of jealousy* 
caused the quoit of Apollo to strike the head 
of the youth, and kill him on the spot. Erom 
the blood of Hyacinthus there sprang the 
flower of the same name (hyacinth), on the 
leaves of which appeared the exclamation of 
woe A I, AT, or the letter T, being the initial 
of "Tock^Qo?. According to other traditions, 
the hyacinth sprang from the blood of Ajax. 
Hyacinthus was worshipped at Amyclae as a 
hero, and a great festival, Hyacinthia, was 
celebrated in his honour. 

HYADES (-urn), that is, the Rainers, the 
name of nymphs forming a group of 7 stars 
in the head of Taurus. Their names were 
Ambrosia, Eudora, Pedile, Coronis, Polyxo^ 
Phyto, and Thyene or Dione. Their number, 
however, is differently stated by the ancient 
writers. They were entrusted by Zeus (Ju- 
piter) with the care of his infant son Dionysus 
(Bacchus), and were afterwards placed by 
Zeus among the stars. The story which made 
them the daughters of Atlas relates that their 
number was 12 or 15, and that at first 5 of 
them were placed among the stars as Hyades, 
and the 7 (or 10) others afterwards, under 
the name of Pleiades, to reward them for the 
sisterly love they had evinced after the death 
of their brother Hyas, who had been killed 
in Libya by a wild beast. ^ The Romans 
derived their name from £s, a pig, and 
translated it by Suculae. The most natural 
derivation is from yg<v, to rain, as the con- 
stellation of the Hyades, when rising simul- 
taneously with the sun, announced rainy 
weather. Hence Horace speaks of the tristes 
Hyades. 

HYAMPOLIS (-is), a town in Phocis, E. 
of the Cephissus, near Cleonae, founded by 
the Hyantes, destroyed by Philip and the 
Amphictyons. 

HYANTES (-urn), the ancient inhabitants 
of Boeotia, from which country they were 
expelled by the Cadmeans. Part of the 
Hyantes emigrated to Phocis, where they 
founded Hyampolis, and part to Aetolia. 
The poets use the adjective Hyantius as 
equivalent to Boeotian. 

HYAS (-antis), son of Atlas, and father or 
brother of the Hyades. 

HYBLA (-ae), 3 towns in Sicily. — (1) Ma- 
jor, on the S. slope of Mt. Aetna and on the 
river Symaethus, was originally a town of 
the Siculi. — (2) Minor, afterwards called 
Megara. — (3) Heraea, in the S. of the island, 
on the road from Syracuse to Agrigentum. 
It is doubtful from which of these 3 places 
the Hyblaean honey came, so frequently 
mentioned by the poets. 

HYCCARA (-orum), a town of the Sicani 
on the N. coast of Sicily, W. of Panormus, 



HYDASFES. 



214 HYPERBOREI MONTES. 



taken by the Athenians, and its inhabitants 
sold as slaves, b.c. 415. Among- the captives 
was the beautiful Tiniandra, the mistress of 
Alcibiades and the mother of Lais. 

HYDASPES (-ae or -is : Jelum), the N.- 
most of the 5 great tributaries of the Indus, 
which, with the Indus itself, water the great 
plain of X. India, which is bounded on the N. 
by the Himalaya range, and which is now 
called the Punjab, i.e. 5 rivers. The Hydaspes 
falls into the Acesines (Chenab), which itself 
falls into the Indus. The epithet " fabulo- 
sus," which Horace applies to the Hydaspes, 
refers to the marvellous stories current among 
the Romans, who knew next to nothing about 
India ; and the " Medus Hydaspes " of Virgil 
is merely an example of the vagueness with 
which the Eoman poets refer to the countries 
beyond the eastern limit of the empire. 

HYDRA. [Hercules.] 

HYDREA (-ae : Hydra), a small island in 
the gulf of Hermione off Argolis, of no im- 
portance in antiquity, but the inhabitants of 
which in modern times played a distinguished 
part in the war of Greek independence, and 
are some of the best sailors in Greece. 

HYDRUNTUM (-i) or HYDRUS (-untis : 
Otranto), one of the most ancient towns of 
Calabria, situated on the S.E. coast, near a 
mountain ot the same name : it had a good 
harbour, from which persons frequently 
crossed over to Epirus. 

HYGIEA, also called HYGEA or HYGIA 
(-ae), the goddess of health, and a daughter 
of Aesculapius, though some traditions make 
her the wife of the latter. In works of art 1 
she is represented as a virgin dressed in a 
long robe, and feeding a serpent from a cup. j 

HYLAEUS (-i), that is, the Vroodman, 
the name of an Arcadian centaur, who was 
slain by Atalante, when he pursued her. 
According to some legends, Hylaeus fell in | 
the fight against the Lapithae, and according j 
to others he was one of the centaurs slain by 
Hercules. 

HYLAS (-ae), a beautiful youth, be- 
loved by Hercules, whom he accompanied in j 
the Argonautic expedition. Having gone on I 
shore, on the coast of Mysia, to draw water, 
he was carried off by the Naiads, and Her- I 
cules long sought for him in vain. 

HYLE (-es), a small town in Boeotia, i 
situated on the lake Hylice, which was called 
after this town. 

HYLIAS (-ae), a river in Bruttium, sepa- 
rating the territories of Sybaris and Croton. 

HYLICE. [Hyle.] 

HYLLUS (-i), son of Hercules by DeianTra, 
and husband of Iole. Along with thfe other 
sons of Hercules, he was expelled from Pe- 
loponnesus by Eurystheus, and took refuge 



at Athens. He was slain in battle by Echemus, 
king of Arcadia, when he attempted after- 
wards to enter Peloponnesus. 

HYLLUS (-i), a river of Lydia, falling 
into the Hermus on its N. side. 

HYMEN or HYMEN AEtJS (4), the god of 
marriage, was conceived as a handsome youth, 
and invoked in the hymeneal or bridal song. 
The name originally designated the bridal 
song itself, which was subsequently personi- 
fied. His parentage is differently stated, but 
he is usually called the son of Apollo and a 
Muse. He is represented in works of art as 
a youth, but taller and with a more serious 
expression than Eros (Amor), and carrying 
in his hand a bridal torch. 

HYMETTUS (-i), a mountain in Attica, 
about 3 miles S. of Athens, celebrated for its 
marble and its honev. 

HYPACYRIS, HYPACARIS, or PACARIS 
(-is), a river in European Sarmatia, flowing 
through the country of the nomad Scythians, 
and falling into the Sinus Carcinites in the 
Euxine sea. 

HYPAEPA (-orum), a city of Lydia, on 
the S. slope of Mt. Tniolus, near the N. bank 
of the Cai'ster. 

HYP AN IS (-is : Bog), a river in European 
Sarmatia, falling into the Euxine sea W. of 
the Borysthenes. 

HYP AT A (-orum), a town of the Aenianes 
in Thessaly, S. of the Spercheus, whose in- 
habitants were notorious for witchcraft. 

HYPERBOLES (-i), an Athenian dema- 
gogue in the Peloponnesian war, of servile ori- 
gin. In order to get rid either of Nicias or 
Alcibiades, Hyperbolus called for the exercise 
of the ostracism. But the parties endangered 
combined to defeat him, and the vote of exile 
fell on Hyperbolus himself : an application of 
that dignified punishment by which it was 
thought to have been so debased that the use 
of it was never recurred to. Some years 
afterwards he was murdered by the oligarchs 
at SamoSj b.c. 411. 

HYPERBOREI or -EI (-orum). a fabulous 
people, supposed to live in a state of perfect 
happiness, in a land of perpetual sunshine, 
beyond the X. wind ; whence their name 
(ysrs^o'SM, fr. w*s§ and Boglats). The poets 
use the term Hyperborean to mean only most- 
northerly, as when Virgil and Horace speak 
of the Hyperboreae orae and Hyperborei 
campi. The fable of the Hyperboreans may 
probably be regarded as one of the forms in 
which the tradition of an original period of 
innocence and happiness existed among the 
nations of the ancient world. 

HYPERBOREI MONIES was originally 
the mythical name of an imaginary range of 
mountains in the N. of the earth, and was 



HYPEBJDES. 



215 



IAPYDES. 



afterwards applied by the geographers to 
various chains, as, for example, the Caucasus, 
the Rhipaei Montes, and others. 

HYPERIDES or HYPERIDES [-is), one 
of the 10 Attic orators, was a friend of De- 
mosthenes, and one of the leaders of the 
popular party. He was slain by the emis- 
saries of Antipater, at the end of the Lamian 
war, b.c. 322. None of hi=; orations are extant. 

HYPERION (-onis), a Titan, son of Uranus 
(Heaven) and Ge (Earth), and father of 
Helios (the Sun), Selene (the Moon), and Eos 
(Aurora). Helios himself is also called 
Hyperion, which is a contraction of the 
patronymic Hyperionion. [Helios.] 

HYPERMXESTRA (-ae). (1) Mother of 
Amphiaraus. — (2) One of the daughters of 
Danaus and wife of Lynceus. [Danatjs ; 
Lyxcetjs.] 

HYPHASIS or HYPASIS or HYPAXIS 
(-is), a river of India, falling into the Ace- 
sines. 

HYPSIPYLE (-es), daughter of Thoas, 
king of Lemnos, saved her father, when the 
Lemnian women killed all the men in the 
island. When the Argonauts landed there, 
she bore twin sons to Jason. The Lemnian 
women subsequently discovered that Thoas 
was alive, whereupon they compelled Hypsi- 
pyle to quit the island. On her flight she 
was taken prisoner by pirates and sold to 
the Nemean king, Lycurgus, who entrusted 
to her care his son Archemorus or Opheltes. I 
[Archemorxs.] 

HYRCAXIA (-ae), a province of the ancient 
Persian Empire, on the S. and S.E. shores of 
the Caspian or Hyrcanian Sea, and separated 
by mountains on the W., S., and E., from 
Media, Parthia, andMargiana. It nourished 
most under the Parthians, whose kings often 
resided in it during the summer, 

HYRCAXUM or -IUM MARE. [Caspiem 
Make.] 

HYRCAXUS (4). (1) Joannes, prince 
and high-priest of the Jews, was the son and 
successor of Pinion Maccabaeus, the restorer 
of the independence of Judaea. He succeeded 
to his father's power b.c 135, and died in 106. 
Although he did not assume the title of king, 
he may be regarded as the founder of the 
monarchy of Judaea, which continued in his 
family till the accession of Herod. — (2) High 
priest and king of the Jews, was the eldest 
son of Alexander Jannaeus, and his wife, 
Alexandra ; and was frequently engaged in 
war with his brother Aristobulus. He was 
put to death by Augustus, b.c 30. He was 
succeeded in the kingdom by Herod. 

HYRIE (-es). (1) A town in Boeotia 
near Tanagra. — (2' A town in Apulia. 
[Uria.] 



HYRMIXE [-es), a town in Elis, men- 
tioned by Homer. 

HYRTACCS (-i), a Trojan, to whom Priam 
gave his first wife Arisba, when he married 
Hecuba. Homer makes him the father of 
Asius, called Hyrtacid.es. — In Yirgil Xisus 
and Hippocoon are also represented as sons 
of Hyrtacus. 

HYSIAE (-arum). (1) A town in Argolis, 
S. of Argos, destroyed by the Spartans in the 
Peloponnesian war. — (2) A town in Boeotia, 
E. of Plataeae, called by Herodotus a demus 
of Attica, but probably belonging to Plataeae. 

HYSTASPES (-is),* father of^the Persian 
king Darius L 



TACCHUS (-i), the solemn name of Bacchus 
in the Eleusinian mysteries, whose name 
was derived from the boisterous song, called 
Iacchus. In these mysteries Iacchus was 
regarded as the son of Zeus (Jupiter), and 
Demeter (Ceres), and was distinguished from 
the Theban Bacchus (Dionysus), the son of 
Zeus and Semele. In some traditions Iacchus 
is even called a son of Bacchus, but in others 
the 2 are identified. 

IADERA, or IADER, a town on the coast 
of Illyricum. 

IALYSUS (-i), one of the 3 ancient Dorian 
cities in the island of Rhodes, stood on the 
N.W. coast of the island, about 60 stadia S.W. 
of Rhodes. 

IAMBLICHUS (4), a celebrated Xeo-Pia- 
tonie philosopher, in the reign of Constantine 
the Great. Among his extant works is a life 
of Pythagoras. 

IAMXIA (-ae : 0. T. Jabneel, Jabneh), 
a considerable city of Palestine, between 
Diospolis and Azotus, near the coast, with 
a good harbour. 

IAMUS (-i), son of Apollo and Evadne, re- 
ceived the- art of prophecy from his father, 
and was regarded as the ancestor of the fa- 
J mousfamilv of seers, the Iamidae at Olympia. 
IA.XTHE. [Ipms.] 

IAPETUS (-i), one of the Titans, son of 
Uranus (Heaven), and Ge (Earth), and father 
of Atlas, Prometheus, Epimetheus, and Me- 
noetius. He was imprisoned with Cronus 
(Saturnus), in Tartarus. His descendants, 
j Prometheus, Atlas, and others, are often 
1 designated by the patronymics Iupetjdae (es), 
Iupetwrndae (es), and the feminine lape&ams. 

IAPYDES (-um), a warlike and barbarous 
i people in the X. of Illyricum, between the 
rivers Arsia and Tedanius, were a mixed race, 
partly Illyrian and partly Celtic, who tattooed 
their bodies. They were subdued by Augus- 
tus. Their country was called Iapydia. 



IAPYGIA. 



216 



ICENI. 



IAPYGIA (-ae), the name given "by the 
Greeks to the S. of Apulia, from Tarentum 
and Brundusium to the Prom. Iapygium {C. 
Leucd) ; though it is sometimes* applied to 
the whole of Apulia. [Apulia.] The name 
is derived from the mythical Iapyx. 

IAPYX (-ygis). (1) Son of Lycaon and 
"brother of Daunius and Peucetius, who went 
as leaders of a colony to Italy. According 
to others^ he was a Cretan, and a son of 
Daedalus. — (2) The W.N.W. wind, blowing 
off the coast of Iapygia (Apulia), in the S. of 
Italy, and consequently favourable to persons 
crossing over to Greece. 

I ARB AS or HIARBAS (-ae), king of the 
Gaetulians, and son of Jupiter Ammon by a 
Libyan nymph, sued in vain for the hand of 
Dido in marriage. [Dido,] 

IARDANES, king of Lydia, and father of 
Omphale, who is hence called Iardanis. 

IARDANES or IARDANUS (-i). (1) A 
river in Elis. — (2) A river in the N. of Crete, 
which flowed near the town Cydonia. 

IASION (-onis), IASIUS or IASUS (-i). 
Son of Zeus (Jupiter), and Electra, beloved 
by Demeter (Ceres), who became by him the 
mother of Pluton or Plutus in Crete. From 
Iasion came the patronymic asides, a name 
given to Palinurus, as a descendant of Atlas. 
— (2) Father of Atalante, who is hence called 
lasts. — (3) A city of Caria, founded by Argives 
and further colonised by Milesians, situated 
on the Iassius or Iassicus Sinus, to which it 
gave its name. 

IASUS._ [Iasitjs.] 

IAZYGES (-um), a powerful Sarmatian 
people, who originally dwelt on the coast of 
the Pontus Euxinus and the Palus Maeotis, 
but in the reign of Claudius settled near the 
Quadi in Dacia, in the country bounded by 
the Danube, the Theiss, and the Sarmatian 
mountains. 

IBERIA (-ae). (1) The name given by 
the Greeks to Spain. [Hispania.] — (2) (Part 
of Georgia), a country of Asia, in the centre 
of the isthmus between the Black and Cas- 
pian Seas, bounded on the N. by the 
Caucasus, on the W. by Colchis, on the E. by 
Albania, and on the S. by Armenia. It was 
surrounded on every side by mountains, and 
was famed for a fertility of which its modern 
name (from r£&>*70?)*remains a witness. Its 
inhabitants, Iberes or Iberi, were more 
civilised than their neighbours in Colchis 
and Albania. Their chief employment was 
agriculture. The Romans first became ac- 
quainted with the country through the 
expedition of Pompey, in b.c. 65. No con- 
nexion can be traced between the Iberians of 
Asia and those of Spain. 

IBEPvUS (-i : Ebro), the principal river in 



the N.E. of Spain, rising among the moun- 
tains of the Cantabri, and falling into the 
Mediterranean, near Dertosa, after forming a 
delta. 

IBYCUS (-i) a Greek lyric poet of Rhe- 
gium, spent the best part of his life at Samos, 
at the court of Polycrates, about b.c. 540. 
It is related that travelling through a desert 
place near Corinth, he was murdered by 
robbers, but before he died he called upon a 
fiock of cranes that happened to. fly over him 
to avenge his death. Soon afterwards, when 
the people of Corinth were assembled in the 
theatre, the cranes appeared ; and one of the 
murderers, who happened to be present, 
cried out involuntarily, " Behold the avengers 
of Ibycus :" and thus were the authors of the 
crime detected. 

ICARIUS (-i), or ICARUS (-i). (1) An 
Athenian, who hospitably received Dionysus in 
Attica, and was taught in return the cultiva- 
tion of the vine. Icarius was slain by peasants, 
who had become intoxicated by some wine 
which he had given them, and who thought 
that they had been poisoned by him. His 
daughter Erigone, after a long search, found 
his grave, to which she was conducted by his 
faithful dog Maera. From grief she hung 
herself on the tree under which he was 
buried. Zeus (Jupiter), or Dionysus, placed 
her and Icarius among the stars, making 
Erigone the Virgin, Icarius Bootes or Arctu- 
rus, and Maera Procyon, or the little dog. 
Hence the latter is called Icarius canis. 
— (2) A Lacedaemonian, son of Perieres and 
Gorgophone, or brother of Tyndareus, grand- 
son of Perieres, and son of Oebalus. He 
promised to give his daughter Penelope to 
the hero who should conquer in a foot-race ; 
but when Ulysses won the prize, he tried to 
persuade her to remain with him. Ulysses 
allowed her to do as she pleased, whereupon 
she covered her face with her veil to hide her 
blushes, thus intimating that she would 
follow her husband. 

ICARUS (-i), son of Daedalus, [Daedalus.] 

ICARUS (-i), or ICARIA (-ae), an island 
of the Aegean Sea ; one of the Sporades ; W s 
of Samos. Its common name, and that of 
the surrounding sea, Icarium Mare, were 
derived from the myth of Icarus. It was 
first colonised by the Milesians, but after- 
wards belonged to the Samians. 

ICCIUS (-i), a friend of Horace, who 
addressed to him an ode, in which the poet 
reprehends delicately his friend's inordinate 
desire for wealth. 

ICENI (-orum), a powerful people in 
Britain, dwelling N. of the Trinobantes, in 
the modern counties of Suffolk and Norfolk. 
Their revolt from the Romans, under their 



ICHTHYOPHAGI. 



217 



IGUVIUM. 



heroic queen Boadicea, is celebrated in his- 
tory. [Boadicea.] Their chief town was 
Venta Icenorum (Caister), about 3 miles 
from Norwich. 

ICHTHYOPHAGI (-orum, i.e. Fish-eaters), 
was a vague descriptive name given by the 
ancients to various peoples on the coasts of 
Asia and Africa, of whom they knew but 
little. Thus we find Ichthyophagi : 1. in 
the extreme S.E. of Asia, in the country of 
the Sinae : 2. on the coast of Gedrosia : 3. on 
the N.E. coast of Arabia Felix : 4. in Africa, 
on the coast of the Bed Sea, above Egypt : 
5. on the W. coast of Africa. 

ICILIUS (-i), the name of a celebrated 
plebeian family, the most distinguished mem- 
ber of which was Sp. Icilius, tribune of the 
plebs, b.c. 456 and 455 : He was one of the 
chief leaders in the outbreak against the 
decemvirs, 449, Virginia having been be- 
trothed to him. [Virginia.] 

ICONIUM (-i : Konkjeh), the capital of 
Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, was, when visited 
by St. Paul, a flourishing city. 

IDA (-ae). (1) A mountain range of Mysia, 
in Asia Minor, celebrated in mythology, as 
the seene of the rape of Ganymede (hence 
called Idaeus puer), and of the judgment of 
Paris (hence called Idaeus Judex) . In Homer 
the summit of Ida is the place from which 
the gods watch the battles in the plain of 
Troy. Tt is an ancient seat of the worship 
of Cybele, who obtained from it the name of 
Idaea Mater. — (2) A mountain in the centre 
of Crete, closely connected with the worship 
of Zeus (Jupiter), who is said to have been 
brought up in a cave in this mountain. 

IDAEI DACTYLI. [Dactyli.] 

IDALIUM (-i), a town in Cyprus, sacred 
to Venus, who hence bore the surname 
Idalia. 

IDAS (-ae), son of Aphareus and Arene, 
and brother of Lynceus. From the name 
of their father, Idas and Lynceus are called 
Apharefidae or Aphandae. Apollo was in 
love with Marpessa, the daughter of Evenus, 
but Idas carried her off in a winged chariot 
which Poseidon (Neptune) had given him. 
The lovers fought for her possession, but 
Zeus (Jupiter), separated them, and left the 
decision with Marpessa, who chose Idas, 
from fear lest Apollo should desert her if she 
grew old. The Apharetidae also took part 
in the Calydonian hunt, and in the expedition 
of the Argonauts. But the most celebrated 
part of their story is their battle with the 
Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux, which is related 
elsewhere [p. 150]. 

IDISTAVISUS CAMPUS, a plain in Ger- 
many near the Weser, probably in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Porta Westphalica, memor- 



able for the victory of Germanicus over the 
Cherusci, a.d. 16. 

IDMON (-6nis). (1) Father of Arachne, a 
native of Colophon. — (2) Son of Apollo and 
Asteria, or Cyrene, was a soothsayer, and 
accompanied the Argonauts, although he 
knew beforehand that death awaited him. 
He perished in the country of the Marian- 
dynians. 

IDOMENEUS (-ei, eos, or eos), son of the 
Cretan Deucalion, and grandson of Minos 
and Pasiphae, was king of Crete. He is 
sometimes called Lyctius or Cnossius, from 
the Cretan towns of Lyctus and Cnossus. He 
led the Cretans against Troy, and was one of 
the bravest heroes in the Trojan war. He 
vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon (Neptune) 
whatever he should first meet on his landing, 
if the god would grant him a safe return. 
This was his own son, whom he accordingly 
sacrificed. As Crete was thereupon visited 
by a plague, the Cretans expelled Idomeneus, 
who went to Italy, where he settled in 
Calabria. 

IDUMAEA (-ae), the Greek form of the 
scriptural name Edom. In the 0. T., Edom 
is the district of Mt. Seir, that is, the moun- 
tainous region extending from the Dead Sea 
to the E. head of the Bed Sea. The decline 
of the kingdom of Judaea enabled the Edomites 
to extend their power over the S. part of 
Judaea as far as Hebron, while their original 
territory was taken possession of by the Na- 
bathaean Arabs. Thus the Idumaea of the 
later Jewish, and of the Boman history is 
the S. part of Judaea, and a small portion of 
the N. of Arabia Petraea, extending from the 
Mediterranean to the W. side of Mt. Seir. 
Antipater, the father of Herod the Great, was 
an Idumaean. The Boman writers of the 
Augustan and of later ages use Idumaea and 
Judaea as equivalent terms. Both the old 
Edomites and the later Idumaeans were a 
commercial people, and carried on a great 
part of the traffic between the East and the 
shores of the Mediterranean. 

IDYIA (-ae), wife of the Colchian king 
Aeetes, and mother of Medea. 

IETAE (-arum), a town in the interior of 
Sicily, on a mountain of the same name, 
S. W. of Macella. 

IGILIUM (-i : Giglio), a small island off 
the Etruscan coast, opposite Cosa. 

IGUVIUM (-i : Gubbio or Eugubio), an 
important town in Umbria, on the 8. slope of 
the Apennines. On a mountain near this 
town was a celebrated temple of Jupiter, in 
the ruins of which were discovered 7 brazen 
tables, covered with Umbrian inscriptions, 
and which are still preserved at Gubbio. 
These tables, frequently called the Eugubian 



ILAIRA. 



21 



S 



ILLYRICUM. 



Tables, contain more than 1000 Umbrian 
words, and are of great importance for a 
knowledge of the ancient languages of 
Italy. _ 

ILAIRA (-ae), daughter of Leucippus and 
Philodice, and sister of Phoebp._ The 2 sisters 
are frequently mentioned by the poets under 
the name of Leudppidae. Both were carried 
off by the Dioscuri, and Ilaira became the 
wife of Castor. 

ILERACOXES, ILERCAOXEXSES, or IL- 
LURGAYOXEXSES (-urn), a people in 
Hispania Tarraconensis on the W. coast 
between the Iberus and M. Idubeda. Their 
chief town was Dertosa. 

ILERDA (-ae), a town of the Ilergetes in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, situated on a height 
above the river Sicoris (Segre), which was 
here crossed by a stone bridge. It was here 
that Afranius and Petreius, the legates of 
Pompey, were defeated by Caesar (b.c. 49). 

ILERGETES (-urn), a people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, between the Iberus and the 
Pyrenees. 

ILIA or RHEA SILVIA. [Romtltts.] 

ILIEXSES, an ancient people in Sardinia. 

ILIONA (-ae), daughter of Priam and 
Hecuba, wife of Polymnestor or Polymestor, 
king of the Thracian Chersonesus, to whom 
she bore a son Deipylus. As to her connexion 
with Poly dor us, see Polydorus. 

LLIOXEUS (-ei, eos, or eos), a son of 
Niobe, whom Apollo would hare liked to save, 
because he was praying ; but the arrow 
was no longer under the control of the god. 
[Niobe.] 

ILIPA, a town in Hispania Baetica, on the 
right bank of the Baetis, which was navigable 
to this place with small vessels. 

ILISSUS (-i), a small river in Attica, lising 
on the N. slope of Mt. Hymettus, flowing 
through the E. side of Athens, and losing 
itself _in the marshes in the Athenian plain. 

ILITHYIA (-ae), the goddess of the Greeks, 
who aided women in child-birth. In the 
Iliad the Hithyiae (in the plural) are called 
the daughters of Hera (Juno) ; but in the 
Odyssey and in the later poets, there is only 
one goddess of this name. 

Ilium. [Troas.] 

ILLIBERIS (-is). (1) {Tech), called Ticms 
or Techum by the Romans, a river in Gallia 
Narbonensis in the territory of the Sardones, 
rising in the Pyrenees and falling, after a 
short course, into the Mare Gallicum — (2) 
(Tine), a town of the Santones, on the above- 
mentioned river, at the foot of the Pyrenees. 
Constantine changed its name into Helena, 
whence the modern Tine. 

ILLITURGISor 1LLITURGI, an important 
town of the Turduli in Hispania Tarraco- 



nensis, situated on a steep rock near the 
Baetis. 

ILLYRICUM (-i) or ILLYRIS (-idis), more 
rarely ILLYRIA (-ae), was in its widest sig- 
nification, all the land AY. of Macedonia and 
E. of Italy and Rhaetia, extending S. as far 
as Epirus, and N. as far as the valleys of the 
Savus and Dravus, and the junction of these 
rivers with the Danube. The country was 
divided into two parts : I. Illyris Barbara 
or Romana, the Roman province of Illyri- 
ctjm, extended along the Adriatic sea from 
Italy (Istria), from which it was separated 
by the Arsia, to the river Drilo, and was 
bounded on the E. by Macedonia and Moesia 
Superior, from which it was separated by the 
Drinus, and on the X. by Pannonia, from 
which it was separated by the Dravus. It 
thus comprehended a part of the modern 
Croatia, the whole of Dalmatia, almost the 
whole of Bosnia, and a part of Albania. It 
was divided in ancient times into 3 districts : 
Iapydia, the interior of the country on the X\, 
from the Arsia to the Tedanius [Iapydes] ; 
Liburnia, along the coast from the Arsia to 
the Titius [Liburxi] ; and Dalmatia, S. of 
Liburnia, along the coast from the Titius to 
the Drilo. [Dalmatia.] The Liburnians 
submitted at an early time to the Romans ; 
but it was not till after the conquest of the 
Dalmatians in the reign of Augustus, that 
the entire countrv was organised as a Roman 
province. From this time the Illyrians, and 
especially the Dalmatians, formed an im- 
portant part of the Roman legions. — II. 
Illyris Graeca, or Illyria proper, also 
called Epirus Xova, extended from the Drilo, 
along the Adriatic, to the Ceraunian moun- 
tains, which separated it from Epirus proper : 
it was bounded on the E. by Macedonia. It 
thus embraced the greater part of the modern 
Albania. Its inhabitants were subdued by 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great ; 
but after the death of the latter, they re- 
covered their independence. At a later time 
the injury which the Roman trade suffered 
from" their piracies brought against them the 
arms of the republic. Their queen Teuta 
was defeated by the Romans, and com- 
pelled to pay an annual tribute, b.c. 229. 
The Illyrians were again conquered by the 
consul Aemilius Paulus, 219. Their king 
Gentius formed an alliance with Perseus, 
king of Macedonia, against Rome ; but he 
was conquered by the praetor L. Anicius, in 
the same year as Perseus, 168 ; whereupon 
Illyria, as well as Macedonia, became subject 
to Rome. The Ulyrian tribes were all more 
or less barbarous. They were probably of 
the same origin as the Thracians, but some 
Celts were mingled with them. 



ILL'S. 



219 



INDUS. 



ILLS (4), son of Tros and Callirhoe, great- 
grandson of Dardanus ; whence he is called 
Dardanides. He was the father of Laomedon 
and the grandfather of Priam. He was be- 
lieved to be the founder of Ilion, which was 
also called Troy, after his father. 

ILVA. [Aethalia.] 

IL YATES (-um), a people in Liguria, S. of 
the Po, in the modern Montferrat. 

IMACHARA -ae), a town in Sicily, in the 
Heraean mountains. 

IMAUS (-i), the name of a great moun- 
tain range of Asia, is one of those terms 
which the ancient geographers appear to have 
used indefinitely, for want of exact know- i 
ledge. In its most definite application, it 
appears to mean the W. part of the Hi ma- j 
lay a, between the Paropamisus and the 
Emodi Montes ; but when it is applied to 
some great chain, extending much farther to 
the N. and dividing Scythia into 2 parts, 
Scythia intra Imaum and Scythia extra 
Imaum, it must either be understood to mean j 
the Aloussour or Altai mountains, or else 
some imaginary range, which cannot be 
identified with any actually existing moun- 
tains. 

IMBROS or IMBRLS (-i), an island in the 
N. of the Aegean sea, near the Thracian 
Chersonesus, about 25 miles in circumference. 
Like the neighbouring island of Samothrace, 
it was one of the chief seats of the worship of ■ 
the Cabiri. 

IXACHIS (-idis), a surname of Io, the 
daughter of Inachus. The goddess Isis is j 
also called Inachis, because she was identified j 
with Io : and sometimes Inachis is used as 
synonymous with an Argive or Greek woman. 
— Inachides in the same way was used as a 
name of Epaphus, a grandson of Inachus, and 
also of Perseus, because he was born at Argos, 
the city of Inachus. 

INACHUS (-i). (1) Son of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and father of Phoroneus and Io, was 
the first king of Argos, and said to have 
given his name to the river Inachus. Some 
of the ancients regarded him as the leader of 
an Egyptian or Libyan colony on the banks 
of the Inachus. — (2) The chief river in Ar- 
golis, rising on the borders of Arcadia, re- 
ceiving near Argos the small river Charadrus, 
and falling into the Sinus Argolicus S.E. of 
Argos. 

INARIME. [Aenaria.] 

IX AltOS (-i), son of Psammitichus, a 
Libyan, a^.d the leader of a revolt of the Egyp- 
tians against the Persians, B.C. 461. He was 
at first successful, but was eventually defeated 
by the Persians, taken prisoner and crucified, 
455. 

INDIA (-ae;, was a name used by the . 



Greeks and Romans, much as the modern 
term East Indies, to describe the whole of 
the S.E. part of Asia, including the 2 penin- 
sulas of Hindustan, and of Burmah, Cochin. 
China, Siam, and Malacca, and also the 
islands of the Indian Archipelago. The 
direct acquaintance of the western nations 
with India dates from the reign of Darius, 
the son of Hystaspes, who added to the Per- 
sian empire a part of its X. W. regions, 
perhaps only as far as the Indus, certainly 
not beyond the limits of the Punjab. The 
expedition of Alexander into India first 
brought the Greeks into actual contact with 
the country ; but the conquests of Alexander 
only extended within Scinde, and the Punjab, 
as far as the river Hyphasis, down which he 
sailed into the Indus, and down the Indus to 
the sea. The Greek king of Syria, Seleucus 
Xicator, crossed the Hyphasis, and made war 
with the Prasii, a people dwelling on the 
banks of the upper Ganges, to whom he after- 
wards sent ambassadors, named Megasthenes 
and Daimachus, who lived for several years 
at Palibothra, the capital of the Prasii, and 
had thus the opportunity of obtaining much 
information respecting the parts of India 
about the Ganges. The later geographers 
made two great divisions of India, which are 
separated by the Ganges, and are called India 
intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem, the 
former including the peninsula of Hindustan, 
the latter the Burmese peninsula. They were 
acquainted with the division of the people of 
Hindustan into castes, of which they enume- 
rate 7. 

IXDICETAE or IXDIGETES (-um), a 
people in the X.E. corner of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis, close upon the Pyrenees. Their 
chief town was Emporium. 

IXDICUS OCEAXLS. [ Erythraeoi 
Mare.]^ 

IXDiGETES (-um}, the name of those 
indigenous gods and heroes at Rome, who 
once lived on earth as mortals, and were 
worshipped after their death as gods. Thus 
Aeneas, after his disappearance on the banks 
of the Xumicus, became a deus Indiges, pater 
Indiges, or Jupiter Indiges; and in like 
manner Romulus became Quirinus, and 
Latinus Jupiter Zatiaris. 

IXDUS (-i). (1) A great river of India, 
rising in the table land of Th ibet, and flowing 
through the great plain of the Punjab, into 
the Erythraeum Mare (Indian Ocean), which 
it enters by several mouths. The ancient 
name of India was derived from the native 
name of the Indus (Sind). — (2) A considerable 
river of Asia Minor, rising in Phrygia, and 
flowing through Caria into the Mediterranean, 
opposite to Rhodes. 



INDUTIOMARUS. 



220 



ION. 



INDUTIOMARUS or INDUCIOMARUS 
(4), one of the leading chiefs of the Treviri 
in Gaul, defeated and slain by Labienus, b s c. 
54. [Cingetorix.] 

INESSA. [Aetna, No. 2.] 

INFERI (-drum), the gods of the nether 
world, in contradistinction from the Superi, 
or the gods of heaven. But the word Inferi 
is also frequently used to designate the dead, 
and therefore comprises all the inhabitants of 
the lower world, both the gods, viz., Hades 
or Pluto, his wife Persephone (Proserpina), 
the Erinnyes or Furies, &c, and also as the 
souls of departed men. 

INFERUM MARE. [Etruria.] 

INGAEVONES. [Germania.] 

INGAUNI (-orum), a people in Liguria on 
the coast, whose chief town was Albitjm 
Ingacxum:. 

INO (-iis : acc. o), daughter of Cadmus 
and Harmonia, and wife of Athamas. [Atha- 

MA_S.]_ 

INOUS (-i), a name both of Melicertes and 
of Palaemon, because they were the sons of 
Ino. 

INSUBRES (-ium), a Gallic people, who 
crossed the Alps and settled in Gallia Trans- 
padana in the N. of Italy. Their chief town 
was Mediolantjm. They were conquered by 
the Romans, shortly before the commence- 
ment of the 2nd Punic war. 

INTEMELII (-orum), a people in Liguria 
on the coast, whose chief town was Albium 

LSTTEMELIUM. 

INTERAMNA (-ae), the name of several 
towns in Italy, so called from their lying 
between 2 streams. — (1) (Term),, in Umbria, 
situated on the Nar, and surrounded by a 
canal flowing into this river, whence its in- 
habitants were called Interamnates Nartes. 
It was the birthplace of the historian Tacitus. 
— (2) In Latium, at the junction of the 
Casinus with the Liris, whence its inha- 
bitants are called Interamnates Urinates. 

INTERCATIA (-ae), a town of the Yaccaei 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, on the road from 
Asturica to Caesaraugusta. 

INTERNUM MARE, the Mediterranean 
Sea, extending on the W. from the Straits of 
Hercules, which separated it from the At- 
lantic, to the coasts of Syria and Asia Minor 
on the E. It was called by the Romans 
Mare In ternum or Intestimim ; by the Greeks 
% la-ct) B-a.A-iTTac or yi evro; S-uhccTTu, or, more 
fully, i zvto; 'Hex,z.XiiMV (TTYikoiv 3-a.hocrTOt } and 
by Herodotus, -h ^-ockocrra, ; and from its 
washing the coasts both of Greece and Italy, 
it was also called, both by Greeks and 
Romans Our Sea vipfAri^ct 3-ccXotrrix,, vi xoitf 
viuocs 3-u.ka,TTK, Mare Nostrum). The term 
Mare Mecliterraneum is not used by the best 



classical writers, and occurs first in Solinus. 
The ebb and flow of the tide are perceptible 
in only a few parts of the Mediterranean, 
such as in the Syrtes on the coast of Africa, 
in the Adriatic, &c. The different parts of 
the Mediterranean are called by different 
names, which are spoken of in separate 
articles. 

INUI CASTRUM. [Cas rum No. 1.] 
10 (-us), daughter of Inachus, first king 
of Argos, beloved by Zeus (Jupiter), and 
metamorphosed, through fear of Hera (Juno) 
into a heifer. The goddess, who was aware 
of the change, placed her under the care of 
hundred-eyed Argus, who was, however, 
slain by Hermes (Mercury), at the command 
of Zeus. Hera then tormented Io with a 
gad-fly, and drove her in a state of phrenzy 
from land to land, until at length she found 
rest on the banks of the Nile. Here she 
recovered her original form, and bore a son 
to Zeus, called Epaphus. [Epaphus.] The 
wanderings of Io were very celebrated in anti- 
quity, and the Bosporus (i.e. Ox-ford) is said 
to have derived its name from her swimming 
across it. According to some traditions Io 
married Ariris or Telegonus, king of Egypt, 
and was afterwards identified with the Egyp- 
tian goddess Isis. It appears that Io was 
identical with the moon; whence she is 
represented as a woman, with the horns of a 
heifer. 

IOBATES, king of Lycia. [Bellerophon.] 

IOL. [Caesarea, No. 4.] 

IOLAUS (-i), son of Iphicles and Autome- 
dusa. Iphicles was the half-brother of Her- 
cules, and Iolaus was the faithful companion 
and charioteer of the hero. Hercules sent 
him to Sardinia at the head of his sons by 
the daughters of Thespius ; but he returned 
to the hero shortly before his death, and was 
the first who offered sacrifices to him as a 
demigod. Iolaus after his death obtained 
permission from the gods of the Nether World 
to come to the assistance of the children of 
Hercules. He slew Eurystheus, and then 
returned to the shades. 

IOLCUS (-i), an ancient town in Magnesia 
in Thessaly at the top of the Pagasean gulf, 
about a mile from the sea. It was celebrated 
in mythology as the residence of Pelias and 
Jason, and as the place from which the Argo- 
nauts sailed in quest of the golden fleece. 

IOLE (-es), daughter of Eurytus of 
Oechalia, beloved by Hercules. [Hercules.] 
After the death of Hercules, she married his 
son Hyllus. 

ION (-onis), the fabulous ancestor of the 
Ionians, son of Xuthus and Creusa, or of 
Apollo and Creusa, grandson of Helen. Ac- 
cording to some traditions he reigned in Attica. 



IONIA. 



221 



IPHIGENIA. 



IONIA [-sue) and IONIS (-idis) (Roman 
poet.), a district on the W. coast of Asia Minor, 
so called from the Ionian Greeks who colo- 
nised it at a time earlier than any distinct 
historical records. The mythical account of 
" the great Ionic migration" relates that in 
consequence of the disputes between the sons 
of Codrus, king of Athens, about the suc- 
cession to his government, his younger sons, 
Neleus and Androclus, crossed the Aegean 
Sea in search of a new home, 140 years after 
the Trojan war, or b.c. 1044. In the his- 
torical times we find 12 great cities on the 
above-named coast claiming to be of Ionic 
origin, and all united into one confederacy. 
The district they possessed formed a narrow 
strip of coast, extending between, and some- 
what beyond, the mouths of the rivers Meander 
on the S., and Hermus on the N. The names 
of the 12 cities, going from S. to N., were 
Miletus, Myes, Priexe, Samos (city and 
island), Epheses, Colophon, Lebedes, Teos, 
Erythrae, Chios (city and island), Clazo- 
menae, and Phocaea ; the city of Smyrna, 
which lay within this district, but was of 
Aeolic origin, was afterwards (about e.c. 
700) added to the Ionian confederacy. The 
common sanctuary of the league was the 
Panionium, a sanctuary of Poseidon (Nep- 
tune), on the promontory of Mycale, opposite 
to Samos ; and here was held the great 
national assembly of the confederacy, called 
Panionia. At an early period these cities 
attained a high degree of prosperity. They 
were first conquered by Croesus, king of 
Lydia ; a second time by Harpagus, the 
general of Cyrus, b.c. 545 ; and having re- 
volted from the Persians, they were re- 
conquered by the latter, 496. In no country 
inhabited by the Hellenic race, except at 
Athens, were the refinements of civilisation, 
the arts, and literature, more highly culti- 
vated than in Ionia. Out of the long list of the 
authors and artists of Ionia, we may mention 
the poets Mimnermus o! Colophon, and Ana- 
creon of Teos ; the philosophers, Thales of 
Miletus, and Anaxagoras of Clazomenae ; 
the early annalists, Cadmus and Heca- 
taeus of Miletus ; and the painters, Zeuxis, i 
Apelles, and Parrhasius. The important 
place which some of the chief cities of Ionia 
occupy in the early history of Christianity, is 
attested by the Acts of the Apostles, and by the 
epistles of St. Paul to the Ephesians, and of 
St, John to the 7 churches of Asia. 

IONIUM MARE, the sea between Italy 
and Greece S. of the Adriatic, beginning on 
the W. at Hydruntum in Calabria, and on the | 
E. at Oricus in Epirus, or at the Ceraunian 
mountains. In more ancient times the 
Adriatic was called the Ionian Gulf ; while | 



I at a later time the Ionium Mare itself was 
included in the Adriatic. In its widest sig- 
nification the Ionium Mare included the 
Mare Siculum, Creticum, and Icarium. Its 
! name was usually derived by the ancients 
from the wanderings of Io, but it was more 
probably so called from the Ionian colonies, 
which settled in Cephallenia and the other 
j islands off the W. coasts of Greece. 

IOPHON (-ontis), son of Sophocles, by 
I Nicostrate, was a distinguished tragic poet. 
I For the celebrated story of his undutiful 
charge jigainst his father, see Sophocles. 

IPHIAS (-adis), i.e. Evadne, a daughter of 
Iphis, and wife of Capaneus. 

IPHICLES (-is) or IPHICLUS (-i). (1) 
Son of Amphitryon and Alcmene of Thebes, 
was one night younger than his half-brother 
Hercules. He was first married to Auto- 
medusa, the daughter of Alcathous, by whom 
he became the father of Iolaus, and after- 
wards to the youngest daughter of Creon. — 
(2) Son of Phylacus, or Cephalus, one of the 
Argonauts, and celebrated for his swiftness 
in running. 

IPHICRATES, a famous Athenian general, 
son of a shoemaker, introduced into the 
Athenian army the peltastae or targeteers, a 
body of troops possessing, to a certain extent, 
the advantages of heavy and light-armed 
forces. This he effected by substituting a 
small target for the heavy shield, adopting a 
longer sword and spear, and replacing the 
old coat of mail by a linen corslet. At the 
head of his targeteers he defeated and nearly 
destroyed a Spartan Mora, in b.c. 392, an 
exploit which became very celebrated through- 
out Greece. He married the daughter of 
Cotys, king of Thrace, and died shortly before 
348. 

IPHIGENIA (-ae), daughter of Agamem- 
non and Clytaemnestra, according to the 
common tradition ; but daughter of Theseus 
and Helena, according to others. In conse- 
quence of Agamemnon having once killed a 
hart in the grove of Artemis (Diana), the 
goddess in anger produced a calm, which 
prevented the Greek fleet in Aulis from sail- 
ing against Troy. Upon the advice of the 
seer Calchas Agamemnon proceeded to sacri- 
fice Iphigenia, in order to appease the goddess ; 
but Artemis put a hart in her place, and 
carried her to Tauris, where she became the 
priestess of the goddess. Here she afterwards 
saved her brother Orestes, when he was on 
the point of being sacrificed to Artemis, and 
fled with him to Greece, carrying off the 
statue of Artemis. Iphigenia was worshipped 
both in Athens and Sparta ; and it is pro- 
bable that she was originally the same as 
Artemis herself. 



IPHIMEDIA. 



222 



ISIS. 



IPHIMEDIA (-ae), or IPHIMEDE (-es), 
wife of Aloeus, became by Poseidon (Xep- 
tune) the mother of the Aloidae, Otus, and 
Ephialtes. 

IFHIS (-idis). (1) A youth in lore with 
Anaxarete.- [Axaxarete.] — ;2) A Cretan 
girl, was brought up as a boy, and being be- 
trothed to Ianthe, was metamorphosed by 
Isis into a youth. 

IPHITUS (-i). (1) Son of Eurytus of 
Oechalia, one of the Argonauts, afterwards 
killed by Hercules. [Hercules.] — (2) King 
of Elis, who restored the Olympic games, and 
instituted the cessation of all war during their 
celebration, e.c. SSI. 

IPSUS (-i), a small town in Great Phrygia, 
celebrated for the great battle in which 
Antigonus was defeated and slain by Seleucus 
and Lysimachus, b.c. 301. 

IRA (-ae), a mountain fortress in Messenia, 
memorable as the place where Aristomenes 
defended himself for 11 years against the 
Spartans. Its capture by the Spartans in 
B.C. 66S put an end to the 2ndMessenian war. 

IRENE (-es), called PAX (-acis), by the 
Romans, the goddess of peace, was, according 
to Hesiod, a daughter of Zeus and Themis, 
and one of the Horae. [Hoeae.] She was 
worshipped at Athens and Rome ; and in the 
latter city a magnificent temple was built to 
her by the emperor Vespasian. Pax is repre- 
sented on coins as a youthful female, holding 
in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her 
right hand an olive branch or the staff of 
Mercury. 

IRIS (-is or -idis). (1) Daughter of Thaumas 
(whence she is called Thaumantias) and of 




Iris. (From an ancient Vase.) 



Electra, and sister of the Harpies. In the 
Iliad she appears as the messenger of the 
gods ; but in the Odyssey, Hermes (Mercury), 



is the messenger of the gods, and Iris is 
never mentioned. Iris was originally the 
i personification of the rainbow, which was 
I regarded as the swift messenger of the gods. 

In the earlier poets, Iris appears as a virgin 
| goddess ; but in the later, she is the wife of 
Zephyrus, and the mother of Eros (Amor). 
Iris is represented in works of art dressed in 
a long and wide tunic, over which hangs a 
light upper garment, with wings attached to 
her shoulders, carrying the herald's staff in 
her left hand, and sometimes also holding a 
pitcher, — (2) (Teshil-Innak), a considerable 
river of Asia Minor, rising on the N. side of 
the Anti-Taurus, and flowing through Pontus" 
into the Sinus Amisenus in the Euxine. 

IS {Sit), a city in the S. of Mesopotamia, 
S days' journey from Babylon, on the "W. 
bank of the Euphrates, and upon a little 
river of the same name. In its neighbour- 
hood were the springs of asphaltus, from 
which was obtained the bitumen that was 
used, instead of mortar, in the walls of 
Babylon. 

ISAEI7S (-i), one of the 10 Attic orators, 
was born at Chalcis, and came to Athens at 
an early age. He wrote judicial orations for 
: others, and established a rhetorical school at 
I Athens, in which Demosthenes is said to have 
. been his pupil. He lived between e.c. 420 
and 348. Eleven of his orations are extant, 
: all relating to questions of inheritance : they 
I afford considerable information respecting 
' this branch of the Attic law. 

ISARA (-ae : Ise?^}, a river in Gallia Nar- 
bonensis, descending from the Graian Alps, 
and flowing into the Rhone N. of Va- 
lencia. 

ISAURIA (-ae), a district of Asia Minor, 
on the N. side of the Taurus, between Pisidia 
and Cilicia, whose inhabitants, the Isauri, 
were daring robbers. They were defeated by 
the Roman consul, L. Servilius, in b.c. 75, 
i who received in consequence the surname of 
Isauricus. 

ISIOXDA (-ae), a city of Pisidia in Asia 
Minor, near Termessus. 

ISIS (-is, -idis or -idos), one of the chief 
Egyptian divinities, wife of Osiris and mother 
j of Horus. She was originally the goddess 
of the earth, and afterwards of the moon. 
The Greeks identified her both with Demeter 
(Ceres), and with Io. [Io.] Her worship 
was introduced into Rome towards the end 
of the republic, and became very popular 
among the Romans under the empire. The 
most important temple of Isis at Rome stood 
in the Campus Martins, whence she was 
called Isis Campensis. The priests and 
. servants of the goddess wore linen garments, 
whence she -herself is called linigera. 



ISMABUS. 



223 



ITALIA. 



ISMABUS (4) or ISM ABA (-orum), a town 
in Thrace, near Maronea, situated on a 
mountain of the same name, which produced 
excellent wine. It is mentioned in the Odyssey 
as a town of the Cicones. The poets fre- 
quently use the adjective Ismarius as equiva- 
lent to Thracian. 

ISMENE (-es), daughter of Oedipus and 
Jocasta, and sister of Antigone. 

ISMEXUS (-i), a small river in Boeotia, 
rising in Mt. Cithaeron, flowing through 
Thehes, and falling into the lake Hylica. The 
brook Dirce, so celebrated in Theban story, 
flowed into the Ismenus. From this river 
Apollo was called Ismenius. 

ISOCBATES (-is), one of the 10 Attic 
orators, was born at Athens B.C. 436, and 
received a careful education. Among his 
teachers were Gorgias, Prodicus, and Socrates. 
He first taught rhetoric in Chios, and after- 
wards at Athens. At the latter place he met 
with great success, and gradually acquired a 
large fortune by his profession. He had 
100 pupils, every one of whom paid him 
1000 drachmae. He also derived a large 
income from the orations which he wrote for 
others ;. but being naturally timid, and of a 
weakly constitution, he did not come forward 
as a public speaker himself. He was an 
ardent lover of his country ; and, accordingly, 
when the battle of Chaeronea had destroyed 
the last hopes of freedom, he put an end to 
his life, b.c. 338, at the age of 98. He took 
great pains with the composition of his 
orations ; but his style is artificial. Twenty- 
one of his orations, have come down to us : of 
these the most celebrated is the Panegyric 
oration, in which he shows what services 
Athens had rendered to Greece in every 
period of her history. 

ISSA (-ae : Lissa), a small island in the 
Adriatic sea, with a town of the same name, 
off the coast of Dalmatia, said to have derived 
its name from Issa, daughter of Macereus of 
Lesbos, who was beloved by Apollo. The 
island was inhabited by a hardy race of sailors, 
whose barks (lembi Issaei) were much prized. 

ISSEDOXES (-urn), a Scythian tribe, in 
Great Tartary, near the Massagetae, whom 
they resembled in their manners. They are 
represented as extending as far as the borders 
of Serica. 

ISSICUS SINUS. [Isstjs.] 

ISSUS (4), a city in the S. E. extremity 
of Cilicia, near the head of the Issicus Sinus 
[Gulf of Iskejideroon) , and at the X. foot of 
the pass of M. Amanus called the Syrian 
Gates ; memorable for the great battle in 
which Alexander defeated Darius Codomannus 
(b.c. 333), which was fought in a narrow 
valley near the town. 



ISTAEVOXES. [Germania.] 
ISTER. [Daxubius.] 

ISTBIA or HISTBIA (-ae), a peninsula at 
the N. extremity of the Adriatic, separated 
from Yenetia by the river Timavus, and from 
Illyricum by the river Arsia. Its inhabitants, 
the Istri or Histri, were a warlike Illyrian 
race, who carried on several wars with the 
Bomans, till their final subjugation by 
the consul C. Claudius Pulcher, b.c. 177. 
Their chief towns were Tergeste and Poea. 

ISTBOPOLIS (-is), ISTBOS or ISTBIA 
(-ae), a town in Lower Moesia, not far from 
the mouth of the Danube ; a colony from 
Miletus. 

ITALIA and ITALIA (-ae), signified, from 
the time of Augustus, the country S. of the 
Alps, which we call Italy. The name Italia 
was originally used to indicate a much more 
limited extent of country. Most of the 
ancients derived the name from an ancient 
king, Italus ; but there can be no doubt that 
Italia, or Vitalia, as it was also called, was 
the land of the Itali, Vitali, Vitelli, or Vituli, 
an ancient race, who are better known under 
the name of Siculi. This race was widely 
spread over the S. half of the peninsula, and 
may be said to have been bounded on the X. 
by a line drawn from Mt. Garganus on the 
E. to Terracina on the W. The Greeks were 
ignorant of this wide extent of the name. 
According to them Italia was originally only 
the S.-most part of what was afterwards 
called Bruttium, and was bounded on the X. 
by a line drawn from the Lametic to the 
Scylletic gulf. They afterwards extended the 
name to signify the whole country S. of Posi- 
donia on the W. and Tarentum on the E. 
After the Bomans had conquered Tarentum 
and the S. part of the peninsula, about b,c. 272, 
the name Italia had a still further extension 
given to it. It then signified the whole 
country subject to the Bomans, from the 
Sicilian straits as far X. as the Arnus and the 
Bubico. The country X. of these rivers con- 
tinued to be called Gallia Cisalpina and 
Liguria down to the end of the republic. 
Augustus was the first who extended the 
name of Italia, so as to comprehend the 
country from the Maritime Alps to Pola in 
Istria, both inclusive. Besides Italia, the 
country was called by various other names, 
especially by the poets. These were Hes- 
peria, a name which the Greeks gave to it, 
because it lay to the W, of Greece, or Hes- 
peria Magna, to distinguish it from Spain 
[Hesperia], and Satcrnia, because Saturn 
was said to have once reigned in Latium. 
The names of separate parts of Italy were 
also applied by the poets to the whole country. 
Thus it was called Oexotria, originally the 



ITALIA. 



224 



ITHOME. 



land of the Oenotri, in the country after- 
wards called Bruttium and Lucania : Ausonia, 
or Opica, or Opicia, originally the land of 
the Ausones or Ausonii, Opici, or Osci, on 
the W. coast in the country afterwards called 
Campania : Tyrrhexia, properly the land of 
the Tyrrheni, also on the W. coast, N. of 
Ausonia or Opica, and more especially in the 
country afterwards called Etruria : Iapygia, 
properly the land of the lapyges on the E. 
coast, in the country afterwards called 
Calabria : and Ombrica, the land of the 
Urnbri on the E. coast, alongside of Etruria. 
Italy was never inhabited by one single race. 
It contained a great number of different 
races, who had migrated into the country at a 
very early period. The most ancient inhabi- 
tants were Pelasgians or Oenotrians, a branch 
of the same great race who originally inhabited 
Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor. They 
were also called Aborigines and Siculi, who, 
as we have already seen, were the same as 
the Yitali or Itali. At the time when Roman 
history begins, Italy was inhabited by the 
following races. From the mouth of the 
Tiber, between its right bank and the sea, 
dwelt the Etruscans, who extended as far N. 
as the Alps. Alongside of these, between the 
left bank of the Tiber and the Adriatic, dwelt | 
the Umbrians. To the S. of the Etruscans 
were the Sacrani, Casci, or Prisci, Oscan 
tribes, who had been driven out of the moun- 
tains by the Sabines, had overcome the 
Pelasgian tribes of the Siculi, Aborigines, or 
Latins, and, uniting with these conquered 
people, had formed the people called Prisci 
Latini, subsequently simply Latini. S. of 
these again, as far as the river Laus, were 
the Opici, who were also called Ausones or 
Aurunci, and to whom the Volsci, Sidicini, 
Saticuli, and Aequi, also belonged. The S. 
of the peninsula was inhabited by the Oeno- 
trians, who were subsequently driven into 
the interior by the numerous Greek colonies 
founded along the coasts. S. of the Umbrians, 
extending as far as Mt. Garganus, dwelt the 
various Sabellian or Sabine tribes, the Sabines 
proper, the Peligni, Mar si, Marrucini, Yestini, 
and Hernici, from which tribes the warlike 
race of the Samnites subsequently sprung. 
From Mt. Garganus to the S.E. extremity of 
the peninsula, the country was inhabited by 
the Daunians or Apulians, Peucetii, Messapii, 
and Sallentini. An account of these people 
is given in separate articles. They were all 
eventually subdued by the Romans, who 
became the masters of the whole of the pen- 
insula. At the time of Augustus the following 
were the chief divisions of Italy, an account 
of which is also given in separate articles : 
I. Upper Italy, which extended from the 



Alps to the rivers Macra on the W. and 
Rubico on the E. It comprehended, 1. 
Ligl-ria. 2. Gallia Cisalpina. 3. Yenetia, 
including Carnia. 4. Istria. II. Central 
Italy, sometimes called Italia Propria (a 
term not used by the ancients), to distinguish 
it from Gallia Cisalpina or Upper Italy , and 
Magna Graecia or Lower Italy, extended from 
the rivers Macra on the "W. and Rubico on 
the E., to the rivers Silarus on the TV\, and 
Frento on the E. It comprehended, 1. Etru- 
ria. 2. Umbria. 3. Picenum. 4. Samntum, 
including the country of the Sabini, Yestini, 
Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, &c. 5. Lattum, 

6. Campania. III. Lower Italy, or Mags a 
Graecia, included the remaining part of the 
peninsula, S. of the rivers Silarus and Frento. 
It comprehended, 1. Apulia, including Cala- 
bria. 2. Lucania. 3. Bruttiuit. — Augustus 
divided Italy into the following 11 Regiones. 
1. Latium and Campania. 2. The land of 
the Hirpini, Apulia and Calabria. 3. Lucania 
and Bruttium. 4. The land of the Frentani, 
Marrucini, Peligni, Marsi, Yestini, and Sabini, 
together with Samnium. 5. Picenum. 6. 
Umbria and the district of Ariminum, in 
wbat was formerly called Gallia Cisalpina. 

7. Etruria. 8. Gallia Cispadana. 9. Liguria. 
10. The E. part of Gallia Transpadana, 
Yenetia, Carnia, and Istria. 11. The W. part 
of Gallia Transpadana. 

ITALI CA. (1) A town in Hispania Baetica, 
on the W« bank of the Baetis, N.W. of His- 
palis, founded by Scipio Africanus in the 2nd 
Punic war, who settled here some of his 
veterans. It was the birthplace of the em- 
perors Trajan and Hadrian. — (2) The name 
given to Corfinium by the Italian Socii during 
their war with Rome. [Corfinium.] 

ITALICUS, SLLIUS. [Sibils.] 

ITALUS. [Italia.] 

ITZLACA (-ae), a small island in the Ionian 
Sea, off the coast of Epirus, celebrated as the 
birthplace of Ulysses. It is about 12 miles 
long, and 4 in its greatest breadth, and is 
divided into 2 parts, which are connected 
by a narrow isthmus, not more than half a 
mile across. In each of these parts there is a 
mountain ridge of considerable height ; the one 
in the N. called Neritum, and the one in the S. 
Neium. The city of Ithaca, the residence of 
Ulysses, was situated on a precipitous, 
conical hill, now called Aeto, or " eagle's 
cliff," occupying the whole breadth of the 
isthmus mentioned above. Ithaca is now one 
of the 7 Ionian islands under the protection 
of Great Britain. 

ITHOME, (-es), a strong fortress in Mes- 
senia, situated on a mountain of the same 
name, which afterwards formed the citadel 
of the town of Messene. It was taken by the 



ITIUS PORTUS. 



225 



JASON. 



Spartans, b.c. 723, at the end of the second 
Messenian war, and again in 455, at the end 
of the third Messenian war. 

ITIUS PORTUS, a harbour of the Morini, 
on the X. coast of Gaul, from which Caesar 
set sail for Britain, probably Vissant, or 
Witsand, near Calais* 

ITOX. [ItoniaJ 

ITONTA (-ae), ITONIAS (-adis), orlTONIS 
(-idis), a surname of Athena (Minerva), de- 
rived from the town of Iton, in the S. of 
Phthiotis in Thessaly. Here the goddess had 
a celebrated sanctuary, and hence is called 
Incola Itoni. 

ITURAEA, ITYRAEA, a district on the 
N.E. borders of Palestine, inhabited by an 
Arabian people, of warlike and predatory 
habits. Augustus gave Ituraea, which had 
been hitherto ruled by its native princes, to 
the family of Herod. During the ministry of 
our Saviour, it was governed by Philip, the 
brother of Herod Antipas, as tetrarch. 

ITYS. [Teketjs.] 

IULIS (-idis), the chief town in Ceos ; the 
birthplace of Simonides. [Ceos.] 

IULUS. (1) Son of Aeneas, usually called 
Ascanius. [Ascanius.] — (2) Eldest son of 
Ascanius, who claimed the government of 
Latium, but was obliged to give it up to his 
brother Silvius. 

IXION (-onis), king of the Lapithae, son 
of Phlegyas, and the father of Pirithous. He 
treacherously murdered his father-in-law, to 
avoid paying the bridal gifts he had promised, 
and when no one would purify him of this 
treacherous murder, Zeus (Jupiter) carried 
him up to heaven, and there purified him. 
Bat Ixion was ungrateful to the father of 
the- gods, and attempted to win the love of 
Hera (Juno). Zeus thereupon created a 
phantom resembling Hera, and by it Ixion 
became the father of a Centaur. [Centauri.] 
Ixion was fearfully punished for his impious 
ingratitude. His hands and feet were chained 
by Hermes (Mercury) to a wheel, which is 
said tojiave rolled perpetually in the air. 

IXIONIDES (-ae), i.e. Pirithous, the 
son of Ixion. — The Centaurs are also called 
Ixionidae. 



TACCETAXI (-orum), a people in Hispania 

Tarraconensis between the Pyrenees and 
the Iberus. 

J ANA. [Janus.] 

JAXICULUM. [Roma.] 

JANUS (-i) and J AX A (-ae), a pair of 
ancient Latin divinities, who were worshipped 
as the sun and moon. The names Janus and 
Jana are only other forms of Dianus and 



Diana, which words contain the same root as 
dies, day. Janus occupied an important place 
in the Roman religion. He presided over the 
beginning of everything, and was therefore 
always invoked first in every undertaking, 
even before Jupiter. He opened the year and 
the seasons, and hence the first month of the 
year was called after him. He was the porter 
of heaven, and therefore bore the surnames 
Patulous or PatuJcius, the " opener," and 
Clusius or Clusivias, the " shutter." On 
earth also he was the guardian deity of gates, 
and hence is commonly represented with 2 
heads, because every door looks 2 ways 
[Janus Ufrons). He is sometimes represented 
with 4 heads [Janus quadrifrons) , because he 
presided over the 4 seasons. At Rome, 
Xuma is said to have dedicated to Janus 
the covered passage bearing his name, which 
was opened in times of war, and closed 
in times of peace. This passage is com- 
monly, but erroneously, called a temple. 
It stood close by the forum. It appears to 
have been left open in war, to indicate sym- 
bolically that the god had gone out to assist 
the Roman warriors, and to have been shut 
in time of peace that the god, the safeguard 
of the city, might not escape. On new year's 
day, which was the principal festival of the 
god, people gave presents to one another, 
consisting of sweetmeats and copper coins, 
showing on one side the double head of Janus 
and on the other a ship. The general name 
for these presents was strenae* 




Jauus. (From a Coin of Sex. Pompeius, in the 
British Museum.) 

JASON (-onis). (1) Son of Aeson and the 
celebrated leader of the Argonauts. His 
father Aeson, who reigned at Iolcus in Thes- 
saly, was deprived of the kingdom by his 
half-brother Pelias, who attempted to take 
the life of the infant Jason. He was saved 
by his friends, and intrusted to the care of 
the centaur Chiron. ^Yhen he had grown up 
he came to Iolcus, and demanded the kingdom 
which Pelias promised to surrender to him, 
provided he brought the golden fleece, which 



JAXARTES. 



226 



JORDANES. 



was in the possession of king Aeetes in Colchis, 
and was guarded by an ever- watchful dragon. 
Jason willingly undertook the enterprise, and 
set sail in the ship Argo, accompanied by the 
chief heroes of Greece. He obtained the 
fleece with the assistance of Medea, whom he 
made his wife, and along with whom he 
returned to Iolcus. The history of his ex- 
ploits on this enterprise is related elsewhere. 
[ Argonaut ae. ] In order to avenge the death 
of his father, who had been slain by Pelias 
during his absence, Medea, at the instigation 
of Jason, persuaded the daughters of Pelias to 
cut their father to pieces and boil him, in 
order to restore him to youth and vigour, as 
she had before changed a ram into a lamb, by 
boiling the body in a cauldron. Pelias thus 
perished miserably ; and his son Acastus ex- 
pelled Jason and Medea from Iolcus. They then 
went to Corinth, where they lived happily for 
several years, until Jason deserted Medea, in 
order to marry Glauce or Creusa, daughter of 
Creon, the king of the country. Medea fear- 
fully revenged this insult. She sent Glauce 
a poisoned garment, which burnt her to 
death when she put it on. Creon likewise 
perished in the flames. Medea also killed 
her children by Jason, and then fled to 
Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 
The death of Jason is related variously. 
According to some, he made away with him- 
self from grief ; according to others, he was 
crushed by the poop of the ship Argo, which 
fell upon him as he was lying under it.- — (2) 
Tyrant of Pherae, was elected Tagus or gene- 
ralissimo of Thessaly, b.c. 374. He possessed 
great power, and aspired to the sovereignty of 
Greece, but he was assassinated in 370. 

JAXARTES (-is : Syr or Syhoun), a great 
river of Central Asia, flowing N.W. into the 
Sea of Aral : the ancients supposed it to fall 
into the N. side of the Caspian, not distin- 
guishing between the 2 seas. It divided 
Sogdiana from Scythia. On its banks dwelt 
a Scythian tribe called Jaxartae. 

JERICHO or HIERICHUS, a city of the 
Canaanites, in a plain on the W. side of the 
Jordan near its mouth, destroyed by Joshua, 
but afterwards rebuilt. 

JERUSALEM or HIERO SOLYM A (-orum), 
the capital of Palestine, in Asia. It was 
originally the chief city of the Jebusites, a 
Canaanitish tribe, but was taken by David 
in b.c. 1050, and was made by him the capital 
of the kingdom of Israel. After the division of 
the kingdom, under Rehoboam, it remained 
the capital of the kingdom of Judah, until it 
was entirely destroyed, and its inhabitants 
were carried into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar, 
king of Babylon, b.c 588. In 536, the Jewish 
exiles, having been permitted by Cyrus to 



return, began to rebuild the city and temple ; 
and the work was completed in about 24 
years. After the death of Alexander the 
Great, Jerusalem was subject first to the 
Greek kings of Egypt, and afterwards to the 
Greek kings of Syria ; but in consequence 
of the attempts made by Antiochus IV. 
Epiphanes, to root out the national religion, 
the Jews rose in rebellion under the Maccabees, 
and eventually succeeded in establishing their 
independence. Jerusalem now became the 
capital of a separate kingdom, governed by 
the Maccabees. Respecting the history of 
this kingdom see Palaestina. In a.d. 70, the 
rebellion of the Jews against the Romans was 
put down, and Jerusalem was taken by Titus, 
after a siege of several months, and was razed 
to the ground. In consequence of a new 
revolt of the Jews, the emperor Hadrian 
resolved to destroy all vestiges of their 
national and religious peculiarities ; and, as 
one means to this end, he established a new 
Roman colony, on the ground where Jeru- 
salem had stood, by the name of Aelia 
Capitolina, and built a temple of Jupiter 
Capitolinus, on the site of the temple of Je- 
hovah, a.d. 135. The establishment of Chris- 
tianity as the religion of the Roman empire 
restored to Jerusalem its sacred character. 
Jerusalem stands due W. of the head of the 
Dead Sea, at the distance of about 20 miles 
(in a straight line) and about 35 miles from 
the Mediterranean, on an elevated platform, 
divided, by a series of valleys, from hills 
which surround it on every side. This plat- 
form, has a general slope from W. to E., its 
highest point being the summit of Mt. Zion, 
in the S.W. corner of the city, on which stood 
the original " city of David." The S.E, part 
of the platform is occupied by the hill called 
Moriah, on which the temple stood, and the 
E. part by the hill called Acra ; but these two 
summits are now hardly distinguishable from 
the general surface of the platform, probably 
on account of the gradual filling up of the 
valleys between. The height of Mt. Zion is 
2535 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, 
and about 300 feet above the valley below. 

JOCASTE (-es) or JOCASTA (-ae), called 
EPICASTE (-es), in Homer, wife of Laius, 
and mother of Oedipus. [Oedipus.] 

JOPPE (-es), JOPPA (-ae : O. T. Japho : 
Jaffa), an ancient maritime city of Palestine, 
lying S. of the boundary between Judaea and 
Samaria._ 

JORDAXES (-is : Jordan), a river of 
Palestine, rising at the S. foot of Mt. Hermon 
(the S.-most part of Anti-Libanus) , flowing 
S. into the Sea of Galilee (Lake of Tiberias), 
and thence into the lake Asphaltites (Dead 
Sea), where it is finally lost. 



JOSEPHUS FLAVIUS. 



227 



JULIA. 



JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (-i), the Jewish Hiempsal and Adherbal. Jugurtha was 
historian, born at Jerusalem, a.d. 37, was a brave, able, and ambitious prince. He 
one of the generals of the Jews in their distinguished himself greatly while serving 
revolt against the Romans. He was taken under Scipio against >~uniantia, in b.c. 134. 
prisoner by Vespasian, who spared his life Micipsa, on his death in 118, bequeathed his 
through the intercession of Titus. Josephus kingdom to Jugurtha and his 2 sons, Hiemp- 
thereupon assumed the character of a prophet, sal and Adherbal, in common. Jugurtha 
and predicted to Vespasian that the empire aspired to the sole sovereignty. He assassi- 
should one day be his and his son's. Josephus nated Hiempsal soon after his father's death, 
was present with Titus at the siege of Jeru- and a division of the kingdom between 
salem, and afterwards accompanied him to Jugurtha and Adherbal was then made by 
Home. He received the freedom of the city the Roman senate ; but shortly afterwards 
from Vespasian, and was treated with great Jugurtha attacked Adherbal, took him pri- 
favour by this emperor, and by his successors, soner, and put him to death '112 . The 
Titus and Domitian. He assumed the name Romans had previously commanded him to 
of Flavius, as a dependent of the Flavian '. abstain from hostilities against Adherbal ; 
family, and died about a.d. 100. — The works and as he had paid no attention to their com- 
of Josephus are written in Greek. The most mands, they now declared war against him. 
important, entitled Jewish Antiquities, in 20 The consul. L. Calpurnius Bestia, was sent 
books, gives an account of Jewish History j into Africa (111] ; but by large sums of 
from the creation of the world to a.d. 66, i money, Jugurtha purchased from him a 
the commencement of the Jewish revolt. An favourable peace. But this disgraceful pro- 
account of this revolt is given by him in his ceeding excited the greatest indignation at 
History of the Jewish War, in 7 books. In Rome. The peace was disowned ; and the 
the former of these works lie seeks to ac- war renewed under the command of the 
commodate the Jewish religion to heathen 1 consul, Sp. Postumius Albinus ; but during 
tastes and prejudices. ^ the absence of the consul, his brother Aulus 

JOVLlXUS, FLAVIUS CLAUDIUS (-i), was defeated by Jugurtha (110). Next year 
elected emperor by the soldiers, in June, a.d. [10£T the consul, Q. Caecilius Metellus, was 
363, after the death of Julian [JrxiA>-Ts], I sent into Africa at the head of a new army, 
whom he had accompanied in his campaign ! In the course of 2 years Metellus frequently 
against the Persians. He made peace with defeated Jugurtha, and at length drove him 
the Persians, and died in 364, after a reign to take refuge among the Gaetulians, In 
of little more than 7 months. Jovian was a 107 Metelius was succeeded in the command 
Christian ; but he protected the heathens. | by Marius. The cause of Jugurtha was now 

JUBA (-ae). (1) King of Numidia, and I supported by his father-in-law Bocchus, 
son of Hiempsal, joined Pompey's party, and ! king of Mauretania ; but Marius defeated 
gained a victory over Curio, Caesar's legate, j their united forces, and Bocchus purchased 
b.c. 49. He afterwards fought along with i the forgiveness of the Romans by surrender- 
Scipio against Caesar ; and after the battle of ■ ing his son-in-law to Sulla, the quaestor of 
Thapsus (46) he put an end to his own life. I Marius (106). Jugurtha was carried a 
— (2) Son of the preceding, was a child at ! prisoner to Rome, and after adorning the 
the time of his father's death, and was | triumph of Marius Man. 1,104), was thrown 
carried by Caesar to Rome, where he received ! into a dungeon, and there starved to death, 
an excellent education. He became one of j JULIA ^-ae . (1) Aunt of Caesar the 
the most learned men of his day, and wrote | dictator, and wife of C. Marius the elder. — 
numerous works on historical and other (2) Mother of M. Antonius, the triumvir, 
subjects. In e.c. 30, Augustus reinstated — ,3; Sister of Caesar the dictator, and wife 
him in his paternal kingdom of Xumidia, and of M. Atius Balbus, by whom she had Atia, 
gave him in marriage Cleopatra, otherwise the mother of Augustus. [Atia], — . (4) 
called Selene, the daughter of Antony and ; Daughter of Caesar the Dictator, by Corne- 
Cleopatra. Five years afterwards (25), I lia, was married to Cn. Pompey in 59, and 
Augustus gave him Mauretania in exchange j died in childbed in 54.- — (5] Daughter of 
for Xumidia, which was reduced to a \ Augustus, by Scribonia, and his only child, 
Roman province. He died in Mauretania, i born in 39, and thrice married. 1. To 
about a.d. 19. M. Marcellus, her first cousin, in 25. 2. 

JUDAEA, JUDAEI. "Palaestra. ~ j After his death (23), without issue, to 

JUGURTHA (-ae), an illegitimate son of M. Agrippa, by whom she had 3 sons, C. and 
Mastanabal, and a grandson of Masinissa. L. Caesar, and Agrippa Postumus, and 2 
He lost his father at an early age, but was i daughters, Julia and Agrippina. 3. After 
brought up by Micipsa, with his own sons, I Agrippa's death, in 12, to Tiberius Nero, the 

Q 2 



JULIA GENS. 



228 



JUPITER. 



future emperor. In consequence of her 
adulteries, Augustus banished her to Panda- 
taria, an island off the coast of Campania, 
b.c. 2. She was afterwards removed to 
Ehegium. She died in a.d. 14, soon after 
the accession of Tiberius. — (6) Daughter of 
the preceding, and wife of L. Aemilius 
Paulus. She inherited her mother's licen- 
tiousness, and was, in consequence, banished 
by her grandfather Augustus to the little 
island Tremerus, on the coast of Apulia, 
a.d. 9. She died a.d. 28. — (7) Youngest 
child of Germanicus and Agrippina, put to 
death by Claudius, at Messalina's instigation. 
— (8) Daughter of Drusus and Livia, the 
sister of Germanicus, also put to death by 
Claudius, at the instigation of Messalina, 59. 

JULIA GENS, one of the most ancient 
patrician houses at Ronie, was of Alban 
origin, and was removed' to Rome by Tullus 
Hostilius, upon the destruction of Alba 
Longa. It claimed descent from the mythical 
lulus, the son of Venus and Anchises. The 
most distinguished family in the gens is that 
of Caesar. 

JULIANUS, FLAVTUS CLAUDIUS, 
usually called JULIAN, and surnamed the 
APOSTATE, Roman emperor, a.d. 361—363. 
He was born at Constantinople, a.d. 331, and 
was the son of Julius Constantius, and the 
nephew of Constantine the Great. Julian and 
his elder brother, Gallus, were the only 
members of the imperial family whose lives 
were spared by the sons of Constantine the 
Great, on the death of the latter in 337. 
The 2 brothers were educated with care, and 
were brought up in the principles of the 
Christian religion. Julian abandoned Christi- 
anity in his heart at an early period ; but 
fear of the emperor Constantius prevented 
him from making an open declaration of his 
apostacy. He devoted himself with ardour 
to the study of Greek literature and philo- 
sophy ; and among his fellow-students at 
Athens were Gregory of Nazianzus and Basil, 
both of whom afterwards became so cele- 
brated in the Christian church. Julian did not 
remain long at Athens. Having been sent 
by Constantius into Gaul to oppose the 
Germans, he carried on war against the latter 
for 5 years (356 — 360) with great success. 
In 360 he was proclaimed emperor by his 
soldiers in Paris ; and the opportune death 
of Constantius in the following year, left him 
the undisputed master of the empire. He 
now publicly avowed himself a pagan. His 
brief reign was chiefly occupied by his 
military preparations against the Persians. 
In 363 he crossed the Tigris, and marched 
into the interior of the country in search of 
the Persian king; but he was obliged to 



retreat in consequence of the sufferings of 
his army from want of water and provisions. 
In his retreat he was attacked by the Per- 
sians, and slain in battle. He was succeeded 
by Jovian, [Jovianus.] Julian wrote a large 
number of works, many of which are extant. 
His style is remarkably pure, and is a close 
imitation of the style of the classical Greek 
writers. 

JULIUS CAESAR. [Caesar.] 

JUNIA GENS, an ancient patrician house 
at Rome, to which belonged the celebrated 
M. Junius Brutus, who took such an active 
part in expelling the Tarquins. But after- 
wards the gens appears as only a plebeian 
one. The chief families were those of Brutus 
and Silanus, 

JUNO (-onis), called HERA by the Greeks. 
The Greek goddess is spoken of in a separate 
article. [Hera.] The word Ju-no contains 
the same root as Ju-piter. As Jupiter is the 
king of heaven and of the gods, so Juno is 
the queen of heaven, or the female Jupiter. 
She was worshipped at Rome as the queen of 
heaven, from early times, with the surname 
of Begina. As Jupiter was the protector of 
the male sex, so Juno watched over the 
female sex. She was supposed to accompany 
every woman through life, from the moment 
of her birth to her death. Hence she bore 
the special surnames of Virginalis and 
Matrona, as well as the general ones of 
Opigena and Sospita ; and under the last 
mentioned name she was worshipped at 
Lanuvium. On their birthday women offered 
sacrifices to Juno, surnamed JVatalis; but the 
great festival, celebrated by all the women in 
honour of Juno, was called Matronalia, and 
took place on the 1st of March. From her 
presiding over the marriage of women, she 
was called Juga or Jugalis, and had a variety 
of other names, such as Promiba, Cinxia, 
, Lucina, &c. The month of June, which is 
said to have been originally called Junonius, 
I was considered to be the most favourable 
period for marrying. Women in childbed 
invoked Juno Lucina to help them, and 
newly-born children were likewise under her 
protection : hence she was sometimes con- 
founded with the Greek Artemis or Ilithyia. 
Juno was further, like Saturn, the guardian 
of the finances, and under the name of 
Moneta, she had a temple on the Capitoline 
hill, which contained the mint. 

JUPITER (Jovis) called ZEUS by the 
Greeks. The Greek god is spoken of in a 
separate article. [Zeus.] The Roman Ju- 
piter was originally an elemental divinity, 
and his name signifies the father or lord of 
heaven, being a contraction of Diovis pater, 
or Diespiter. Being the lord of heaven, he 



JURA. 



229 



JUVENALIS. 



was worshipped as the god of rain, storms, 
thunder, and lightning, whence he had the 
epithets of Pluvius, Fulgurator, Tonitrualis, 
Tonans, and Fulminator. He was the highest 
and most powerful among the gods, and was 
hence called the Best and Most High [Opti- 
mus Maximus). His temple at Rome stood 
on the lofty hill of the Capitol, whence he 
derived the surnames of Capitolinus and 
Tarpeius. He was regarded as the special 
protector of Rome. As such he was wor- 
shipped by the consuls on entering upon 
their office ; and the triumph of a victorious 
general was a solemn procession to his 
temple. He therefore bore the surnames of 
Imperator, Victor, Invictus, Stator, Opitulus, 
Feretrius, Praedator, Triumphator, and the 
like. Under all these surnames he had 
temples or statues at Rome. Under the name 
of Jupiter Capitolinus, he presided over the 
great Roman games ; and under the name of 
Jupiter Latialis or Latiaris, over the Feriae 
Latinae. Jupiter, according to the belief of 
the Romans, ^determined the course of all 
human affairs. He foresaw the future ; and 
the events happening in it were the results 
of his will. He revealed the future to man 
through signs in the heavens and the flight of 
birds, which are hence called the messengers 
of Jupiter, while the god himself is desig- 
nated as Prodigialis, that is, the sender of 
prodigies. For the same reason the god was 
invoked at the beginning of every under- 
taking, whether sacred or profane, together 
with Janus, who blessed the beginning itself. 
Jupiter was further regarded as the guardian 
of law, and as the protector of justice and 
virtue. He maintained the sanctity of an 
oath, and presided over all transactions 
which were based upon faithfulness and 
justice. Hence Fides was his companion on 
the Capitol, along with Victoria ; and hence 
a traitor to his country, and persons guilty 
of perjury, were thrown down from the Tar- 
peian rock. — As Jupiter was the lord of hea- 
ven, and consequently the prince of light, the 
white colour was sacred to him, white ani- 
mals were sacrificed to him, his chariot was 
believed to be drawn by 4 white horses, his 
priests wore white caps, and the consuls were 
attired in white when they offered sacrifices 
in the Capitol the day they entered on their 
office. The worship of Jupiter at Rome was 
under the special care of the Flamen Bialis, 
who was the highest in rank of all the 
fiamens. 

JURA or JURASSUS MONS, a range of 
mountains running N. of the lake Lemanus 
as far as Augusta Rauracorum (August, near 
Basle), on the Rhine, forming the boundary 
between the Sequani and Helvetii. 



JUSTINIANUS (-i), surnamed The Great, 
emperor of Constantinople, a.d. 527 — 565, 
requires notice in this work on account only 
of his legislation. He appointed a commis- 
sion of jurists to draw up a complete body of 
law. They executed their task by compiling 
two great works, — one called Bigesta or Pan- 
dectae, in 50 books, being a collection of all 
that was valuable in the works of preceding 
jurists ; and the other called the Justinianeus 
Codex, being a collection of the imperial con- 
stitutions. To these two works was subse- 
quently added an elementary treatise, in 4 
books, under the title of Institutiones, Jus- 
tinian subsequently published various new 
constitutiones, to which he gave the name of 
Novellae Constitutiones. The 4 legislative 
works of Justinian, the Institutiones, Digesta 
or Fandectae, Codex, and Novellae, are in- 
cluded under the general name of Corpus 
Juris Civilis, and form the Roman law, as re- 
ceived in Europe. 

JUSTINUS (-i), the historian, of uncertain 
date, is the author of an extant work entitled 
Historiarum Philippicarum Lihri XLIV. This 
work is taken from the Uistoriae Pliilippicae 
of Trogus Pompeius, who lived in the time 
of Augustus. The title Philippicae was given 
to it, because its main object was to give the 
history of the Macedonian monarchy, with all 
its branches ; but in the execution of this 
design, Trogus permitted himself to indulge 
in so many excursions, that the work formed 
a kind of universal history from the rise of 
the Assyrian monarchy to the conquest of the 
East by Rome. The original work of Trogus, 
which was one of great value, is lost. The 
work of Justin is not so much an abridgment 
of that of Trogus, as a selection of such parts 
as seemed to him most worthy of being gene- 
rally known. 

JUTURNA (-ae), the nymph of a fountain 
in Latium, famous for its healing qualities, 
whose water was used in most sacrifices. A 
pond in the forum, between the temples of 
Castor and Yesta, was called Lacus Juturnae. 
The nymph is said to have been beloved by 
Jupiter, who rewarded her with immortality 
and dominion over the waters. Virgil calls 
her the sister of Turnus. 

JUVENALIS (-is),DECIMUS JUNIUS (-i), 
the great Roman satirist, but of whose life we 
have few authentic particulars. His ancient 
biographers relate that he was either the son 
or the "alumnus" of a rich freedman ; that 
he occupied himself, until he had nearly 
reached the term of middle life, in declaim- 
ing ; that, having subsequently composed 
some clever lines upon Paris the pantomime, 
he was induced to cultivate assiduously sati- 
rical composition ; and that in consequence 



JETEXTAS. 



230 



LACOXICA. 



of Ms attacks upon Paris becoming known to 
the court, the poet, although now an old man 
of 80, was appointed to the command of a 
body of troops, in a remote district of Egypt, 
where he died shortly afterwards. But the 
only facts with regard to Juvenal upon which 
we can implicitly rely are, that he flourished 
owards the close of the first century, that 
Aquinum, if not the place of his nativity, 
was at least his chosen residence, and that he 
is in all probability the friend whom Martial 
addresses in 3 epigrams. Each of his satires 
is a finished rhetorical essay, energetic, glow- 
ing, and sonorous. He denounces vice in the 
most indignant terms ; but the obvious tone 
of exaggeration which pervades all his in- 
vectives leaves us in doubt how far this sus- 
tained passion is real, and how far assumed for 
show. The extant works of Juvenal consist of 
16 satires, all composed in heroic hexameters. 
JUYEXTAS. [Hebe.] 



T ABDACIDAE. [Labdacus.] 

LABDACUS (-i), son of the Theban king, 
Polydorus, by Nycteis, daughter of Xycteus. 
Labdacus lost his father at an early age, and 
was placed under the guardianship of 
Xycteus, and afterwaids under that of Lycus, 
a brother of Xycteus. Yvhen Labdacus had 
grown up to manhood, Lycus surrendered 
the government to him ; and on the death of 
Labdacus, which occurred soon after, Lycus 
undertook the guardianship of his son Laius, 
the father of Oedipus. The name Labdacxdae 
is frequently given to the descendants of 
Labdacus — Oedipus, Polynices, Eteocles, and 
Antigone. 

LABDALTJM. [Svhacvsae.] 

LABEATES (-urn), a warlike people in 
Dahnatia, whose chief town was Scodra, and 
in whose territory was the Labeatis Palus 
(Lake of Scutari), through which the river 
Barbana runs. 

LABEO (-onis), ANTISTIUS (4). (1) A 
PvOinan jurist, one of the murderers of Julius 
Caesar, put an end to his life after the battle 
of Philippi, b.c. 42. — (2) Son of the preced- 
ing, and a still more eminent jurist. He 
adopted the republican opinions of his father, 
and was in consequence disliked by Augustus. 
It is probable that the Labeone insanior of 
Horace was a stroke levelled against the 
jurist, in order to please the emperor. Labeo 
wrote a large number of works, which are 
cited in the Digest. He was the founder of 
one of the 2 great legal schools, spoken of 
under Capito. 

LABEBIUS, DECMES (-i), a Roman 
eques, and a distinguished writer of mimes, 



was born about b.c. 107, and died in 43 at 
Puteoli, in Campania. He was compelled by 
Caesar to appear on the stage in 45 in order 
to contend with Syrus, a professional mimus, 
although the profession of a mimus was in- 
famous ; but he took his revenge by pointing 
his wit_at Caesar. 

LABICI or LAYICI (-orum : Colonna), an 
ancient town in Latium,on a hill of the Alban 
mountain, 15 miles S.E. of Borne, W. of 
Praeneste, and X.E. of Tusculum. It was 
taken by the Bomans, b.c. 418. 

LABIEXUS (-i). (1) T., tribune of the 
plebs b.c. 63, was a friend and partisan of 
Caesar, and his chief legatus in his wars 
against the Gauls ; but on the breaking out 
of the civil war in b.c. 49, he went over to 
Pompey. He was slain at the battle of 
Munda, in Spain, 45. — (2) Q,., son of the pre- 
ceding, invaded Syria at the head of a Par- 
thian army in 40 ; but the Parthians having 
been defeated in the following year by P. 
Yentidius, Antony's legate, he fled into Cilieia, 
where he was apprehended, and put to death. 

LABBAXDA (-orum), a town in Caria, 68 
stadia X. of Mylasa, celebrated for its temple 
of Zeus (Jupiter). 

LABBO (-onis), a sea-port in Etruria, 
perhaps the same as the modern Livorno or 
Leghorn. 

LABYXETUS (-i), a name common to 
several of the Babylonian monarchs, seems 
to have been a title rather than a proper 
name. The Labynetus, mentioned by He- 
rodotus as mediating a peace between Cyaxares 
and Alyattes, is the same with Xebuchad- 
nezzar. The Labynetus, mentioned by He- 
rodotus as a contemporary of Cyrus and 
Croesus, is the same with the Belshazzar of 
the prophet Daniel. By other writers he is 
called Xabonadius or Xabonidus. He was 
the last king ofJBabylon. 

LACED AEYTOX. * [Sparta.] 

LACETAXI (-orum), a people in Hispania 
Tarraconensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. 

LACHESIS (-is), one of the Bates. 
[Moepae.]^ 

LACINITJM (-i), a promontory on the 
coast of Bruttium, a few miles S. of Croton, 
and forming the Yv. boundary of the Taren- 
tine gulf. It possessed a celebrated temple 
of Juno, who was worshipped here under the 
surname of Lacinia. The ruins of this tem- 
ple have given the modern name to the pro- 
montory, Capo delle Colonne. 

LACMOX (-onis) or LACMUS (-i), the X. 
part of Mt. Pindus, in which the river Aous 
takes its origin. 

LACOXICA (-ae), sometimes called LACO- 
NIA (-ae) by the Bomans, a country of Pelo- 
ponnesus, bounded on the X. by Argolis and 



LACQNICUS SINUS. 



231 



LAENAS. 



Arcadia, on the "W. by Messenia, and on the 
E. and S. by the sea. Laconica was a long 
valley running S— wards to the sea, and in- 
closed by mountains on every side except 
the S. This valley is drained by the 
river Eurotas, which falls into the Laconian 
gulf. In the upper part the valley is narrow, 
and near Sparta the mountains approach so 
close to each other as to leave little more 
than room for the channel of the river. It is 
for this reason that we find the vale of Sparta 
called the hollow Lacedaemon. Below Sparta 
the mountains recede, and the valley opens 
out into a plain of considerable extent. The 
soil of this plain is poor, but on the slopes of 
the mountains there is land of considerable 
fertility. Off the coast shell-fish were caught, 
which produced a purple dye inferior only to 
the Tyrian. Laconica is well described by 
Euripides as difficult of access to an enemy. 
On the N. the country could only be invaded 
by the valleys of the Eurotas and the Oenus ; 
the range of Taygetus formed an almost in- 
superable barrier on the W. ; and the want 
of good harbours on the E. coast protected it 
from invasion by sea on that side. Sparta 
was the only town of importance in the coun- 
try. [Sparta.] — The most ancient inhabitants 
of the country are said to have been Cynu- 
rians and Leleges. They were expelled or 
conquered by the Achaeans, who were the 
inhabitants of the country in the heroic age. 
The Dorians afterwards invaded Peloponnesus 
and became the ruling race in Laconica. 
Some of the old Achaean inhabitants were re- 
duced to slavery ; but a great number of them 
became subjects of the Dorians under the 
name of Perioeci. The general name for the 
inhabitants is Lacoxes or Lacedaemoxii ; but 
the Perioeci are frequently called Lacedae- 
monii, to distinguish them from the Spartans. 

LACOXICUS SIXES, a gulf in the S. of 
Peloponnesus, into which the Eurotas falls. 

LACYDES (-is), a native of Cyrene, suc- 
ceeded Arcesilaus as president of the Academy 
at Athens, and died about 215. 

LADE (-es), an island off the "W. coast of 
Caria, opposite to Miletus, and to the bay 
into which the Maeander falls. 

LAD AS, a swift runner of Alexander the 
Great. 

LAD OX (-onis). (1) The dragon who 
guarded the apples of the Hesperides, was 
slain by Hercules. [Hercules.] — (2) A 
river in Arcadia, rising near Clitor, and 
falling into the Alpheus, between Heraea and 
Phrixa. In mythology Ladon is the husband 
of Stymphalis, and father of Daphne and 
Metope. — (3) A small river in Elis, rising on 
the frontiers of Achaia, and falling into the 
Peneus. 



LAEETAXI (-orum), a people on the E. 
coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, near the 
mouth of the river Rubricatus, probably the 
same as the Laletaxi, whose country, Lale- 
taxia, produced good wine, and whose chief 
town was Barcino. 

LAELAPS (-apis), i.e., the storm wind, per- 
sonified as the swift dog, which Procris had 
received from Artemis (Diana), and gave to 
her husband Cephalus. When the Teumessian 
fox was sent to punish the Thebans, Cephalus 
sent the dog Laelaps against the fox. The 
dog overtook the fox, but Zeus (Jupiter) 
changed both animals into a stone, which 
was shown in the neighbourhood of Thebes. 

LAELIUS, C. (-i). (1) The friend of 
Scipio Africanus, the elder, who fought 
under the latter in almost all his campaigns. 
He was consul b.c. 190. — (2) Surnamed 
Sapiexs, son of the preceding. His intimacy 
with Scipio Africanus the younger was as 
remarkable as his father's friendship with the 
elder, and it obtained an imperishable monu- 
ment in Cicero's treatise, Laelius she de Ami- 
citia. He was born about 186 ; was tribune of 
the plebs 151 ; praetor 145 ; and consul 140. 
He was celebrated for his love of literature 
and philosophy, and cultivated the society 
and friendship of the philosopher Panaetius, 
of the historian Polybius, and of the poets 
Terence and Lucilius. Laelius is the prin- 
cipal interlocutor in Cicero's dialogue, Be 
Amicitia, and is one of the speakers in the 
Be Senectute, and in the Be Pepublica. His 
two daughters were married, the one to 
I Q. Mucius Scaevola, the augur ; the other to 
C. Fannius Strabo. 

LAEXAS (-atis), the name of a family of 
! the Popilia gens, noted for its sternness, 
cruelty, and haughtiness of character. The 
chief members of the family were : — (1) C. 
Popilies Laexas, consul b.c 172, and after- 
wards ambassador to Antiochus, Eing of 
Syria, whom the senate wished to abstain 
from hostilities against Egypt. Antiochus 
was just marching upon Alexandria, when 
Popilius gave him the letter of the senate, 
which the king read, and promised to take 
into consideration with his friends. Popilius 
straightway described with his cane a circle 
in the sand round the king, and ordered him 
not to stir out of it before he had given a 
decisive answer. This boldness so frightened 
Antiochus, that he at once yielded to the 
demand of Borne. — (2) P. Pofilies Laexas, 
consul 132, the year after the murder of Tib. 
Gracchus. He was charged by the victorious 
aristocratical party with the prosecution of 
the accomplices of Gracchus ; and in this 
odious task he showed all the hard-hearted- 
ness of his family. He subsequently withdrew 



LAERTES, 



232 



LAOCOON. 



himself, by voluntary exile, from the veil- j 
geance of C. Gracchus, and did not return to 
Home till after his death. 

LAERTES (-ae), king of Ithaca, son of 
Acrisius, husband of Antielea, and father of | 
Ulysses — who is hence called Laertiades. 
Some writers call Ulysses the son of Sisyphus. 
[Axticlea.] Laertes took part in the Caly- 
donian hunt, and in the expedition of the 
Argonauts. He was still alive when Ulysses 
returned to Ithaca, after the fall of Troy, 
LAERTIUS, DIOGENES. [Diogenes.] 
LAESTRYGOXES (-urn), a savage race of 
cannibals, whom Ulysses encountered in his 
wanderings. They were governed by Anti- 
phates and Lames. They belong to my- 
thology rather than to history. The Greeks j 
placed them on the E. coast of Sicily, in the 
plains of Leontini, which are therefore called 
Zaestrygonii Campi. The Roman poets, who 
regarded the prom. Circeium as the Homeric j 
island of Circe, transplanted the Laestrygones 
to the S. coast of Latium, in the neighbour- j 
hood of Eormiae, which they supposed to 
have been built by Lamus, the king of this 
people. Hence Horace speaks of Laestry- 
gonia Bacchus in amphora, that is, Formian 
wine; and Ovid calls Eormiae, Laestrygonis 
Lami 

LAEYI or LEVI (-oruni), a Ligurian 
people, in Gallia Transpadana, on the river 
Ticinus, who, in conjunction with the 
Mariei, built the town of Ticinum {Pa via). 

LAEYIXUS, VALERIUS (-L). (1) P., 
consul b.c. 2S0, defeated by Pyrrhus on the 
banks of the Siris. — (2) M., praetor 215, 
when he carried on war against Philip, in 
Greece; and consul 210, when he carried on 
the war in Sicily, and took Agrigentum. 

LAGUS. [Ptolemaees.] 

LAIS (-idis), the name of 2 celebrated 
Grecian courtezans. (1) The elder, a native 
probably of Corinth, lived in the time of the 
Peloponnesian war, and was celebrated as 
the most beautiful woman of her age. — (2) 
The younger, daughter of Timandra, probably 
born at Hyccara, in Sicily. According to 
some accounts she was brought to Corinth 
when 7 years old, having been taken prisoner 
in the Athenian expedition to Sicily, and 
bought by a Corinthian. This story, how- 
ever, involves numerous difficulties, and 
seems to have arisen from a confusion 
between this Lais and the elder one of the 
same name. 

LAIUS (-i), king of Thebes, son of Labda- 
cus, husband of Jocasta, and father of 
Oedipus, by whom he was slain. [Oedipes.] 

LALAGE (-es), a common name of courte- 
zans, from the Greek Kakuyii, prattling, used 
as a term of endearment, "little prattler." 



LALETANI. [Laeetaxi.] 
LAMACHUS (-i), an Athenian, the col- 
league of Alcibiades and Nieias, in the great 
Sicilian expedition, b.c 415. He fell under 
the walls of- Syracuse, in a sally of the 
besieged. 

LAMIA (-ae), a female phantom. [Empesa.] 
LAMIA (-ae), AELIUS (-i), a Roman 
| family, which claimed descent from the 
j mythical hero, Lamus. L. Aelies Lamia, 
the friend of Horace, was consul a.d. 3, and 
the son of the Lamia, who supported Cicero 
in the suppression of the Catilinarian con- 
spiracy. 

LAMIA (-ae), a town in Phthiotis, in 
Thessaly, situated on the small river Ache- 
lous, 50 stadia inland from the Maliac gulf. 
It has given its name to the war, which was 
carried on by the confederate Greeks against 
Antipater, after the death of Alexander, b.c 
323. When Antipater was defeated by the 
confederates under the command of Leos- 
thenes, the Athenian, he took refuge in 
Lamia, where he was besieged for some 
months. 

LAMPETIA (-ae), daughter of Helios 
(the Sun), and sister ofPhaethon, 

LAMPOXIA (-ae), or -IUM (-i), a city 
of Mysia, in the interior of the Troad, near 
the borders of Aeolia. 

LAMPS ACUS (-i), an important city of 
Mysia, in Asia Minor, on the coast of the 
Hellespont ; a colony of the Phocaeans ; 
celebrated for its wine ; and the chief seat 
of the worship of Priapus. 

LAMUS (-i). (1) Son of Poseidon (Xeptune), 
and king of the Laestrygones, said to have 
founded Formiae, in Italy. [Fobmiae ; Laes- 
TB.YGOXES.] — (2) A river and town of Cilicia. 

LAXGOBARDI or LOXGOBARDI (-orum), 
corrupted into LOMBARDS, a German tribe 
of the Suevic race, dwelt originally on the 
banks of the Elbe, and after many migrations' 
eventually crossed the Alps (a.d. 568), and 
settled in the X. of Italy, which has ever 
since received the name of Lombardy. The 
kingdom of the Lombards existed for 
upwards of 2 centuries, till its ovei :hrow by 
Charlemagne. 

LAXUYiUM (-i: Lavigna), an ancient city 
in Latium, situated on a hill of the Alban 
Mount, not far from the Appia Via ; pos- 
se- sed an ancient and celebrated temple of 
Juno Sospita ; and was the birthplace of the 
emperor Antoninus Pius. 

LAOCOOX (-ontis), a Trojan priest of the 
Thymbraean Apollo. He tried in vain to 
dissuade his countrymen from drawing into 
the city the wooden horse, which the Greeks 
had left behind them when they pretended to 
sail away from Troy. As he was preparing 



LAODAMIA. 



233 



LAR. 



to sacrifice a bull to Poseidon, 2 fearful 
serpents swam out of the sea, coiled round 
Laocoon and his two sons, and destroyed 
them. His death forms the subject of a 
magnificent work of ancient art preserved in 
the Vatican. 




Laocoon. (Group in the Vatican.) 



LAODAMIA (-ae) , daughter of Acastus, and 
wife of Protesilaus. AVhen her husband was 
slain before Troy, she begged the gods to be 
allowed to converse with him for only 3 
hours. The request was granted. Hermes 
(Mercury) led Protesilaus back to the upper 
world ; and when Protesilaus died a second 
time 3 Laodamia died with him. 

LAODICE (-es). (1) Daughter of Priam 
and Hecuba, and wife of Helicaon. — (2) The 
name given by Homer to the daughter of 
Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra, who is 
called Electra by the tragic poets. [Elects a.] 
— (3) The name of several Greek princesses, 
of the fan ly of the Seleucidae, one of whom 
was the mother of Seleucus Nicator, the 
founder of the Syrian monarchy. 

LAODICEA (-ae), the name of several 
Greek cities in Asia, called after the mother 
of Seleucus I. Nicator, and other Syrian 
princesses of this name. (1) L. ad Lyctjm, 
a city of Phrygia, near the river Lycus, a 
tributary of the Maeander, founded by 
Antiochus II. Theos. It became one of the 
most flourishing cities in Asia Minor, and 
was the seat of a flourishing Christian 
Church as early as the apostolic age. — (2) 
L. Combusta, i.e. the burnt; the reason of 



the epithet is doubtful ; a city of Lycaonia, 
N. of Iconium. — (3) L. ad Mare, a city on 
the coast of Syria, about 50 miles S. of 
Antioch, built by Seleucus I., and had the best 
harbour in Syria. — (4) L. ad Lib an dm, a 
city of Coele-Syria, at the X. entrance to the 
narrow valley, between Libanus and Antili- 
banus. 

LAOMEDOX (-ontis), king of Troy, son of 
Ilus, and father of Priam, Hesione, and other 
children. Poseidon (Xeptune) and Apollo, 
who had displeased Zeus (Jupiter), were 
doomed to serve Laomedon for wages. Ac- 
cordingly, Poseidon built the walls of Troy, 
while Apollo tended the king's flocks on 
Mount Ida. When the two gods had done 
their work, Laomedon refused them the 
reward he had promised them, and expelled 
them from his dominions. Thereupon 
Poseidon sent a marine monster to ravage 
the country, to which the Trojans were 
obliged, from time to time, to sacrifice a 
maiden. On one occasion it was decided 
by lot that Hesione, the daughter of Lao- 
medon, should be the victim ; but she was 
saved by Hercules, who slew the monster, 
upon Laomedon promising to give him the 
horses which Tros had once received from 
Zeus as a compensation for Ganymedes. But 
when the monster was slain, Laomedon again 
broke his word. Thereupon Hercules sailed 
with a squadron of 6 ships against Troy, 
killed Laomedon, with all his sons except 
Priam, and gave Hesione to Telamon. Priam, 
as the son of Laomedon, is called Laomedox- 
t lades ; and the Trojans, as the subjects of 
Laomedon, are called Laomedoxtiadae. 
LAPIDEI CAMPI. [Campi Lapidei.] 
LAPITHAE (-arum), a mythical people 
inhabiting the mountains of Thessaly. They 
were governed by Pirithous, who being a son 
of Ixion, was a half-brother of the Centaurs. 
The latter, therefore, demanded their share in 
their father's kingdom ; and, as their claims 
were not satisfied, a war arose between the 
Lapithae and Centaurs, which, however, was 
terminated by a peace. But when Pirithous 
married Hippodamla, and invited the Cen- 
taurs to the marriage feast, the latter, fired by 
wine, and urged on by Ares (Mars), attempted 
to carry off the bride and the other women. 
Thereupon a bloody conflict ensued, in which 
the Centaurs were defeated by the Lapithae. 
The Lapithae are said to have been the in- 
ventors of bits and bridles for horses.- It is 
probable that they were a Pelasgian people, 
who defeated the less civilised Centaurs, and 
compelled them to abandon Mt. Pelion. 

LAR or LARS (-tis), an Etruscan prae- 
nomen, borne, for instance, by Porsena and 
Tolumnius. Erom the Etruscans it passed 



LARA. 



234 



LATIUM. 



over to tlie "Romans, -whence we read of Lar 
Herminius, who was consul b.c. 448. This 
word signified lord, king, or hero in the 
Etruscan. 

LARA. [Laexxda.] 

LARAXDA (-drum), a considerable town 
in the S. of Lycaonia, at the N. foot of Mt. 
Taurus, used by the Isaurian robbers as one 
of their strongholds. 

LAREXTIA. [Acca Larextia.] 

LARES (-ium or -um), inferior gods at 
Rome, may be divided into 2 classes, Lares 
dojnestici and Lares publici. The former were 
the Manes of a house raised to the dignity of 
heroes. The Manes were more closely con- 
nected with the place of burial, while the 
Lares were the divinities presiding over the 
hearth and the whole house. It was only 
the spirits of good men that were honoured 
as Lares. All the domestic Lares were headed 
by the Lar familiaris, who was regarded as 
the founder of the family ; he was insepa- 
rable from the family ; and when the latter 
changed their abode, he went with them. 
Among the Lares publici we have mention 
made of Lares praestites and Lares com- 
pitales. The former were the protectors of 
the whole city; the latter were those who 
presided over the several divisions of the 
city, which were marked by the compita, or 
the points where two or more streets crossed 
each other. The images of the Lares, in 
great houses, were usually in a separate 
compartment, called lararia. \Yhen the in- 
habitants of the house took their meals, some 
portion was offered to the Lares, and on joyful 
family occasions they were adorned with 
wreaths, and the lararia were thrown open. 

LARlNUM (-i), a town of the Frentani 
(whence the inhabitants are sometimes called 
Frentani Larinates), on the river Tifernus, 
and near the borders of Apulia. 

LARISSA (-ae), the name of several 
Pelasgian places, whence Larissa is called in 
mythology the daughter of Pelasgus. — (1) An 
important town of Thessaly, in Pelasgiotis, 
situated on the Peneus, in an extensive plain, 
and once the capital of the Pelasgi. — {2) Sur- 
named Ckemaste, another important town of 
Thessaly, in Phthiotis, distant 20 stadia from 
the Maliac gulf. — (3) An ancient city on the 
coast of the Troad. — (4) L. Phriconis, a 
city on the coast of Mysia, near Cyme, of 
Pelasgian origin, but colonised by the Aeo- 
lians. It was also called the Egyptian Larissa, 
because Cyrus the Great settled in it a body 
of his Egyptian mercenary soldiers. — (5) L. 
Ephesia, a city of Lydia, in the plain of the 
Cayster. — (6) In Assyria, an ancient city on 
the E. bank of the Tigris, some distance N. of 
the mouth of the river Zabatas or Lycus. It 



was deserted when Xenophon saw it. The 
name Larissa is no doubt a corruption of some 
Assyrian name (perhaps Al-Assur), which 
Xenophon naturally confounded with Larissa, 
through his familiarity with the word as the 
name of cities in Greece. 

LARISSUS (-i), a small river forming the 
boundary between Achaia and Elis, and 
flowing into the Ionian sea. 

LARIUS LACES {Lake of Como), a beau- 
tiful lake in Gallia Transpadana (X. Italy), 
running from X T . to S., through which the 
river Adda flows. Pliny had several villas 
on the banks of the lake. 

LARTIA GEXS, patrician, distinguished 
at the beginning of the republic through 2 
of its members, T. Lartius, the first dictator, 
and Sp. Lartius, the companion of Horatius 
on the wooden bridge. 

LAREXDA, or LARA (-ae), daughter of 
Almon, the nymph who informed Juno of the 
connection between Jupiter and Juturna, 
hence her name is connected with kcckuv. Ju- 
piter deprived her of her tongue, and ordered 
Mercury to conduct her into the lower world. 
On the way thither Mercury fell in love with 
her, and she afterwards gave birth to 2 
Lares. 

LARVAE. [Lemures.] 

LAS, an ancient town of Laconia, on the 
E. side of the Laconian gulf, 10 stadia from 
the sea, and S. of Gytheum. 

LASAEA (-ae), a "town in the E. of Crete, 
not far from the Prom. Samonium, mentioned 
in the Acts of the Apostles. 

LASUS (-i), of Hermione, in Argolis, a 
lyric poet, and the teacher of Pindar, lived at 
Athens, under the patronage of Hipparchus. 
His works have perished. 

LATIALIS or LATIARIS (-is), a surname 
of Jupiter as the protecting divinity of 
Latium. The Latin towns and Rome cele- 
brated to him every year the feriae Latinae, 
on the Alban mount, which were conducted 
by one of the Roman consuls. [Latixtjs.] 

LATINUS (-i), king of Latium, son of 
Faunus and the nymph Marica, brother of 
Lavinius, husband of Amata, and father of 
Lavinia, whom he gave in marriage to 
Aeneas. [Lavinia.] According to one ac- 
count, Latinus, after his death, became 
Jupiter Latiaris, just as Romulus became 
Quirinus. 

LATIUM (-i), a country in Italy, was ori- 
ginally the name of the small district between 
the Tiber and the Xumicus, and afterwards 
signified the countiy bounded by Etruria on 
the X"., from which it was separated by the 
Tiber ; by Campania on the S,, from which it 
was separated by the Liris ; by the Tyrrhene 
sea on the W. ; and by the Sabine and 



LATIUM. 



235 



LEANDER. 



Samnite tribes on the E. The greater part of 
this country is an extensive plain of volcanic 
origin, out of which rises an isolated range of 
mountains known by the name of Mons 
Albanus, of which the Algidus and the Tus- 
culan hills are branches. Part of this plain, 
on the coast between Antium and Tarracina, 
which was at one time well cultivated, be- 
came a marsh in consequence of the rivers 
Nymphaeus, Ufens, and Amasenus finding no 
outlet for their waters [Pomptinae Pa- 
ludes] ; but the remainder of the country 
was celebrated for its fertility in antiquity. — 
The Latini were some of the most ancient 
inhabitants of Italy. They appear to have 
been a Pelasgian tribe, and are frequently 
called Aborigines. At a period long anterior 
to the foundation of Rome, these Pelasgians 
or Aborigines descended into the narrow plain 
between the Tiber and the Numicus, expelled 
or subdued the Siculi, the original inhabitants 
of that district, and there became known 
under the name of Latini. These ancient 
Latins, who were called Prisci Latini, to 
distinguish them from the later Latins, the 
subjects of Rome, formed a league or con- 
federation consisting of, 30 states. The town 
of Alba Longa subsequently became the head 
of the league. This town, which founded 
several colonies, and among others Rome, 
boasted of a Trojan origin; but the whole 
story of a Trojan settlement in Italy is pro- 
bably an invention of later times. Although 
Rome was a colony from Alba, she became 
powerful enough in the reign of her 3rd king, 
Tullus Hostilius, to take Alba and raze it to 
the ground. Under Servius Tullius Rome 
was admitted into the Latin League ; and his 
successor Tarquinius Superbus compelled the 
other Latin towns to acknowledge Rome as 
the head of the league. But upon the ex- 
pulsion of the kings the Latins asserted their 
independence, and commenced a struggle 
with Rome, which was not brought to a final 
close till b.c. 340, when the Latins were de- 
feated by the Romans at the battle of Mt. 
Vesuvius. The Latin League was now dis- 
solved. Several of the towns, such as 
Lanuvium, Aricia, Nomentum, Pedum, and 
Tusculum, received the Roman franchise ; 
and the others became Roman Socii, and are 
mentioned in history under the general name 
of Nomen Latinum or Latini. They obtained 
certain rights and privileges, which the other 
Socii did not enjoy. The Romans founded 
in various parts of Italy many colonies, con- 
sisting of Latins, which formed a part of the 
Nomen Latinum, although they were not situ- 
ated in Latium. Thus the Latini came eventu- 
ally to hold a certain status intermediate be- 
tween that of Roman citizens and peregrini. 



LATMICUS SINUS (-i), a gulf on the 
cost of Ionia, in Asia Minor, into which the 
river Maeander fell, named from Mt. Latmus, 
which overhangs it. Through -the changes 
effected on this coast by the Maeander, the 
gulf is now an inland lake, called Akees-Chai 
or Ufa-Bassi. 

LATMUS (-i), a mountain in Caria, extend- 
ing in a S.E. direction from the Sinus Lat- 
micus. It was the mythological scene of the 
story of Selene (Luna) and Endymion, who 
is hence called by the Roman poets Latmius 
heros and Latmius venator. 

LATOBRIGI (-orum), a people in Gallia 
Belgica, neighbours of the Helvetii, probably 
dwelling near the sources of the Rhine, in 
Switzerland. 

LATONA. [Leto.] 

LAURENTUM (-i), an ancient town of 
Latium,- the residence of the mythical La- 
tinus, situated on a height between Ostia and 
Ardea, not far from the sea, and surrounded 
by a grove of laurels, whence it was sup- 
posed to have derived its name. 

LAURIUM (-i), a mountain in the S. of 
Attica, a little N. of the Prom. Sunium, 
celebrated for its silver mines, which in early 
times were very productive, but in the time 
of Augustus yielded nothing. 

LAURQN (-onis), a town in the E. of His- 
pania Tarraconensis, near the sea and the 
river Sucro. 

LAUS (-i), a Greek city in Lucania, near 
the mouth of the river Laus, which formed 
the boundary between Lucania and Bruttium, 

LAUS POMPEII {Lodi Vecchio), a town in 
Gallia Cisalpina, N.TV. of Placentia, and S.E. 
of Mediolanum, made a municipium by the 
father of Pompey, whence its name. 

LAUSUS (-i). (1) Son of Mezentius, king 
of the Etruscans, slain by Aeneas. — (2) Son 
of Numitor and brother of Ilia, killed by 
Amulius. 

LAUTULAE (-arum), a village of theYolsci 
in Latium, in a narrow pass between Tarracina 
and Fundi. 

LATERNA (-ae), the Roman goddess of 
thieves and impostors, from whom the porta 
Lavernalis derived its name. 

LATICUM. [Labicum . ] 

LATINI A and LATINI A (-ae), daughter of 
Latmus and Amata, betrothed to Turnus, but 
married to Aeneas. [TuRxrs.] 

LATINIUM, LATINIUM, LAYINIUM 
(-i), an ancient town of Latium, 3 miles 
from the sea and 6 miles E. of Laurentum, on 
the Tia Appia, founded by Aeneas, and called 
Lavinium, in honour of his wife Lavinia. 

LEANDER (-dri), the famous youth of 
Abydos, who swam every night across the 
Hellespont to visit Hero, the priestess of 



LEBADEA. 



236 



LEXTULUS. 



Aphrodite (Venus), in Sestus. One night he 
perished in the waves ; and when his corpse 
was washed next morning on the coast of 
Sestus, Hero threw herself into the sea. 

LEBADEA (-ae), a town in Boeotia, be- 
tween Chaeronea and Mt. Helicon, at the foot 
of a rock, in a cave of which was the cele- 
brated oracle of Trophonius. 

LEBEDUS (-i), one of the 12 Ionic cities, 
situated on the coast of Lydia, between Colo- 
phon and Teos. It was nearly deserted in 
the time of Horace. 

LEBIXTHUS or LEBYXTHUS (-i), an 
island in the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades. 

LECHAEOI. [Cobinthes.] 

LECTUM (-i), the S.W. promontory of the 
Troad, formed by Mt. Ida jutting out into the 
sea. 

LED A (-ae), daughter of Thestius, whence 
she is called Tliestias, wife of Tyndareus, king 
of Sparta, and mother, either by Zeus 
(Jupiter) or by Tyndareus, of Castor and 
Pollux, Clytaemnestra and Helena. Accord- 
ing to the common legend Zeus visited Leda 
in the form of a swan ; and she brought forth 
2 eggs, from the one of which issued Helena, 
and from the other Castor and Pollux. 

LELEGES (-urn), an ancient race, frequently 
mentioned along with the Pelasgians as the 
most ancient inhabitants of Greece. The 
Leleges were a warlike and migratory race, 
who first took possession of the coasts and 
the islands of Greece, and afterwards pene- 
trated into the interior. Piracy was probably 
their chief occupation ; and they are repre- 
sented as the ancestors of the Teleboans and 
the Taphians, who were notorious for their 
piracies. The name of the Leleges was de- 
rived by the Greeks from an ancestor Lelex, 
who is called king either of Megaris or Lace- 
daemon. They must be regarded as a branch 
of the great Indo-Germanic race, who became 
gradually incorporated with the Hellenes, 
and thus ceased to exist as an independent 
people. 

LELEX. ["Leleges. 1 

LEMAXXUS or LEMANUS LACTJS [Lake 
of Geneva), a large lake formed by the river 
Bhodanus, the boundary between the old 
Boinan province in Gaul and the land of the 
Helvetii. 

LEMXOS or LEMXUS (-i), one of the 
largest islands in the Aegaean sea, situated 
nearly midway between Mt. Athos and the 
Hellespont. It was sacred to Hephaestus 
(Yulcan), who is said to have fallen here, 
when he was hurled down from Olympus. 
Hence the workshop of the god is sometimes 
placed in this island. The legend appears to 
have arisen from the volcanic nature of 
Leninos. Its earliest inhabitants, according 



to Homer, were the Thracian Sinties. When 
the Argonauts landed at Leninos, they found 
it inhabited only by women, who had mur- 
dered all their husbands. [Hypsipyle.] By 
the Lemnian women the Argonauts became 
the fathers of the Minyae, who inhabited the 
island till they were expelled by the Pelas- 
gians. Leninos was conquered by one of the 
generals of Darius ; but Miltiades delivered it 
from the Persians, and made it subject to 
Athens. 

LEMOXLA, one of the country tribes of 
Borne, named after a village Lemonium, 
situated on the Yia Latina before the Porta 
Capena. 

LEMOYICES (-ium), a people in Gallia 
Aquitanica, between the Bituriges and Ar- 
verni, whose chief town was Augustoritum, 
subsequently called Lemovices, the modern 
Limoges. 

LEMOYII (-orum), a people of Germany, 
mentioned along with the Bugii, inhabiting 
the shores of the Baltic in the modern Pom- 
merania. 

LEMUBES (-urn), the spectres or spirits 
of the dead. Some writers describe Lemures 
as the common name for all the spirits of the 
dead, and divide them into 2 classes ; the 
Lares, or the souls of good men, and the 
Larvae, or the souls of wicked men. But 
the common idea was that the Lemures and 
Larvae were the same. They were said to 
wander about at night as spectres, and to 
torment and frighten the living. In order to 
propitiate them the Bomans celebrated the 
festival of the Lemuralia or Lemuria. 

LEXAEUS (-i), a surname of Dionysus, 
derived from lenus {y.r,vk), the wine-press or 
the vintage. 

LEXTULUS, a haughty patrician family 
of the Cornelia gens, of which the most im- 
portant persons were : — (1) P. Cornelius 
Lexteles Sera, the man of chief note in 
Catiline's crew. He was quaestor to Sulla 
b.c. 81 ; praetor in 75 ; consulin 71. In the 
next year he was ejected from the senate, 
with 63 others, for infamous life and manners. 
It was this, probably, that led him to join 
Catiline and his crew s Prom his distin- 
guished birth and high rank, he calculated 
on becoming chief of the conspiracy ; and a 
prophecy of the Sibylline books was applied 
by nattering haruspices to him. 3 Cornelii 
were to rule Borne, and he was the 3rd after 
Sulla and Cinna ; the 20th year after the 
burning of the capitol, &c, was to be fatal 
to the city. To gain power, and recover his 
place in the senate, he became praetor again 
in 63. When Catiline quitted the city for 
Etruria, Lentulus was left as chief of the 
home conspirators, and his irresolution pro- 



LEOXIDAS. 



237 



LEPIDUS. 



bably saved the city from being 1 tired. For 
it was by bis over-caution that the negotiation 
with the ambassadors of the Allobroges was 
entered into : these unstable allies revealed 
the secret to the consul Cicero. The sequel 
will be found under the life of Catiline. Len- 
tulus was deposed from the praetorship, and 
was strangled in the Capitoline prison on ; 
the 5th of December. — (2) P. Cornelius 
Lextulus Spinther, curule aedile in 63 ; 
praetor in 60 ; and consul in 5 7. In his con- 
sulship he moved for the immediate recal of 
Cicero, and afterwards received Cilicia as his 
province. On the breaking out of the civil 
war in 49, he joined the Pompeian party. — 
(3) E. Cornelius Lentulus Crus, praetor in 
58, and consul in 49, when he took a very 
active part against Caesar. After the battle 
of Pharsalia, he fled to Egypt, and was put to 
death by young Ptolemy's ministers. 

LEONIDAS (-ae). (1) I. King of Sparta, 
B.C. 491 — 480, son of Anaxandrides, and 
successor of his half-brother Cleomenes. 
"When Greece was invaded by Xerxes, 480, 
Leonidas was sent with a small army to make 
a stand against the enemy at the pass of 
Thermopylae. His forces amounted to some- 
what more than 5000 men, of whom only 300 
were Spartans. The Persians in vain attempted 
to force their way through the pass of Ther- 
mopylae. They were driven back by Leonidas 
and his gallant band with immense slaughter. 
At length the Malian Ephialtes betrayed the 
mountain path of the Anopaea to the Persians, 
who were thus able to fall upon the rear of 
the Greeks. When it became known to 
Leonidas that the Persians were crossing the 
mountain, he dismissed all the other Greeks, 
except the Thespian and Theban forces, 
declaring that he and the Spartans under his 
command must needs remain in the post they 
had been sent to guard. Then, before the 
body of Persians, who were crossing the 
mountain, could arrive to attack him in the 
rear, he advanced from the narrow pass and 
charged the myriads of the enemy with his 
handful of troops, hopeless now of preserving 
their lives, and anxious only to sell them 
dearly. In the desperate battle which ensued, 
Leonidas himself fell soon. — (2) II. King of 
Sparta, son of Cleonymus, ascended the 
throne, about 256. Being opposed to the 
projected reforms of his contemporary Agis 
IV., he was deposed and the throne was trans- 
ferred to his son-in-law, Cleombrotus ; but 
he was soon afterwards recalled, and caused 
Agis to be put to death, 240. He died about 
236, and was succeeded by his son, Cleo- 
menes III. 

LEOXXATUS (-i), a Macedonian of Pella, 
one of Alexander's generals. He crossed 



over into Europe in b.c. 322, to assist Anti- 
pater against the Greeks ; but he was defeated 
by the Athenians and their allies, and fell in 
battle. 

LEOXTIXI (-orum : Lentmi), a town in 
the E. of Sicily, about 5 miles from the sea, 
X.W. of Syracuse, founded by Chalcidians 
from Naxos, b.c. 730, but never attained 
much political importance in consequence of 
its proximity to Syracuse. The rich plains 
X. of the city, called Leontini Ca?npi, were 
some of the most fertile in Sicily, and pro- 
duced abundant crops of most excellent wheat. 
It was the birthplace of Gorgias. 

LEOPPvEPIDES, i. e, the poet Simonides, 
son of Leoprepes. 

LEOSTHEXES (-is), an Athenian com- 
mander of the combined Greek army in the 
Lamian war, slain while besieging Antipater 
in the town of Lamia, B.C. 322. 

LEOTYCHIDES.— (1) King of Sparta, 
b.c. 491 — 469. He commanded the Greek 
fleet in 479, and defeated the Persians at the 
battle of Mycale. — (2) The reputed son of 
Agis II., excluded from the throne, in con- 
sequence of his being suspected to be the son 
of Alcibiades by Timaea, the queen of Agis. 
His uncle, Agesilaus II. , was substituted in 
his room. 

LEPIDUS, M. AEMILIUS (-i), the tri- 
umvir, son of M. Lepidus, consul b.c 78, 
who took up arms to rescind the laws of 
Sulla, but was defeated by Pompey and 
Catulus. His son was praetor in 49, and 
supported Caesar in the civil war. In 46 he 
was consul with Caesar", and in 44 he received 
from the latter the government of Xarbonese 
Gaul and Xearer Spain. He was in the neigh- 
bourhood of Rome at the time of the dictator's 
death, and having the command of an army, 
he was able to render M. Antony efficient 
assistance. Lepidus was now chosen pontifex 
maximus, which dignity had become vacant 
by Caesar's, death, and then repaired to his 
provinces of Gaul and Spain. Antony after 
his defeat at Mutina (43) fled to Lepidus, who 
espoused his cause against the senate. They 
crossed the Alps at the head of a powerful 
army, and were joined in the X. of Italy, by 
Octavian (afterwards Augustus) . In the month 
of October the celebrated triumvirate was 
formed, by which the Eoman world was 
divided between Augustus, Antony, and 
Lepidus. [See p. 70.] In the fresh division 
of the provinces after the battle of Philippi 
(42), Lepidus received Africa, where he re- 
mained till 36. In this year Augustus sum- 
moned him to Sicily to assist him in the war 
against Sex. Pompey. Lepidus obeyed, but 
tired of being treated as a subordinate, he 
resolved to make an effort to acquire Sicily 



LEPONTII. 



238 



LEUCAS. 



for himself. He was easily subdued by 
Augustus, who spared bis life, but deprived 
him of his triumvirate, his army, and his 
provinces, and commanded that he should 
live at Circeii, under strict surveillance. He 
allowed him, however, to retain his dignity 
of pontifex maximus. He was not privy to 
the conspiracy which his son formed to 
assassinate Augustus in 30. He died in 13. 
Augustus succeeded him as pontifex maximus. 

LEPONTII (-drum), an Alpine people, 
dwelling near the sources of the Rhine, on 
the S. slope of the St. Gothard and the 
Simplon : their name is still retained in the 
Vol Loventina. Their chief town was Oscela 
[Domo t?' Ossola). 

LEPREUM (4), a town of Elis in Triphylia, 
situated 40 stadia from the sea. 

LEPTINES, an Athenian, known only as 
the proposer of a law taking away all special 
exemptions from the burden of public charges 
against which the oration of Demosthenes 
is directed, usually known as the oration 
against Leptines, B.C. 355. 

LEPTIS (-is). (1) Leptis Magna or 
Neapolis, a city on the coast of N. Africa, 
between the Syrtes, E. of Abrotonum, was a 
Phoenician colony, with a nourishing com- 
merce, though it possessed no harbour. It 
was the birthplace of the emperor Septimius 
Severus. — (2) Leptis Minor or Pabva, usually 
called simply Leptis, a Phoenician colony on 
the coast of Byzacium, in N. Africa. 

LERNA (-ae) or LERNE (-es), a district 
in Argolis, not far from Argos, in which was 
a marsh and a small river of the same name. 
It was celebrated as the place where Hercules 
killed the Lernean Hydra. [See p. 196.] 

LER.OS, a small island, one of the Sporades, 
opposite to the mouth of the Sinus Iassius, 
on the coast of Caria. 

LESBOS or LESBUS (-i), a large island in 
the Aegean, off the coast of Mysia in Asia 
Minor. It was colonised by Aeolians, who 
founded in it an Hexapolis, consisting of the 
6 cities, Mytilene, Methymna, Eresus, Pyrrha, 
Antissa, and Arisbe, afterwards reduced to 5 
through the destruction of Arisbe by the 
Methymnaeans.. The chief facts in the history 
of Lesbos are connected with its principal 
city, Mytilene. [Mytilene.] The island is 
most important in the early history of Greece, 
as the native region of the Aeolian school of 
lyric poetry. It was the birthplace of the 
poets Terpander, Alcaeus, Sappho, and Arion, 
of the sage Pittacus, of the historian Hellani- 
cus, _and of the philosopher Theophrastus. 
I | LETHE, (-es), a river in the lower world, 
from which the shades drank, and thus 
obtained forgetfulness of the past. 

LETO (-us), called LATONA (-ae), by the 



Romans, daughter of the Titan Coeus and 
Phoebe, and mother of Apollo and Artemis 
(Diana), by Zeus (Jupiter). The love of the 
king of the gods procured for Leto the enmity 
of Hera (Juno). Persecuted by this goddess, 
Leto wandered from place to place, till she 
came to Delos, which was then a floating 
island, and bore the name of Asteria or 
Ortygia. Zeus fastened it by adamantine 
chains to the bottom of the sea, that it might 
be a secure resting-place for his beloved, and 
there she gave birth to Apollo and Artemis. 
Leto was generally worshipped only in con- 
junction with her children. Delos was the 
chief seat of her worship. From their mother, 
Apollo is frequently called Letoius or Latoms, 
and Artemis (Diana) Leto'ia, Leto'is, Lato'is, or 
Latoe. 




f&- SW 
Leto (Latona). (From a Painted Vase. 



LEUCA (-orum) , a town at the extremity 
of the lapygian promontory in Calabria. 

LEUCAE (-orum), LEUCA, a smaU town 
on the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, near 
Phocaea. 

LEUCAS (-adis) or LEUCADIA (-ae : Santa 
Maura), an island in the Ionian sea, off the 
W. coast of Acarnania, about 20 miles in 
length, and from 5 to 8 miles in breadth. It 
derived its name from the numerous calca- 
reous hills which cover its surface. It was 
originally united to the mainland at its N.E. 
extremity by a narrow isthmus. Homer 
speaks of it as a peninsula, and mentions its 
well fortified town Nericus. It was at that 
time inhabited by the Teleboans and Leleges. 
Subsequently the Corinthians under Cypselus, 
between b.c. 665 and 625, founded a new 
town, called Leucas. They also cut a canal 
through the isthmus, and thus converted the 
peninsula into an island. This canal was 
afterwards filled up by deposits of sand, but 



LEUCI. 



239 



LIBETIIRIUS MOXS. 



was opened again "by the Romans. At pre- 
sent the channel is dry in some parts, and 
has from 3 to 4 feet of water in others. 
During the war between Philip and the 
Romans Leucas was the place where the 
meetings of the Acarnanian league were held. 
At the S. extremity of the island, opposite 
Cephallenia, was the celebrated promontory, 
variously called Leucas, Leucatas, Leucates, 
or Leucdte, on which was a temple of Apollo 
Leucadius. At the annual festival of the 
god it was the custom to cast down a criminal 
from this promontory into the sea : birds 
were attached to him, in order to break his 
fall ; and if he reached the sea uninjured, 
boats were ready to pick him up. This ap- 
pears to have been an expiatory rite ; and it 
gave rise to the well known story that lovers 
leaped from this rock, in order to seek relief 
from the pangs of love. Thus Sappho is said 
to have leapt down from this rock, when in 
love with Phaon. [Sappho.] 

LEUCI (-orum), a people in the S.E. of 
Gallia Belgiea, S. of the Mediomatrici, be- 
tween the Matrona and Mosella : their chief 
town was Tullmn [TouVf. 

LEUCIPPE. [Alcathoe.] 

LEUCIPPIDES". [Letjcipptjs, No. 2.] 

LEUCIPPUS (-i). (I) Son of Oenomaus, 
the lover of Daphne. (2) Son of Perieres, 
prince of the Messenians, and father of 
Phoebe and Hilaira, usually called Leucip- 
pides, who were betrothed to Idas and 
Lynceus, the sons of Aphareus, but were 
carried off by Castor and Pollux. — (3) A 
Grecian philosopher, the founder of the 
atomic theory of philosophy, which was 
more fully developed by Democritus. His 
date is uncertain. 

LETJCOPETRA (-ae: C. deW Anni), a 
promontory in the S.W. of Bruttium, on 
the Sicilian straits, and a few miles S. of 
Pvhegium. It derived its name from the 
white colour of its rocks. 

LEUCOPHRYS, a city of Caria, close to a 
curious lake of warm water, and having a 
renowned temple of Artemis Leucophryna. 

LEUCOSIA or LEUCASIA (-ae : Plana), 
a small island in the S. of the gulf of Paestum, 
off the coast of Lucania, said to have been 
called after one of the Sirens. 

LEUCOSYRI (-orum: i.e. White Syrians), 
the name given by the Greeks to the inha- 
bitants of Cappadocia, who were of the 
Syrian race, in contradistinction to the Sy- 
rian tribes of a darker colour beyond the 
Taurus. 

LETJCOTHEA (-ae) or LELCOTHOE 
(-es). (1) A marine goddess, was previously 
Ino, the wife of Athamas. [Athamas.] — 
(2) Daughter of the Babylonian king Orcha- 



mus and Eurynome, beloved by Apollo, was 
buried alive by her father ; whereupon 
Apollo metamorphosed her into an incense 
shrub . 

LEUCTRA (-orum), a small town in 
Boeotia, on the road from Plataeae to 
Thespiae, memorable for the victory of Epa- 
minondas and the Thebans over the Spartans, 
b.c. 371. 

LEXOYII or LEXOBII (-orum), a people 
in Gallia Lugdunensis, on the Ocean, W. of 
the mouth of the Sequana : their capital was 
Noviomagus [Lisieux). 

LIBAXIUS (-i), a distinguished Greek 
sophist and rhetorician, was the teacher of 
St. Basil and St. Chrysostom, and the friend 
of the Emperor Julian. He was born at 
Antioch, on the Orontes, about a.d. 314, and 
died about 395. Several of his works are 
extant. 

LIB ANTS (-i), a range of mountains on 
the confines of Syria and Palestine, dividing 
Phoenice from Coele-Syria. Its highest sum- 
mits are covered with perpetual snow, and 
its sides were in ancient times clothed with 
forests of cedars. It is considerably, lower 
than the opposite range of Axtilibaxes. In 
the Scriptures the word Lebanon is used for 
both ranges, and for either of them ; but in 
classical authors the names Libanus and 
Antilibanus are distinctive terms, being ap- 
plied to the andE. ranges respectively. 

LIBEXTIXA, LUBEXTIXA, or LUBEXTiA 
(-ae), a surname of Yenus among the Romans, 
by which she is described as the goddess of 
sensual pleasure. 

LIBER (-bri), or LIBER PATER, a name 
frequently given by the Roman poets to the 
Greek Bacchus or Dionysus. But the god 
Liber, and the goddess Libera were ancient 
Italian divinities, presiding over the culti- 
vation of the vine and the fertility of the 
fields. Hence they were worshipped in early 
times in conjunction with Ceres. The female 
Libera was identified by the Romans with 
Cora or Proserpina, the daughter of Demeter 
(Ceres) ; whence Cicero calls Liber and 
Libera, children of Ceres ; whereas Ovid 
calls_ Ariadne, Libera. 

LIBER A. [Liber.] 

LIBERTAS (-atis), the goddess of Liberty, 
to whom several temples were erected at 
Rome. These temples must be distinguished 
from the Atrium Libertatis, which was used 
as an office of the censors. Libertas is 
represented in works of art as a matron, with 
the pileus, the symbol of liberty, or a wreath 
of laurel. Sometimes she appears holding 
the Phrygian cap in her hand. 
LIBETHRIDES [Libethri^i.] 
LIBETHRIUS MONS. a mountain in 



LIBETHRUM. 



240 



LIGARITS 



Boeotia, a branch of Mt. Helicon, possessing 
a grotto of the Libethrian_nymphs. 

LIBETHRUM (-i) or LIBETHRA (-ae), 
an ancient Thracian town in Pieria in Mace- 
donia, on the slope of Olympus, where 
Orpheus is said to have lived. It was sacred 
to the Muses, who were hence called Llbe- 
th rides: and it is probable that the worship 
of the Muses under this name was transf erred 
from this_place to Boeotia. 

LIBITENA [-ae), an ancient Italian divinity, 
identified by the later Bomans with Perse- 
phone (Proserpina), on account of her con- 
nection with the dead and their burial: At 
her temple at Borne every thing necessary I 
for funerals was kept, and persons might ! 
there either buy or hire such things. Hence 
a person undertaking the burial of a person j 
(an undertaker) was called libitinarius, and 
his business libitiiici ; hence the expression 
libititia funeribus -non suffieiebat, i.e. they 
could not all be buried. Owing to the con- i 
nection of Libitina with the dead, Boman 
poets frequently employ her name in the , 
sense of death itself. 

LIBYPHOEXICES (-urn), the inhabitants of 
the cities founded by the Phoenicians on the ! 
coast of the Carthaginian territory, and so 
called from their being a mixed race of the 
Libyan natives with the Phoenician settlers. | 

LIBEI (-orum), a Gallic tribe in Gallia 
Cispadana, to whom the towns of Brixia and 
Terona formerly belonged, from which they J 
were expelled by the Cenomani. 

LIBTJRXIA (-ae), a district of Illyricum, 
along the coast of the Adriatic sea, separated j 
from Istria by the river Arsia, and from I 
Dalmatia by the river Titius. Its inhabitants, 
the Leberxi, supported themselves chiefly by 
commerce and navigation. They were cele- 
brated at a very early period as bold and 
skilful sailors. Their ships were remarkable 
for their swift sailing ; and hence vessels 
built after the same model were called Li- 
burnieae or IAJburnae naves. It was to light j 
vessels of this description that Augustus was 
mainly indebted for his victory over Antony's 
fleet at the battle of Actiuni. The Libur- 
nians were the first Hlyrian people who 
submitted to the Bomans. 

LIBYA (-ae), the Greek name for the con- 
tinent of Africa in general. [Africa.] 

LICHAS (-ae), an attendant of Hercules, 
brought his master the poisoned garment, 
and was hurled by him into the sea. The 
Lichades, 3 small islands between Euboea and 
Locris, were believed to have derived their 
name from him. 

LICLNIA GENS, to which belonged the 
distinguished families of Crasses, Lecexles, 
and Merexa. 



LICINITJS (-i). (1) C. Licinius Calves, 
surnarued Stolo, a name said to be derived 
from the care with which he dug up the 
shoots springing from the roots of his vines 
He brought the contest between the patri- 
cians and plebeians to a happy termination, 
and thus became the founder of Rome's 
greatness. He was tribune of the people 
from b.c. 376 to 367, and was faithfully 
supported in his exertions by his colleague, 
L. Sextius. The laws which he proposed 
were : — 1. That in future no more consular 
tribunes should be appointed, but that con- 
suls should be elected, one of whom should 
always be a plebeian. 2. That no one should 
possess more than 500 jugera of the public 
land, or keep upon it mere than 100 head of 
large, and 500 of small cattle. 3. A law 
regulating the affairs between debtor and 
creditor. 4. That the Sybilline books should 
be entrusted to a college of ten men (decem- 
viri), half of whom should be plebeians. 
These rogations were passed after a vehe- 
ment opposition on the part of the patricians, 
and L. Sextius was the first plebeian who 
obtained the consulship, 366. Licinius him- 
self was elected twice to the consulship, 364 
and 361. Some years later he was accused 
by M. Popilius Laenas of having transgressed 
his own law respecting the amount of public 
land which a person might possess. He was 
condemned and sentenced to pay a heavy 
fine. — (2) C. Licinius Macer, an annalist 
and an orator, was impeached of extortion by 
Cicero, and finding that the verdict was 
against him, committed suicide, B.C. 66. — 
^3) C. Licixirs Macer Caevcs, son of the 
last, a distinguished orator and poet, was 
born b.c. 82, and died about 47 or 46, in his 
35th or 36th year. His most celebrated 
oration was delivered against Yatinius, who 
was defended by Cicero, when he was only 
27 years of age. His elegies have been 
warmly extolled by Catullus, Propertius, and 
Ovid. ^ All his works are lost. 

LICLNIUS (-i), Roman emperor a. d. 307 — 
324, was a Dacian peasant by birth, and was 
raised to the rank of Augustus by the em- 
peror Galerius. He afterwards had the do- 
minion of the East. He carried on war first 
with Maximinus II., whom he defeated a.d. 
314, and subsequently with Constantine, by 
whom he was in his turn defeated, 315. A 
second war broke out between Licinius and 
Constantine in 323, in which Licinius was 
not only defeated, but deprived of his throne. 
In the following year he was put to death by 
Constantine, 324. 

LIDE (-es), a mountain of Caria, above 
Pedasus. 

LIGARIL'S f-i), Q., fought on the side of the 



LIGEK. 



241 



LIQUENTIA. 



Porupeian party in Africa, and was defended 
by Cicero before Caesar in a speech still ex- 
tant. Ligarius joined the conspirators, "who 
assassinated Caesar in B.C. 44, and perished 
in the proscription of the triumvirs in 43. 

LIGER or LIGERIS (-is: Loire), a large river 
in Gaul, rising in Mt. Cevenna, flowing through 
the territories of the Arverni, Aedui, and Car- 
nutes, and falling into the ocean between the 
territories of the Namnetes and Pictones. 

LIGURIA (-ae), a district of Italy, bounded 
on the W. by the river Varus, and the Mari- [ 
time Alps, which separated it from Trans- 
alpine Gaul, on the S.E. by the river Macra, 
which separated it from Etruria, on the N. 
by the river Po, and on the S. by the Mare 
Ligusticum. The Maritime Alps and the I 
Apennines run through the greater part of 
the country. The inhabitants were called by 
the Greeks Ligves and Ligvstixt, and by the 
Romans Ligeres (sing.. Ligus, more rarely 
Ligur). They were in early times widely 
spread, and inhabited the coasts of Gaul and 
Italy, from the mouth of the Rhone to Pisae 
in Etruria. They were divided by the Romans 
into Ligures Transalpine and Cisalpini. The 
names of the principal tribes were : — on the 
W. side of the Alps, the Salves or Salixvii, 
Oxybii, and Deciates ; on the E. side of the 
Alps, the Intbmelji, Lstgatjni and Aptjani 
near the coast, the Yagienxi, Salassi and 
Taerent on the upper course of the Po, and 
the Laevi and Marisci N. of the Po. — The 
Ligurians were small of stature, but strong, 
active, and brave. In early times they served 
as mercenaries in the armies of the Cartha- 
ginians, and they were not subdued by the 
Romans till after a long and fierce struggle. 

LILAEA (-ae), an anciert town in Phocis, 
near the sources of the Cephissus. 

LILYBAEOI (-i : Marsala), a town in the 
W. of Sicily, with an excellent harbour, situ- 
ated on a promontory of the same name, 
opposite to the Prom. Hermaeum or Mercurii 
{0. Bo?i) in Africa, the space between the two 
being the shortest distance between Sicily and 
Africa. The town was founded by the Car- 
thaginians about e.c. 397, and was the prin- 
cipal Carthaginian fortress in Sicily. 

LIMITES (-urn) ROMANI (-orum), the 
na^e of a continuous series of fortifications, 
consist^ of castles, walls, earthen ramparts, 
and the likt,Tvhich the Romans erected alonar 
the Rhine and tn* Danube, to protect their 
possessions from the au^g f the Germans. 

TiTMN AE (-arum), a town m Messenia, on 
the frontiers of Eaconia, with a temple of 
Artemis (Diana) Limnatis. 

LIMXAEA (-ae), a town in theX. of Acar- 
nania, near the Ambracian gulf, on which it 
had a harbour. 



LIMONUM. [Pictones.] 

LIMYRA (-ae), a city in the S.E. of Lycia, 
on the river Limyrus. 

LIXDUM (-i : Lincoln), a town of the 
Coritani, in Britain, on the road from Lon- 
dinium to Eboracum, and a Roman colony. 
The modern name Lincoln has been formed 
out of Lindum Colonia. 

LIXDUS (-i), one of the 3 Dorian cities in 
the island of Rhodes, situated on the E. coast. 

LIXGOXES (-urn). (1) A powerful people 
in Transalpine Gaul, bounded by the Treviri 
on the X., and the Sequani on the S. Their 
chief town was Andematurinum, afterwards 
Lingones [Langres). — (2) A branch of the 
above-mentioned people, who migrated into 
Cisalpine Gaul along with the Boii, and dwelt 
in the neighbourhood of Ravenna. 

LINTERNUM. [Liternum.] 

LINUS (-i), tfce personification of a dirge 
or lamentation, and therefore described as a 
son of Apollo by a muse (Calliope, or by 
Psamathe or Chalciope). Eoth Argos and 
Thebes claimed the honour of his birth. An 
Argive tradition related, that Einus was ex- 
posed by his mother after his birth, and was 
brought up by shepherds, but was afterwards 
torn to pieces by dogs. Psamathe's grief at 
the occurrence betrayed her misfortune to 
her father, who condemned her to death. 
Apollo, indignant at the father's cruelty, 
visited Argos with a plague ; and, in obe- 
dience to an oracle, the Argives endeavoured 
to propitiate Psamathe and Linus by means of 
sacrifices and dirges which were called lini. Ac- 
cording to a Boeotian tradition Linus was killed 
by Apollo, because he had ventured upon a mu- 
sical contest with the god. The Thebans distin- 
guished between an earlier and later Linus ; 
the latter is said to have instructed Hercules 
in music, but to have been killed by the hero. 

LIPARA and LIPAREXSES IXSULAE. 
[Aeoliae.] 

LIPS, the S. W. wind, corresponding to the 
Latin Africus. 




§J* Lips. (From the Temple of the Winds, at Athens.) 



LIQUENTIA (-ae ; Livenza), a river in 



LH5IS. 



242 



LOCRI. 



Venetia in the N. of Italy, flowing into the 
Sinus Tergestinus. 

LIRIS (-is : Garigliano), more anciently 
called CLAXIS (-is) or GL AXIS, one of the 
principal rivers in central Italy, rising in the 
Apennines W. of lake Eucinus, flowing into the 
Sinus Caietanus near Minturnae, and forming 
the boundary between Latium and Campania. 
Its stream was sluggish, -whence the " Liris 
quicta aqua " of Horace. 

LISSUS (-i), a town in the S. of Dalmatia, 
at the mouth of the river Drilon, founded by 
Dionysius of Syracuse, b.c 385, and possess- 
ing a strongly fortified acropolis called Acbo- 
Lissrs, which was considered impregnable. 

LITAXA SILYA, a large forest on the 
Apennines, in Cisalpine Gaul, S.E. of Mutina. 

LITERNUM or LLNTERNUM [-i: Patria\ 
a towu on the coast' of Campania, at the 
mouth of the river Clanis or Glanis, -which 
in the lower part of its course takes the name 
of Literxus, and -which, flows through a 
marsh to the X. of the town, called Literna 
Pales. It was to this place that the elder 
Seipio Africanus retired, when the tribunes 
attempted to bring him to trial, and here he 
is said to have died. 

LIVIA(-ae). 1} Sister of M. Livius Drusus, 
the celebrated tribune, b.c. 91, married first 
to M. Porcius Cato, by -whom she had Cato 
Uticensis, and subsequently to Q. Servilius 
Caepio, by whom she had a daughter, Servilia, 
the mother of M. Brutus, who killed Caesar. 
— (2) Livia Drusilla, the daughter of 
Livius Drusus Claudianus [Dnusus, Xo. 3], 
married first to Tib. Claudius Xero ; and 
afterwards to Augustus, who compelled her 
husband to divorce her b.c 38. She had 
already borne her husband one son, the 
future emperor Tiberius, and at the time of 
her marriage with Augustus -was 6 months 
pregnant with another, -who subsequently re- 
ceived the name of Drusus. She never had 
any children by Augustus, but she retained 
his affections till his death. On the accession 
of her son Tiberius to the throne, she at first 
attempted to obtain an equal share in the 
government ; but this the jealous temper of 
Tiberius woidd not brook. She died in a.d. 
29, at the age of 82 or 86. — (3) Or Livilla, 
the daughter of Drusus senior and Antonia, 
and the wife of Drusus junior, the son of 
the emperor Tiberius. She was seduced by 
Sejanus, -who persuaded her to poison her 
husband, a.d. 23. — (4) Julia Livilla, daugh- 
ter of Germanicus and Agrippina. [Julia, 
No._7.I 

LIVlUS (-i), T., the Roman historian, was 
born at Patavium {Padua), in the X. of Italy, 
b.c 59. The greater part of his life was 
spent in Ronie, but he returned to his native 



town before his death, -which happened at the 
age of 76, in the fourth year of Tiberius, a.d. 
I 1 7 . His literary talents secured the patronage 
\ of Augustus ; and so great was his reputation, 
j that a Spaniard travelled from Cadiz to Rome, 
, solely for the purpose of beholding him, and 
I having gratified his curiosity, immediately 
returned home. The great work of Livy is a 
History of Rome, extending from the founda- 
tion of the city to the death of Drusus, b.c 9, 
; and comprised in 142 books. Of these 35 
have descended to us ; but of the whole, with 
i the exception of 2, we possess Epitomes, The 
| work has been divided into decades, contain- 
i ing 10 books each. The 1st decade (bks. i — x.) 
is entire, and embraces the period from the 
foundation of the city to the year b.c 294. 
i The 2nd decade (bks. xi — xx) is lost, and 
j embraced the period from 294 to 219, com- 
! prising an account, among other matters, of 
^ the invasion of Pyrrhus and of the first Punic 
| war. The 3rd decade (bks. xxi — xxx) is en- 
\ tire. It embraces the period from 219 to 201, 
J comprehending the whole of the 2nd Punic 
, ^ ar. The 4th decade (bks. xxxi — xl) is en- 
j tire, and also one half of the 5th (bks. xli — 
xlv). These 15 books embrace the period 
from 201 to 167, and develope the progress 
i of the Etonian arms in Cisalpine Gaul, in Mace- 
| donia, Greece, and Asia, ending with the 
I triumph of Aemilius Paulus. Of the remain - 
I ing books nothing remains except inconsider- 
| able fragments. The style of Livy is clear, 
animated, and eloquent ; but he did not take 
much pains in ascertaining the truth of the 
events he records. His aim was to offer to his 
countrymen a clear and pleasing narrative, 
which, while it gratified their vanity, should 
contain no startling improbabilities nor gross 
perversion of facts. 

LIVIUS AXDROXICUS (-i), the earliest 
Roman poet, was a Greek, and the slave of 
M. Livius Salinator, by whom he was manu- 
mitted, and from whom he received the 
Roman name Livius. He wrote both tragedies 
and comedies in Latin, and his first drama 
was acted b.c. 240. 

LIVIUS DRUSUS. [Drusus." 
LIVIUS SALIXATOR. [Salixatob.] 
LIXUS (4), a city on the W. coast of 
Mauretania Tingitana, in Africa, at the mo^ch 
of a river of the same name : it was * place 
of some commercial importance. 

LOCRI (-oruni), somet^s called LOC- 
REXSES (-mm), the Romans, the in- 
habitants of t^o districts in Greece, called 
LOCRIS. — ID Eastern Looms, extending 
from Thessaly and the pass of Thermopylae 
along the coast to the frontiers of Boeotia, 
and bounded by Doris and Phocis on the 
W. It was a fertile and well cultivated 



LOCRI EPIZEPHYEII. 



243 



LOTOPIIAGI. 



country. The N. part was inhabited by the 
Locri EpiCNEMmn, who derived their name 
from Mt. Cnemis. The S. part was inhabited 
by the Locri Opuntii, who derived their 
name from their principal town, Opus. The 
2 tribes were separated by Daphnus, a small 
slip of land, which at one time belonged to 
Phocis. The Epicnemidii were for a long- 
time subject to the Phocians, and were in- 
cluded under the name of the latter people ; 
whence the name of the Opuntii occurs more 
frequently in Greek history. — (2) Western 
Locris, or the country of the Locri Ozol.ae, 
was bounded on the N. by Doris, on the W. 
by Aetolia, on the E. by Phocis, and on the 
S. by the Corinthian gulf. The country is 
mountainous, and for the most part unpro- 
ductive. Mt. Corax from Aetolia, and Mt. 
Parnassus from Phocis, occupy the greater 
part of it. The Locri Ozolae were a colony 
of the Western Locrians, and were more un- 
civilised than the latter. They resembled their 
neighbours, the Aetolians, both in their pre- 
datory habits and in their mode of warfare. 
Their chief town was Amphissa. 

LOCRI EPIZEPHYRII (-drum), one of the 
most ancient Greek cities in Lower Italy, 
situated in the S.E. of Bruttiurn, N. of the 
promontory of Zephyrium, from which it was 
said to have derived its surname Epizephyrii, 
though others suppose this name given to 
the place, simply because it lay to the W s 
of Greece. It was founded by the Locrians 
from Greece, b.c. 683. The inhabitants re- 
garded themselves as descendants of Ajax 
Oileus ; and as he resided at the town of 
Naryx among the Opuntii, the poets gave the 
name of Narycia to Locris, and called the 
founders of the town the Xarycii Locri. Eor 
the same reason the pitch of Bruttiurn is 
frequently called Narycia. Locri was cele- 
brated for the excellence of its laws, which 
were drawn up by Zaleucus soon after the 
foundation of the city. [ZALEucrs.] Near 
the town was an ancient and wealthy temple 
of Proserpina. 

LOCUSTA, or, more correctly, LtCUSTA 
(-ae), a famous female poisoner, employed by 
Agrippina in poisoning the emperor Claudius, 
and by Nero for despatching Britannicus. 
She was put to death in the reign of Galba. 

LOLLirs (4), M., consul, b.c. 21, and 
governor of Gaul, b.c 16, was appointed by 
Augustus as tutor to bis grandson, C. Caesar, 
whom he accompanied to the East, b.c. 2. 
Horace addressed an Ode (iv. 9) to Lollius, 
and 2 Epistles (i. 2, 18) to the eldest son of 
Lollius. 

LONDINITJM(-i) orLOXDiXOI'2o>?tfo>0, 
the capital of the Cantii in Britain, was 
originally situated on the S. bank of the 



Thames in the modern South work. It after- 
wards spread over the N. side of the river, 
and was hence called a town of the Trino- 
bantes. It is first mentioned in the reign of 
Nero as a nourishing and populous town, 
much frequented by Roman merchants. It 
was taken and its inhabitants massacred 
by the Britons, when they revolted under 
Boadicea, a.d. 62. The quarter on the N. 
side of the river was surrounded with a 
: wall and ditch by Constantine the Great or 
| Theodosius, the Roman governor of Britain. 
I This wall probably commenced at a fort near 
the present site of the tower, and continued 
I along the Minories, to Cripplegate, Newgate, 
and Ludgate. London was the central point, 
from which all the Roman roads in Britain 
j diverged. It possessed a Milliarium Aureum, 
' from which the miles on the roads were num- 
j bered ; and a fragment of this Milliarium, 
( the celebrated London Stone, may be seen 
affixed to the wall of St. Swithurs Church 
in Cannon Street. This is almost the only 
monument of the Roman Londinium still ex- 
■ tant, with the exception of coins, tesselated 
pavements, and the like, which have been 
found buried under the ground. 

LONGINUS (-i), a distinguished Greek 
philosopher and grammarian of the 3rd cen- 
, tury of our era. He taught philosophy and 
rhetoric at Athens for many years with great 
success ; and among his pupils was the cele- 
brated Porphyry. He afterwards went to the 
I East, where he became acquainted with 
Zenobia, of Palmyra, who made him her 
teacher of Greek literature. It was mainly 
through his advice that she threw off her 
allegiance to the Roman empire. On her 
capture by Aurelian in 273, Longinus was 
put to death by the emperor. Longinus was 
a man of excellent sense, sound judgment, 
and extensive knowledge. His treatise On 
the Sublime, a great part of which is still 
extant, is a work of great merit. 
LONGINUS CASSIUS. [Cassius.] 
LONGOBARDI. [Laxgobardi.] 
LONGULA (-ae), a town of the Tolsci in 
! Latium, not far from Corioli. 

LONGUS (-i), a Greek sophist, of uncertain 
date, the author of an extant erotic work. 
LORIOI (-i) or LORII (-5rum), a small 
[ place in Etruria, on the Via Aurelia, where 
j Antoninus Pius was brought up and died. 

LORYMA (-orum), a city on the S. coast of 
Caria. 

LOTIS (-idis), a nymph, who. to escape the 
embraces of Priapus, was metamorphosed 
into_a tree, called after her Lotus. 

LOTOPIIAGI (-orum, i.e. lotus-eaters). 
Homer, in the Odyssey, represents Vlysscs 
I as coming in his wanderings to a coast in* 

T? 2 



LUA= 



241 



LUCINA. 



habited by a people who fed upon a fruit 
called lotus, the taste of which was so deli- 
cious that every one who eat it lost all wish 
to return to his native country. Afterwards, 
in historical times, the Greeks found that the 
people on the N. coast of Africa, between the 
Syrtes, used, to a great extent, as an article 
of food, the fruit of a plant, which they iden- 
tified with the lotus of Homer, and they called 
these people Lotophagi. They carried on a 
commercial intercourse with Egypt and with 
the interior of Africa, by the very same 
caravan routes which are used to the present 
day. 

IX A (-ae), also called LUA MATER or 
LUA SATURNI, one of the early Italian 
divinities, to whom were dedicated the arms 
taken in battle. 

LUC A (-ae : Lucca), a Ligurian city in 
Upper Italy, at the foot of the Apennines and 
on the river Ausus, N.E. of Pisae. 

LUCANIA (-ae), a district in Lower Italy, 
bounded on the N. by Campania and Sam- 
niuni, on the E. by Apulia and the gulf of 
Tarentum, on the S. by Bruttium, and on the 
"W. by the Tyrrhene sea. It was separated 
from Campania by the river Silarus, and 
from Bruttium by the river Laus. Lucania 
was celebrated for its excellent pastures ; and 
its oxen were the finest and largest in Italy. 
Hence the elephant was at first called by the 
Romans a Lucanian ox [Lucas bos). The 
coast of Lucania was inhabited chiefly by 
Greeks, whose cities were numerous and 
flourishing. The interior of the country 
was originally inhabited by the Chones and 
Oenotrians. The Lucanians proper were 
Samnites, a brave and warlike race, who left 
their mother-country and settled both in 
Lucania and Bruttium. They not only ex- 
pelled or subdued the Oenotrians, but they 
gradually acquired possession of most of the 
Greek cities on the coast. They were sub- 
dued bv the Bomans after Pyrrhus had left 
Italy. 

LUCANTJS, M. ANNAEUS (-i), usually 
called LUCAN, a Roman poet, bora at Cor- 
duba in Spain, a.d. 39. His father was L. 
Annaeus Mella, a brother of M. Seneca, the 
philosopher. Lucan was brought up at Borne at 
an early age. He embarked in the conspiracy 
of Fiso against the life of Nero ; and upon the 
discovery of the plot was compelled to put an 
end to his life. He died a.d. 65, in the 26th 
year of his age. There is extant an heroic 
poem, by Lucan, in 10 books, entitled Phar- 
salia, in which the progress of the struggle 
between Caesar and Pompey is fully detailed. 
The 10th book is imperfect, and the narrative 
breaks off abruptly in the middle of the 
Alexandrian war. 



LUCANTJS, OCELLUS. [Ocellus.] 
LUCCEIUS (-i), L., an old friend and 
neighbour of Cicero, was an unsuccessful 
candidate for the consulship, along with Julius 
Caesar, in b.c 60. He wrote a contempo- 
raneous history of Borne, commencing with 
the Social or Marsic war. 

LUCERIA (-ae : Lucera), sometimes called 
NUCERIA, a town in Apulia on the borders 
of Samnium, and subsequently a Boman 
colony. 

LtCIANUS (-i), usually called LUC-IAN, a 
Greek writer, bora at Samosata, the capital 
of Coinmagene, in Syria, flourished in the 
reign of M. Aurelius. He practised for 
some time as an advocate at Antioch, and 
afterwards travelled through Greece, giving 
instruction in rhetoric. Late in life he 
obtained the office of procurator of part of 
Egypt. The most important of Lucian's 
writings are his Dialogues. They are 
treated in the greatest possible variety of 
style, from seriousness down to the broadest 
humour and buffoonery. Their subjects and 
tendency, too, vary considerably ; for while 
some are employed in attacking the heathen 
philosophy and religion, others are mere pic- 
tures of manners without any polemic drift. 
Lucian's merits as a writer consist in his 
knowledge of human nature, his strong com- 
mon sense, and the simplicity and Attic grace 
of his diction. 

LUCIFER (-eri), or PHOSPHORUS (-i), 
that is, the bringer of light, is the name of 
the planet Tenus, when seen in the morning 
before sunrise. The same planet was called 
Hesperus, Vesperugo, Vesper, Xociifer, or 
Xociumus, when it appeared in the heavens 
after sunset. Lucifer as a personification is 
called a son of Astraeus and Aurora or Eos, 
of Cephalus and Aurora, or of Atlas. By 
Philonis he is said to have been the father of 
Ceyx. He is also called the father of Daeda- 
lion and of the Hesperides. Lucifer is also a 
surname of several goddesses of light, as 
Artemis, Aurora, and Hecate. 

LUCILIUS (-i), C, the Roman satirist, was 
born at Suessa of the Aurunci, b.c 148, and 
died at Naples, 103, in the 46th year of his 
age. He lived upon terms of the closest 
familiarity with Scipio and Laelius. He was 
the first to mould Roman satire into that 
. form which afterwards received full develop- 
. ment in the hands of Horace, Persius, and 
: Juvenal. 

LUCINA (-ae), the goddess of light, or 
; rather the goddess that brings to light, and 
, hence the goddess that presides over the birth 
; of children. It was therefore used as a sur- 
; name of Juno and Diana. Lucina corresponded 
to the Greek goddess Ilithyia. 



LUCRETIA. 



245 



LUTETIA. 



LUCRETIA (-ae), the wife of L. Tarqui- 
nius Collatinus, whose rape by Sex. Tarquinius 
led to the dethronement of Tarquinius Super- 
bus and the establishment of the republic. 
[Tarquinius.] 

LUCRETILIS (-is), a pleasant mountain 
in the country of the Sabines, overhanging 
Horace's villa. 

LUCRETIUS CARUS, T., the Roman poet, 
born b.c. 95, is said to have been driven 
mad by a love potion, and to have perished 
by his own hand, b.c. 52 or 51. It is 
however not improbable that the story of 
the love potion and of his death was an 
invention of some enemy of the Epicureans. 
Lucretius is the author of a philosophical 
poem, in heroic hexameters, divided into 6 
books, addressed to C. Memmius Gemellus, 
who was pra?tor in 58, and entitled Be Rerum 
Katura. It contains an exposition of the 
doctrines of Epicurus. This poem has been 
admitted by all modern critics to be the 
greatest of didactic poems. The most abstruse 
speculations are clearly explained in majestic 
verse ; while the subject, which in itself was 
dry and dull, is enlivened by digressions of 
power and beauty. 

LUCRIXUS (-1), LACUS, was properly the 
inner part of the Sinus Cumanus or Puteo- 
lanus, a bay on the coast of Campania, 
between the promontory Misenum and 
Puteoli, running a considerable way inland. 
But at a very early period the Lucrine lake 
was separated from the remainder of the bay 
by a dyke 8 stadia in length, and thus assumed 
the character of an inland lake. Its waters 
still remained salt, and were celebrated for 
their oyster beds. Behind the Lucrine lake 
was another lake called Lacus A versus. In 
the time of Augustus, Agrippa made a 
communication between the lake Avernus 
and the Lucrine lake, and also between 
the Lucrine lake and the Sinus Cumanus, 
thus forming out of the 3 the celebrated 
Julian Harbour. The Lucrine lake was 
filled up by a volcanic eruption in 1538, 
when a conical mountain rose in its place, 
called Monte Xuovo. 

LUCULLUS, L. LICINIUS (-i), celebrated 
as the conqueror of Mithridates, fought on 
the side of Sulla in the civil wars with the 
Marian party, was praetor b.c 77, and consul 
74. In the latter year he received the 
conduct of the war against Mithridates, 
which he carried on for 8 years with great 
success. [Mithridates.] But being unable 
to bring the war to a conclusion in con- 
sequence of the mutinous disposition of 
his troops, he was superseded in the command 
by Acilius Glabrio, b.c 67. Glabrio however 
never took the command ; but in the follow- 



ing year (66), Lucullus had to resign the 
command to Pompey, who had been appointed 
by the Manilian law to supersede both him 
and Glabrio. On his return to Rome 
Lucullus devoted himself to a life of indolence 
and luxury, and lived in a style of extraor- 
dinary magnificence. He died in 57 or 56. 
He was the first to introduce cherries into 
Italy, which he had brought with him from 
Cerasus in Pontus. He was a patron of the 
poet Archias, and of literary men in general. 
He also composed a history of the Marsic 
war in Greek. 

LUCUMO. [Tarquinius.] 

LUGDUXUM (-i). (1) (Lyon), the chief 
town of Gallia Lugdunensis, situated at the 
foot of a hill at the confluence of the Arar 
(Saone) and the Rhodanus {Rhone), was made 
a Roman colony b.c 43, and became under 
Augustus the capital of the province, and the 
residence of the Roman governor. Lugdunum 
is memorable in the history of the Christian 
church as the seat of the ■ bishopric of 
Irenaeus. — (2) L, Batavorum (Leyden), the 
chief town of the Batavi. [Batavi.] 

LUNA (-ae). (1) The goddess of the 
Moon. [Selene.] — (2) (Luni), an Etruscan 
town, situated on the left bank of the Macra, 
about 4 miles from the coast, originally 
formed part of Liguria, but became the most 
X.-ly city of Etruria, when Augustus ex- 
tended the boundaries of the latter country 
as far as the Macra. It possessed a large and 
commodious harbour at the mouth of the 
river, called Lunae Portus (Gulf of Spezzia). 
In b.c 177 Luna was made a Roman colony. 

LUPERCUS (-i), an ancient Italian divi- 
nity, worshipped by shepherds as the protector 
of their flocks against wolves. The Romans 
sometimes identified Lupercus with the 
Arcadian Pan. Respecting the festival cele- 
brated in honour of Lupercus and his priests, 
the Luperci, see Diet, of Ant. 

LUPPIA or LUPIA (-ae : Lippe), a river 
in the X. W. of Germany, falling into the 
Rhine at Wesel in Westphalia, and on which 
the Romans built a fortress of the same 
name. 

LUPUS, RUTiLIUS (-i), the author of an 
extant rhetorical treatise in 2 books, entitled 
De Figuris Sententiarum et Llocutionis, ap- 
pears to have lived in the time of Augustus. 
LUSITAXIA, LUSITAXI. [Hispania.] 
LUTATIUS CATULUS. [Catulus.] 
LUTETIA (-ae), or, more commonly, 
Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), the capital of 
the Parisii in Gallia Lugdunensis, was 
situated on an island in the Sequana (Seine), 
and was connected with the banks of the 
river by 2 wooden bridges. Under the em- 
perors it became a place of importance, and 



LYCABETTUS. 



246 



LYCOEEA. 



the chief naval station on the Sequana. Here 
Julian was proclaimed emperor, a.d. 360. 

LYCABETTUS (-i : St. George), a moun- 
tain in Attica, belonging to the range of 
Pentelicus, close to the Trails of Athens on 
the N.E. of the city. 

LYCAEUS or LYCEUS (4), a lofty moun- 
tain in Arcadia, N.W. of Megalopolis, one of 
the chief seats of the worship of Zeus (Jupi- 
ter) , and of Pan, each of whom was therefore 
called Lycaeus. 

LYCAMBES. [Archilochus.] 

LYCAOX (-onis), king of Arcadia, son of 
Pelasgus, an impious king, who served 
before Zeus (Jupiter), a dish of human flesh, 
when the god visited him. Lycaon and all 
his sons, with the exception of Xyctimus, 
were killed by Zeus with a flash of lightning, 
or according to others, were changed into 
wolves. — Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon, is 
said to have been changed into the constella- 
tion of the Bear, whence she is called by the I 
poets Lycaonis Arctos, Lyeaonia Arctos, or j 
Lycaonia Virgo, or by her patronymic j 
Lycaonis. 

LYCAONIA (-ae), a district of Asia Minor, 
forming the S.E„ part of Phrygia. The 1 
people were, so far as can be traced, an ' 
aboriginal race, speaking a language which 
is mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles as a 1 
distinct dialect i they were warlike, and 
especially skilled in archery. 

LYCEUM (-i), the name of one of the 3 
ancient gymnasia at Athens, called after the 1 
temple of Apollo Lyceus, in its neighbourhood. : 
It was situated S.E. of the city, outside the i 
walls, and just above the river Ilissus. It is 
celebrated as the place where Aristotle and 
the Peripatetics taught. 

LYCEUS (-i), a surname of Apollo, the 
meaning of which is not quite certain. Some 
'derive it from kCzreg, a wolf, so that it would 
mean " the wolf-slayer ;" others from Xvxvi, 
light, according to which it would mean 
" the giver of light ;" and others again from 
the country of Lycia. 

LYCHNIDUS (4), more rarely LYCHXI- j 
DIUM (4), or LYCHNIS (-Idis), the ancient 
capital of the Dessaretii in the interior of 
Illyricum, situated on a height on the X. 
bank of the lake LychnTtis. 

LYCIA (-ae), a small district on the S. side 
of Asia Minor, between Caria and Pamphylia. 
According to tradition, the most ancient 
name of the country was Milyas, and the 
earliest inhabitants were called Mil^ae, and 
afterwards Solymi : subsequently the Termi- 
lae, from Crete, settled in the country : and 
lastly, the Athenian Lycus, the son of Pandion, 
fled from his brother Aegeus to Lycia, and 
gave his name to the country. Homer, who 



gives Lycia a prominent place in the Iliad, 
represents its chieftains, Glaucus and 
Sarpedon, as descended from the royal family 
of Argos (Aeolids). He speaks of the Solymi 
as a warlike race, inhabiting the mountains, 
against whom the Greek hero Bellerophontes 
is sent to fight, by his relative the king of 
Lycia. Besides the legend of Bellerophon 
and the chimaera, Lycia is the scene of 
another popular Greek story, that of the 
Harpies and the daughters of Pandareos ; and 
memorials of both are preserved on the 
Lycian monuments now in the British 
Museum. On the whole, it is clear that 
Lycia was colonised by the Greeks at a very 
early period, and that its historical inhabi- 
tants were Greeks, though with a mixture of 
native blood. The earlier names were pre- 
served in the district in the X. of the country 
called Milyas, and in the mountains called 
Solyma. The Lycians always kept the repu- 
tation they have in Homer, as brave warriors. 
They and the Cilicians were the only people 
W. of the Halys whom Croesus did not con- 
quer, and they were the last who resisted the 
Persians. [Xaxthtjs.] 

LYCIUS (4), the Lycian, a surname of 
Apollo, who was worshipped in several places 
of Lycia, especially at Patara, where he had 
an oracle. Hence the Lyciae sortes in Virgil 
are the responses of the oracle at Patara. 

LYCOMEDES (-is), king of the Dolopians, 
in the island of Scyros, to whose court 
Achilles was sent, disguised as a maiden, by 
his mother Thetis, who was anxious to 
prevent his going to the Trojan war. Here 
Achilles became by Deidamla, the daughter 
of Lyeomedes, the father of Pyrrhus or Xe- 
optolemus. Lyeomedes treacherously killed 
Theseus by thrusting him down a rock. 

LYCOX (-onis), of Troas, a distinguished 
Peripatetic philosopher, and the disciple of 
Straton, whom he succeeded as the head of 
the Peripatetic school, b.c. 27 2. 

LYCOPHROX (-onis). a grammarian and 
" poet, was a native of Chalcis in Euboea, and 
lived at Alexandria, under Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus (b.c. 285 — 247). He was the author 
of an extant poem, entitled Cassandra or 
Alexandra, in which Cassandra is made to 
prophesy the fall of Troy, with numerous 
other events. The obscurity of this work is 
, proverbial. Among the numerous ancient 
I commentaries on the poem, the most impor- 
tant are the Scholia of Isaac and John Tzetzes, 
which are far more valuable than the poem 
itself. 

LYCOPOLIS (-is), a city of Upper Egypt, 
on the W. bank of the Xile, between Hermo- 
polis and Ptolemais. 

LYCOREA (-ae), an ancient town at the 



LYCOBIS. 



247 



LYDIA. 



foot of 1ft. Lycorea, which was the southern 
of the 2 peaks of Mt. Parnassus. [Par- I 
NASsrs.] Hence Apollo derived the surname 
of Lcyoreus. 

LYCOBIS. [Cythebis.] 

LTCTUS or LYTTUS [-i), an important | 
town in the E. of Crete, situated on a height, 
80 stadia from the coast. It is said to have 
"been a Spartan colony. 

LYCfRGUS (-i). * (1) Son of Dryas, and | 
king of the Edones in Thrace, famous for his 
persecution of Dionysus (Bacchus) and of his 
worship in Thrace. He was driven mad by 
the gods on account of his impiety, and was 
subsequently killed, hut the manner of his 




Lycurgns iufariate. (Osterlev, Denk. der alt. Kunst, 
part 2, tav. 37.) 



death is variously related. — (2) The Spartan 
legislator, was the son of Eunomus, king of 
Sparta, and brother of Polydectes. The 
latter succeeded his father as king of Sparta, 
and afterwards died, leaving his queen with 
child. The ambitious woman proposed to 
Lycurgus to destroy her offspring if he would 
share the throne with her. He seemingly 
consented ; but when she had given birth to 
a son (Charilaus), he openly proclaimed him 
king ; and as next of kin, acted as his 
guardian. But to avoid all suspicion of 
ambitious designs, Lycurgus left Sparta, and 
set out on his celebrated travels. He is said 
to have visited Crete, Ionia, and Egypt, and 
to have penetrated even as far as India. His 
return to Sparta was hailed by all parties. 
Sparta was in a state of anarchy and licen- 
tiousness, and he was considered as the man 
who alone could cure the growing diseases of 
the state. He undertook the task ; and not- 
withstanding some opposition, he made a 
new division of property, and remodelled 
the whole constitution, military and civil. 
After Lycurgus had obtained for his insti- 
tutions an approving oracle of the god of 
Delphi, he exacted a promise from the people 
not to make any alterations in his laws before 
his return. He now left Sparta to finish his 



life in voluntary exile, in order that his 
countrymen might be bound by their oath to 
preserve his constitution inviolate for ever. 
Where and how he died, nobody could tell. 
He was honoured as a god at Sparta with a 
temple and yearly sacrifices, down to the 
latest times. The date of Lycurgus is 
variously given, but it is impossible to place 
it later than b.c. 825. Lycurgus was re- 
garded through all subsequent ages as the 
legislator of Sparta, and therefore almost all 
the Spartan institutions were ascribed to him 
as their author ; but we must not imagine 
that they were all his work. — [3 An Attic 
orator, born at Athens, about B.C. 396, was a 
disciple of Plato and Isocrates, a warm sup- 
porter of the policy of Demosthenes, and one 
of the most virtuous citizens and upright 
statesmen of his age. He was thrice ap- 
pointed Tamias, or manager of the public 
revenue. He died in 323. Only one of his 
orations has come down to us. 

LYCUS (-i). (1) Of Thebes, put to death 
with his wife Dirce, byAmphion and Zethus, 
on account of the cruelty with which they 
had treated Antiope, the mother of the two 
latter by Zeus (Jupiter). Eor details see 
Amphion. (2) Son of Pandion, was expelled 
by his brother, Aegeus, and took refuge in the 
country of the Termili, wbich was called 
Lyeia after him. The Lyceum at Athens is 
said to have derived its name from him. — (3) 
Name of several rivers, which are said to be so 
called from the impetuosity of their current. 
1. In Bithynia, falling into the sea S. of 
; Heraclea Pontica. 2. In Pontus, rising in 
! the mountains on the N. of Armenia Minor, 
and flowing \Y. into the Iris at Eupatoria. 
3. In Phrygia, flowing from E. to W. past 
Colossae and Laodicea into the Ylaeander. 

LYDDA (-oram), a town of Palestine, 
| S.E. of Joppa, and N.YT. of Jerusalem, subse- 
quently^ called Diospolis. 

LYDIA (-ae), a district of Asia Minor, in 
j the middle of the W. side of the peninsula, 
between Mysia on the X. and Caria on the 
! S., and between Phrygia on the E. and the 
Aegean Sea on the W. In these boundaries 
, the strip of coast belonging to Ionia is 
I included, but the name is sometimes used in 
a narrower signification, so as to exclude 
Ionia. Lydia is divided into 2 unequal 
valleys by the chain of Mt. Tmolus ; of which 
the S. and smaller is watered by the river 
Catster, and the N. forms the great plain of 
[ the Hermxs. In early times the country had 
I another name, Maeonia, by which alone it is 
! known to Homer. Lydia was an early seat 
of Asiatic civilisation, and exerted a very 
j important influence on the Greeks. The 
{ Lydian monarchy, which was founded at 



LYDIAS. 



248 



LYSIMACHUS. 



Sardis, grew up into an empire, under which the Peloponnesian war to a conclusion, by 
the many different tribes of Asia Minor W. the defeat of the Athenian fleet off Aegos- 
of the river Halys, were for the first time ; potanii, and in the following year he entered 
united. The names and computed dates of i Athens in triumph. It was through his 
the Lydian kings are : — 1. Gyges, b,c. 716 — , influence that Agesilaus, the brother of Agis, 
678; 2. Ardys, 678 — 620; 3. Sadyattes, ; obtained the Spartan throne in opposition to 
629 — 617; 4. Aeyattes, 617 — 560; 5. Leotychides, the reputed son of the latter. 
Croesus, 560 (or earlier) — 546 ; under \ Lysander accompanied Agesilaus to Asia ; 
whose names an account is given of the rise but the king purposely thwarted all his 
of the Lydian empire in Asia Minor, and of designs, and refused all the favours which he 
its overthrow by the Persians under Cyrus, asked. On his return to Sparta, Lysander 
Under the Persians, Lydia and Mysia formed ; resolved to bring about a change in the 
the 2nd satrapy ; after the Macedonian con- 1 Spartan constitution, by abolishing hereditary 
quest, Lydia belonged first to the kings of j royalty, and making the throne elective. 
Syria, and next (after the defeat of Antiochus | But before he could carry his enterprise into 
the Great by the Romans) to those of Per- j effect, he fell in battle under the walls of 
gamus, and so passed, by the bequest of Haliartus, b.c. 395. 

Attains ELL, to the Romans, under whom it LYSIAS [-ae), an Attic orator, was born at 
formed part of the province of Asia. Athens, b.c. 458, but was not an Athenian 

LYDIAS or LUDIAS (-ae), a river in ' citizen, being the son of Cephalus, a native of 
Macedonia, falling into the Axius, a short Syracuse. At the age of 15, Lysias joined the 
distance from the Thermaic gulf. Herodotus, ; Athenians who went as colonists to Thurii, in 
by mistake, makes the Lydias unite with the j Italy, 443 ; but he returned to Athens after the 
Haliacmon. ^ j defeat of the Athenians in Sicily, 411. During 

LYGII or LIGII (-oiuni), an important | the rule of the 30 Tyrants (404), he was thrown 
people in Germany, between the Yiadus i into prison ; but he escaped, and joined Thra- 
[Oder) and the Yistula. sybulus and the exiles, to whom he rendered 

LYXCESTIS (-Idis), a district in the S.TY. j important assistance. He died in 378, at the 
of Macedonia, upon the frontiers of Illyria, ! age of 80. Lysias wrote a great number of 
inhabited by the Lyxcestae, an Illyrian j orations for others, of which several are ex- 
people. The ancient capital of the country j tant. They are distinguished by grace and 
was Lyxcus, though Heraclea at a later elegance. 

time became the chief town in the district, i LYSIMACHIA, or -EA (-ae), an import- 
]STear Lyncus was a river, whose waters are ant town of Thrace, on the gulf of Melas, and 
said to have been as intoxicating as wine. i on the isthmus connecting the Thracian 
LYXCEUS (-el, -el or -eos). (1) One j Chersonesus with the mainland, founded b.c, 
of the 50 sons of Aegyptus, whose life was j 309 by Lysimachus, who removed to his new 
saved by his wife Hypermnestra, when all his ! city the inhabitants of the neighbouring town 
brothers were murdered by the daughters of of Cardia^ 

Danaus. [Aegyptes.] Lynceus succeeded LYSIMACHUS (-i), one of Alexander's 
Danaus as king of Argos. — (2) Son of Apha- ! generals, obtained Thrace in the division of 
reus and Arene, and brother of Idas, was one J the provinces, after Alexander's death (b.c. 
of the Argonauts, and famous for his keen 323), and assumed the title of king in 306. 
sight. He was slain by Pollux. For details He joined the other generals of Alexander in 
respecting his death, see Dioscuri. j opposing Antigonus, and it was he and Se- 

LYNCUS (-i), king of Scythia, endeavoured I leucus who gained the decisive victory at 
to murder Triptolemus, who came to him Ipsus over Antigonus, in which the latter 
with the gifts of Ceres, but he was meta- ! fell (301). In 291 Lysimachus was taken 
morphosed by the goddess into a lynx. j prisoner by Dromichaetes, king of the Getae, 

LYRCEA (-ae) or LYRCEUM (-i), a whose country he had invaded, but he was 
small town in Argolis, situated on a nioun- \ restored to liberty by the latter. In 287 
tain of the same name. ! Lysimachus and Pyrrhus expelled Demetrius 

LYRXESSUS (-i), a town in the Troad, from Macedonia. Pyrrhus, for a time, 
the birthplace of Briseis. . obtained possession of the Macedonian throne ; 

LYSANDER (-dri), one of the most dis- but in the following year he was driven out 
tinguished of the Spartan generals and of the country by Lysimachus, who now 
diplomatists. Having been appointed to the became king of Macedonia. Towards the end 
command of the Spartan fleet, off the coast of j of his reign the aged Lysimachus put to death 
Asia Minor, he gained the favour of Cyrus, his son Agathocles, at the instigation of his 
who supplied him with large sums of money i wife, Arsinoe, daughter of Ptolemy Soter. 
to pay his sailors. In b.c 405 he brought | This bloody deed alienated the minds of his 



LYSIPPUS. 



249 



MACRINUS. 



subjects ; and Seleucus invaded the do- 
minions of Lysimachus. The two monarch* 
met in the plain of Corus (Corupedion) ; and 
Lysimachus fell in the battle that ensued, B.C. 
281,_in his 80th year. 

LYSIPPUS (-i), of Sicyon, one of the most 
distinguished Greek statuaries, was a con- 
temporary of Alexander the Great, who is 
reported to have said that no one should 
paint him but Apelles, and no one make his 
statue but Lysippus. 

LYSIS (-idis), an eminent Pythagorean 
philosopher, the teacher of Epaminondas. 

LYSTRA (-ae), a city of Lycaonia, on the 
confines of Isauria, celebrated as one chief 
scene of the preaching of Paul and Barnabas. 



~A TACAE (-arum). (1) A people on the E 

^ coast of Arabia Felix, probably about 
Unseat. — (2) An inland people of Libya, in 
the part of X. Africa between the Syrtes. 

MACAREUS (-ei), son of Aeolus, who 
committed incest with his sister Canace. 
[Caxace.] Hence Isse, the daughter of 
Macareusis called Macareis. 

MACCABAEI (-drum), the descendants of 
the family of the heroic Judas Maccabi or 
Maccabaeus, a surname which he obtained j 
from his glorious victories. (From the He- ; 
brew makkab, "a hammer.") They were 
also called Asamonaei, from Asamonaeus, or 
Chasmon, the ancestor of Judas Maccabaeus, j 
or, in a shorter form, Asmonaei or Hasmonaei. 
The family first obtained distinction by their 
resisting the attempts of Antiochus IV. j 
Epiphanes, king of Syria, to root out the 
worship of Jehovah. They succeeded in de- 
liveriag U eir country from the Syrian yoke, 
and became the rulers of Judea. 

MACEDONIA (-ae), a country in Europe, 
N. of Greece, said to have been originally 
named Emathia. Its boundaries before the 
time of Philip, the father of Alexander, were 
on the S. Olympus and the Cambunian moun- 
tains, which separated it from Thessaly and 
Epirus, on the E. the river Strymon, which 
separated it from Thrace, and on the N. and 
W. Illyria and Paeonia. Macedonia was 
greatly enlarged by the conquests of Philip. 
He added to his kingdom Paeonia on the N. ; 
a part of Thrace on the E. as far as the 
river Nestus, which Thracian district was 
usually called Macedonia adjecta ; the penin- 
sula Chalcidice on the S. ; and on the W. a 
part of Illyria, as far as the lake Lyehnitis. 
On the conquest of the country by the Romans, 
b.c. 168, Macedonia was divided into 4 dis- 
tricts, independent of one another ; but the 
whole country was formed into a Roman I 



! province after the conquest of the Achaeans, 
j in 146. The great bulk of the inhabitants 
of Macedonia consisted of Thracian and 
! Illyrian tribes. At an early period some 
j Greek tribes settled in the S. part of the 
! country. They are said to have come from 
| Argos, and to have been led by the 3 sons 
of Temenus, the Heraclid. Perdiccas, the 
youngest of the three, was looked upon as the 
j founder of the Macedonian monarchy. A 
later tradition, however, regarded Caranus 
who was also a Heraclid from Argos, as the 
| founder of the monarchy. These Greek 
| settlers intermarried with the original inha- 
| bitants of the country. The dialect which 
they spoke was akin to the Doric, but it 
contained many barbarous words and forms ; 
and the Macedonians accordingly were never 
I regarded by the other Greeks as genuine 
: Hellenes. Moreover, it was only in the S, 
j of Macedonia that the Greek language was 
I spoken. Very little is known of the history 
of Macedonia till the reign of Amyntas I., 
who was a contemporary of Darius Hystaspis ; 
but from that time their history is more or# 
j less intimately connected with that of Greece, 
till at length Philip, the father of Alexander 
the Great, became the virtual master of the 
j whole of Greece. The conquests of Alexander 
• extended the Macedonian supremacy over a 
j great part of Asia ; and the Macedonian 
i kings continued to exercise their sovereigntv 
over Greece till the conquest of Perseus by 
j the Romans, 168, brought the Macedonian 
| monarchy to a close. ' 

MACELLA (-ae), a small fortified town in 
the W. of Sicily, S.E. of Segesta. 

MACER (-cri) AEMILIUS (-i). (1) A 
Roman poet, was a native of Verona, and died 
in Asia, e.c. 16. He wrote a poem upon birds, 
snakes, and medicinal plants. — (2) Y\ r e must 
distinguish from Aemilius Macer of Verona, 
a poet Macer, who wrote on the Trojan war, 
and who must have been alive in a.d. 12, 
since he is addressed by Ovid in that year 
{ex Pont. ii. 10, 2). 

MACER, LICINIUS. [Lictnitts.] 
MACETAE (-arum), another name of the 
Macedonians. 

MACHAOX (-onis), son of Aesculapius, 
the surgeon of the Greeks in the Trojan war, 
led, with his brother Podalirius, troops from 
Tricca, Ithome, and Oechalia. He was killed 
by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus. 

MACRA (-ae : Afagra), a small river 
rising in the Apennines and flowing into the 
Ligurian sea near Luna, which, from the 
time of Augustus, formed the boundary be- 
tween Liguria and Etruria. 

MAORI CAMPI. _ [Camfi Maori.] 1 
MACRINUS, M. OPILIUS SEVERUS (-i), 



MACB.OBIX 



25< 



MAGDOLLM. 



Roman emperor, April, a.d. 217 — June, 218, 
and successor of Caracalla, whom he had 
caused to be assassinated. He was defeated 
by the generals of Elagabalus and put to death. 

* MACROBII (-oruin : i.e. Long-lived), an 
Aethiopian people in Africa, placed by He- 
rodotus on the shores of the S. Ocean. 

MACRO BI US (-i), a Roman grammarian, 
who lived about a.d. 400, wrote several 
works, of which the most important are : — 
1. A treatise in 7 books, entitled Saturnalia 
Convivia, consisting of a series of disser- 
tations on history, mythology, criticism, and 
various points of antiquarian research. 2. A 
Commentary on Cicero's Somnium Scijnonis. 

MACROXES (-um), a powerful and warlike 
Caucasian people on the N.E. shore of the 
Pontus Euxinus, 

MADYTUS (-i), a sea-port town on the 
Thracian Chersonesus. 

MAEAXDER (-dri), a river in Asia Minor, 
proverbial for its wanderings, rising in the 
S. of Phrygia, close to the source of the 
Marsyas, flowing between Lydia and Caria, 
of which it forms the boundary, and at last 
falling into the Icarian Sea between Myus 
and Priene. As a god Maeander is described 
as the father of the nymph Cyane, who was 
the mother of Caunus. Hence the latter is 
called by Ovid Maeandrius juvenis. 

MAECENAS (-axis), C. CILXIUS (-i), a 
Roman eques, but descended both on his 
father's and mother's side from the Lucinnones 
of Etruria. His paternal ancestors were the 
Cilnii, a powerful family at Arretium, and 
his maternal ancestors the Maecenates, at 
Arretium. Maecenas was one of the chief 
friends and ministers of Augustus, and en- 
joyed for many years the confidence of the 
latter. But towards the latter years of his 
life a coolness sprang up between them, and 
Maecenas retired entirely from public life. 
He died B.C. 8. The fame of Maecenas, how- 
ever, rests mainly on his patronage of lite- 
rature, especially of Virgil and Horace. 
Virgil was indebted to him for the recovery 
of his farm, which had been appropriated by 
the soldiery in the division of lands, in b.c 
41 ; and it was at the request of Maecenas 
that he undertook the Georgics. To Horace 
Maecenas was a still greater benefactor. He 
presented him with the means of comfortable 
subsistence, a farm in the Sabine country. 

MAECIUS TARPA. [Tarfa.] 

MAE DIC A (-ae), the country of the Maedi, 
a powerful people in the W. of Thrace, on the 
\V. bank of the Strymon. 

MAELIUS (-i), SP., the richest of the ple- 
beian knights, employed his fortune in buying 
up corn in Etruria in the great famine at 
Rome in b.c. 440. This corn he sold to the 



poor at a small price, or distributed it gratu- 
itously. The patricians accused him of aim- 
ing at the kingly power, and appointed 
Cincinnatus dictator. C. Servilius Ahala, 
the master of the horse, summoned Maelius 
to appear before the tribunal of the dictator ; 
but as he refused to go, Ahala rushed into 
the crowd, and slew him. His property was 
confiscated, and his house pulled down ; its 
vacant site, which was called the Aequimae- 
lium, continued to subsequent ages a memoria. 
of his fate. 

MAEXADES (-um : sing. Maenas), a name 
of the Bacchantes, from fActlvouosi, "to be 
mad," because they were frenzied in the wor- 
ship of Dionysus or Bacchus. 

MAENALUS (-i), a mountain in Arcadia, 
extending from Megalopolis to Tegea, cele- 
brated as the favourite haunt of the god Pan. 
The Roman poets frequently use the adjec- 
tives Maenaliws and JIaenalis as equivalent 
to Arcadian. 

MAENIUS (-i), C, consul b.c. 338, with 
L. Eurius Camillas. The 2 consuls com- 
pleted the subjugation of Latium ; they were 
both rewarded with a triumph, and eques- 
trian statues were erected to their honour in 
the forum. The statue of Maeiiius was placed 
upon a column, called Cohimna Macnia, 
which appears to have stood near the end 
of the forum, on the Capitoline. 3Iaenius, 
in his censorship (b.c 318), allowed balconies 
to be added to the various buildings surround- 
ing the forum, in order that the spectators 
might obtain more room for beholding the 
games which were exhibited in the forum : 
these balconies were called after him Maeniana 
(sc. aedificia). 

MAEONIA (-ae), the ancient name of Lydia. 
Hence Virgil gives the name of Maeonia to 
Etruria, because the Etruscans were said to 
be descended from Lydians. Hence also 
Homer, as a native of Maeonia, is called 
Maeonides and Maeonius senex, and his 
poems the Maeoniae chart ae, or Maeonium 
carmen. [Lydia.] — Maeoxis likewise occurs 
as a surname of Qmphale and of Arachne, 
because both were Lydians. 

MAEOTAE. [Maeotis Paixs.] 

MAEOTIS (-idis) PALUS {Sea of Azov), an 
inland sea on the borders of Europe and Asia, 
N. of the Pontus Euxinus {Black Sea), with 
which it communicates by the Bosporcs 
Cimmertus. The Scythian tribes on its banks 
were called by the collective name of Maeotae 
or Maeotici. " The sea had also the names of 
Cimmerium or Bosporicum Mare. 

MAERA, the dog of Icarius, the father of 
Erigone. [Icarivs, Xo. 1.] 

MAEVIUS. [Bayitjs.] 

MAGDOLUM (0. T. Migdol), a city of 



MAGETOBRIA. 



251 



MANETIIO. 



Lower Egypt, near the X. E. frontier, where 1 
Pharaoh Necho defeated the Syrians. 

MAGETOBRIA {Moigte deBrcAc, on the 
Saone), a town on the W. frontiers of the 1 
Sequani, near which the Ganls were defeated j 
by the Germans shortly before Caesar's ! 
arrival in Gaul. 

MAGI (-orom) , the name of the order of 
priests and religious teachers among the 
Medes and Persians. [Zoroaster.] 

MAGNA GRAECIA. "Graecia."] 

MAGNA MATER. ^Rhea.] 

MAGNENTIUS (4), Roman emperor in the 
West, a.d. 350 — 353, obtained the throne by 
the murder of Constans, but was defeated by ! 
Constantius,^and put an end to his own life. 

MAGNESIA (-ae). (1) A narrow slip of ! 
country along the eastern coast of Thessaly, 
extending from the Peneus on the N. to the j 
Pagasaean gulf on the S. Its inhabitants, ; 
the Magnetes, are said to have founded the 
2 cities in Asia mentioned below. — (2) Mag- 
xesia ad Sipylem, a city in the N TS', of 
Lydia, at the foot of Mt. Sipylus, and on the 
S. bank of the Hernius, famous as the scene of ; 
the victory gained by Scipio Asiaticus over 
Antiochus the Great, ex. 190. — (3; Mag- 
nesia ad Maeaxdrex, a city in the S.W. of 
Lydia, situated on the river Lethaeus, a 
tributary of the Maeander. It was destroyed I 
by the Cimmerians (probably about b.c. 700) 
and rebuilt by colonists from Miletus. 

MAGO (-onis), the name of several Car- 
thaginians, of whom the most celebrated 
were: — (I) Son of Hamilcar Barca, and 
youngest brother of the famous Hannibal. 
He carried on the war for many years in 
Spain ; and after the Carthaginians had been 
driven out of that country by Scipio, he 
landed in Liguria, where he remained 2 years 
(b.c. 205 — 203). — (2) The author of a work 
upon agriculture in the Punic language, in 
28 books, which was translated into Latin by 
order of the Roman senate. 

MAGONTIACUM. [Mogontiacum.] 

MAIA (-ae), daughter of Atlas and Pleione, 
was the eldest of the Pleiades, and the most 
beautiful of the 7 sisters. In a grotto of Mt. 
Cyllene, in Arcadia, she became by Zeus 
(Jupiter) the mother of Hermes (Mercury). 
Areas, the son of Zeus by Callisto, was given 
to her to be reared. [Pleiades.] 

MALACA (-ae : Malaga), an important 
town on the coast of Hispania Baetica, and 
on a river of the same name, founded by the 
Phoenicians. 

MALE A or EA (-ae), a promontory on the 
S.E. of Laconia, separating the Argolic and 
Laconic gulfs. 

MALIACUS SINUS. [Maws.] * 

MALES, a district in the S. of Thessaly, on 



the shores of the Maliacus Sinus, and opposite 
the N.W. point of the island of Euboea. It 
extended as far as the pass of Thermopylae. 
Its inhabitants, the Malienses, were Dorians, 
and belonged to the Amphictyonic league. 

MALLI (-orum), an Indian people on both 
sides of the Hydraotes : their capital is sup- 
posed to have been on the site of the cele- 
brated fortress of Mooltan. 

MALLL'S (-i), a very ancient city of 
Cilicia, on a hill E. of the mouth of the river 
Pyramus, said to have been founded at the 
time of the Trojan war by Mopsus and Am- 
philochus. 

M AMERCES (-i), the name of a distin- 
guished family of the Aemilia gens in the 
early times of the republic. 

MAMERS (-ris), the Oscan name of the 
god Mars. 

MAMERTINI. [Me 5 sax a]. 
MAMILIUS (4), the name of a distin- 
guished family in Tusculum. It was to a 
member of this family, Octavius Mamilius, 
that Tarquinius betrothed his daughter ; and 
on his expulsion from Rome, his son-in-law 
roused the Latin people against the infant 
republic, and perished in the great battle at 
the lake Regillus. The Mamilii afterwards 
removed to Rome. 

MAMURIES YETERirS. [Yeteries.] 
MAMURRA (-ae' , a Roman eques, born at 
Eormiae, was the commander of the en- 
gineers (praefectus fab rum) in Julius Caesar's 
army in Gaul, and ama-sed great riches, 
i Horace calls Eormiae, in ridicule, Matmer- 
rarum urbs, from which we may infer that 
j the name of Mamurra had become a byeword 
; of contempt. 

MANCINES, C.HOSTILIUS (4) , consul b.c. 
137, was defeated by the Numantines, and 
; purchased his safety by making a peace vdth 
them. The senate refused to recognise it, 
! and went through the hypocritical ceremony 
j of delivering him over to the enemy, who re- 
i fused to accept him. 

MANDUBII (-orum), a people in Gallia 
; Lugdunensis, in the modern Burgundy, whose 
chief town was Atjkkta. 

MANDURIA (-ae), a town in Calabria, on 
I the road from Tarentum to Hydruntuni. 

MANES (-mm), the name which the Ro- 
j mans gave to the souls of the departed, who 
were worshipped as gods. Hence on sepul- 
j chres we find D. M. S., that is Lis Manibus 
Sacrum.^ [Lares.] 

MANETHO (-onis), an Egypti an priest in 
j the reign of the first Ptolemy, who wrote in 
Greek an account of the religion and history 
i of his country. His history of Egypt con- 
! tained an accoimt of the different dynasties 
[ of kings, compiled from genuine documents. 



MANILIUS. 



252 



MARCELLUS. 



The work itself is lost ; but a list of the 
dynasties is preserved in Julius Africanus 
and Eus_ebius. 

MANILIUS (4). (1) C., tribune of the 
plebs, b.c. 66, proposed the law {Manilla Lex) , 
granting to Pompey the command of the war 
against Mithridates, and which Cicero sup- 
ported in an extant oration. — (2) A Roman 
poet, who lived in the time of Augustus, and 
the author of an extant astrological poem in 
5 books, entitled Astronomica. 

M. MANLIUS (-i), consul b.c. 392, took 
refuge in the capitol when Rome was taken 
by the Gauls in 390. One night, when the 
Gauls endeavoured to ascend the capitol, 
Manlius was roused from his sleep by the 
cackling of the geese ; collecting hastily a 
body of men, he succeeded in driving back 
the enemy, who had just reached the summit 
of the hill. From this heroic deed he is said 
to have received the surname, of Capitolinus. 
In 385, he defended the cause of the ple- 
beians, who were suffering severely from the 
harsh and cruel treatment of their patrician 
creditors. In the following year, he was 
charged with high treason by the patricians ; 
and being condemned to death by the people, 
he was hurled down the Tarpeian rock by the 
tribunes. The members of the Manlia gens 
accordingly resolved that none of them should 
ever bear in future the praenomen of Marcus. 

MANLIUS TORQUATUS. [Torquatus.] 

MANTINEA (-ae), one of the most ancient 
and important towns in Arcadia, situated on 
the small river Ophis, near the centre of the 
E. frontier of the country. It is celebrated 
for the great battle fought under its walls 
between the Spartans and Thebans, in which 
Epaminondas fell, b.c. 362. In consequence 
of its treachery to the Achaeans, Aratus put 
to' death its leading citizens, sold the rest of 
its inhabitants as slaves, and changed its 
name into Aniigonia, in honour of Antigonus 
Doson. The emperor Hadrian restored to the 
place its ancient name. 

MANTO (-us). (1) Daughter of Tiresias, a 
prophetess, and mother of the seer Mopsus. — 
(2) Daughter of Hercules, likewise a pro- 
phetess, from whom the town of Mantua 
received its name. 

MANTUA (-ae), a town in Gallia Transpa- 
dana, on an island in the river Mincius, was 
not a place of importance, but is celebrated 
because Virgil, who was born at the neigh- 
bouring village of Andes, regarded Mantua as 
his birthplace. 

MARACANDA (-orum : Samarkand), the 
capital of Sogdiana, where Alexander the 
Great killed his friend Clittjs. 

MARATHON (-onis), a village of Attica, 
situated near a bay on the E. coast, 22 miles 



from Athens by one road, and 26 miles by 
another. It stood in a plain, extending 
along the sea-shore, about 6 miles in length, 
and from 3 miles to 1^ mile in breadth, and 
surrounded on the other 3 sides by rocky 
hills. Two marshes bound the extremity of 
the plain. Here was fought the celebrated 
battle between the Persians and Athenians 
b#c 490. The Persians were drawn up on 
the plain, and the Athenians on some portion 
of the high ground above. The Tumulus 
raised over the Athenians who fell in the 
battle, is still to be seen. The Marathonian 
plain is also celebrated in mythology on ac- 
count of the fierce bull here slain by Theseus. 

MARATHUS (-i), an important city on the 
coast of Phoenicia opposite to Aradus and 
near Antaradus. 

MARCELLUS (4), the name of an illus- 
trious plebeian family of the Claudia gens. 
— (1) M. Claudius Marcellus, celebrated 
as 5 times consul, and the conqueror of 
Syracuse. In his first consulship, b.c 
222, Marcellus distinguished himself by 
slaying in battle with his own hand Brito- 
martus or Yiridomarus, the king of the Insu- 
brian Gauls, whose spoils he afterwards 
dedicated as spolia opima in the temple of 
Jupiter Eeretrius. This was the 3rd and last 
instance in Roman history in which such an 
offering was made. Marcellus was one of the 
chief Roman generals in the 2nd Punic war. 
He took Syracuse in b.c. 212, after a siege of 
more than 2 years, in which all his powerful 
military engines were rendered wholly un- 
availing by the superior skill and science of 
Archimedes, who directed those of the be- 
sieged. On the capture of the city Archi- 
medes was one of the inhabitants slain by 
the Roman soldiers. Marcellus fell in battle 
against Hannibal in 208 — (2) M. Claudius 
Marcellus, consul b.c. 51, and a bitter 
enemy of Caesar. In b.c. 46 he was par- 
doned by Caesar on the intercession of the 
senate ; whereupon Cicero returned thanks 
to Caesar in the oration Pro Marcello, which 
has come down to us. Marcellus, who was 
then living at Mytilene, set out on his return ; 
but he was murdered at the Piraeus by one of 
his own attendants, P. Magius Chilo. — (3) C. 
Claudius Marcellus, brother of No. 2, and 
also an enemy of Caesar, was consul in 49, when 
the civil war broke out.— (4) C, Claudius 
Marcellus, first cousin of the two preceding, 
and, like them, an enemy of Caesar. He was 
consul in 50, but he did not join Pompey in 
Greece, and was therefore readily pardoned 
by Caesar.— (5) M. Claudius Marcellus, 
son of the preceding and of Octavia, the 
daughter of C. Octavius and sister of Augustus, 
was born in 43. Augustus, who had pro- 



MARCIUS, 



253 



MAKIUS. 



bably destined him for his successor, adopted 
him as his son, and gave him his daughter Julia 
in marriage (b.c. 25). In 23 he was curule 
aedile, but died in the same year to the great 
grief of Augustus, as well as of his mother 
Octavia. The memory of Marcellus is em- 
balmed in the well-known passage of Virgil 
(Aen. vi. 860 — 886), which was recited by the 
poet to Augustus and Octavia. 

MARCIUS (-i), the name of a Roman gens, 
which claimed descent from Ancus Mareius, 
the 4th king of Rome. [Ancus Marcius.] 
Coriolanus belonged to this gens [Corio- 
lanus] ; and at a later time it was divided 
into the families of Philippus, Rex, and 
Rutilus,^ 

MARCIUS (-i), an Italian seer, whose 
prophetic verses {Carmina Marciana) were 
discovered in b.c. 213, and were preserved 
in the Capitol with the Sibylline books. Some 
writers mention only one person of this name, 
but others speak of 2 brothers, the Marcii. 

MARCOMANNI (-orum), that is, men of 
the mark or border, a powerful German 
people, of the Suevic race, originally dwelt 
between the Rhine and the Danube, on the 
banks' of the Main ; but under the guidance 
of their chieftain Maroboduus, they migrated 
into the land of the Boii, who inhabited 
Bohemia and part of Bavaria. Here they 
settled after subduing the Boii, and founded 
a powerful kingdom, which extended S. as 
far as the Danube. [Maroboduus.] At a 
later time the Marcomanni, in conjunction 
with the Quadi and other German tribes, 
carried on a long and bloody war with the 
emperor M. Aurelius, which lasted during 
the greater part of his reign, and was only 
brought to a conclusion by his son Commodus 
purchasing peace of the barbarians as soon as 
he ascended the throne, a.d, 180. 

MARDI. [Amardi.] 

MARDONIUS (-i), a distinguished Persian, 
son of Gobryas, and son-in-law of Darius 
Hystaspis. In b.c. 492 he was sent by 
Darius to punish Eretria and Athens for the 
aid they had given to the Ionians ; but his 
fleet was destroyed by a storm off Mt. Athos, 
and the greater part of his land forces was 
destroyed on his passage through Macedonia 
by the Brygians, a Thracian tribe. On the 
accession of Xerxes, he was one of the chief 
instigators of the expedition against Greece. 
After the defeat of the Persians at Salamis 
(480), he was left by Xerxes with a large 
army to conquer Greece ; but he was defeated 
in the following year (479), near Plataeae, 
by the combined Greek forces, under the 
command of Pausanias, and was slain in 
the battle. 

MAREA, -EA, -I A (-ae), a town of Lower 



Egypt, which gave its name to the district 
and lake of Mareotis. The lake was separated 
from the Mediterranean by the neck of land 
on which Alexandria stood, and supplied 
with water by the Canopic branch of the 
Nile, and by canals. It served as the port 
of Alexandria for vessels navigating the 
Nile. 

MAREOTIS. [Marea.] 

MARESA, MARESCHA, an ancient for- 
tress of Palestine, in the S. of Judaea, of 
some importance in the history of the early 
kings of Judah and of the Maccabees. 

MAPvGIANA (-ae), a province of the 
ancient Persian empire, bounded on the E. 
by Bactriana, on the N.E. and N. by the 
river Oxus, and on the W. by Hyrcania. It 
received its name from the river Margus, 
which flows through it. On this river stood 
the capital of the district, Antiochia Margiana, 
which was founded by Alexander the Great, 
and rebuilt by Antiochus I. 

MARGUS. [Margiana.] 

MARIAN AE EOSSAE. [Fossa.] 

MARIANDYNI (-orum), an ancient people 
in the N.E. of Bithynia, in Asia Minor. 

MARICA (-ae), a Latin nymph, the 
mother of Latinus by Faunus, was worshipped 
by the inhabitants of Minturnae, in a grove 
on the river Liris. Hence the country round 
Minturnae is called by Horace JHaricae 
litora. 

MARIUS (-i), C. (1) The celebrated 
Roman, who was 7 times consul, was born in 
b.c. 157, near Arpinum, of an obscure and 
humble family. He rose to distinction by 
his military abilities. He served under 
Scipio Africanus, the younger, at the siege of 
Numantia, in Spain (b.c. 134), but he was 
not elected tribune of the plebs till b.c. 119, 
when he was 38 years of age. He after- 
wards married Julia, the sister of C. Julius 
Caesar, the father of the celebrated dictator. 
Marius was now regarded as one of the chief 
leaders of the popular party at Rome. In 109 
Marius served in Africa as legate of the 
consul Q. Metellus, in the war against Ju- 
gurtha. In 107 he was elected consul, and 
received the province of Numidia, and 
the conduct of the war against Jugurtha 
(107). In the following year (106), Jugurtha 
was surrendered to him by the treachery of 
Bocchus, king of Mauretania. [Jugurtha.] 
Marius sent his quaestor Sulla to receive the 
Numidian king from Bocchus. This circum- 
stance sowed the seeds of the personal hatred 
which afterwards existed between Marius and 
Sulla, since the enemies of Marius claimed 
for Sulla the merit of bringing the war to a 
close by obtaining possession of the person of 
Jugurtha. Meantime Italy was threatened 



MARIUS. 



254 



MARRTJCINI. 



by a vast horde of barbarians, who had 
migrated from the N. of Germany. The 2 
leading nations of which they consisted were 
called Cimbri and Teutoni. They had de- 
feated one Roman aimy after another ; and 
every one felt that Marius was the only man 
capable of saving the state. Accordingly he 
was elected consul a 2nd time (104) ; but 
the barbarians, instead of crossing the Alps, 
marched into Spain, which they ravaged for 
the next 2 or 3 years. Marius was elected 
consul a 3rd time in 103, and a 4th time in 
102. In the latter of these years the bar- 
barians returned into Gaul, and divided 
their forces. The Cimbri crossed the Tyrolese 
Alps by the defiles of Tridentum (Trent). 
The Teutoni and Ambrones, on the other hand, 
marched against Marius, who had taken up a 
position in a fortified camp on the Rhone. 
The decisive battle was fought near Aquae 
Sextiae {Aix), in which the whole nation 
was annihilated by Marius. The Cimbri, 
meantime, had forced their way into Italy. 
Marius was elected consul a 5th time (101), 
and joined the proconsul Catulus in the N. of 
Italy. The 2 generals gained a great victory 
over the enemy on a plain called the Campi 
Raudii, near Yercellae (Yercelli), Marius 
was received at Rome with unprecedented 
honours. Hitherto his career had been a 
glorious one ; but the remainder of his life is 
full of horrors. In order to secure the con- 
sulship a 6th time, he entered into close 
connexion with the two demagogues, Satur- 
ninus and Glaucia. He gained his object, 
and was consul a 6th time in 100. In this 
year he drove into exile his old enemy 
Metellus ; and shortly afterwards, when 
Saturninus and Glaucia took up arms against 
the state, he was compelled by the senate to 
put down the insurrection. [Saturninus.] 
But although old, and full of honours, he 
was anxious to obtain the command of the 
war against Mithridates, which the senate 
had bestowed upon the consul Sulla (b.c. 88). 
He obtained a vote of the people, conferring 
upon him the command ; but Sulla marched 
upon Rome at the head of his army, and 
compelled Marius to take to flight. After 
wandering along the coast of Latium, he was 
at length taken prisoner in the marshes 
formed by the river Liris, near Minturnae ; 
but^ when a Cimbrian soldier, entered his 
prison to put him to death, Marius in a ter- 
rible voice exclaimed — " Man, darest thou 
murder C. Marius ?" Whereupon the bar- 
barian threw down his sword and rushed out 
of the house. The inhabitants of Minturnae 
now took compassion on Marius, and placed 
him on board a ship. He reached Africa in 
safety, and landed at Carthage j but he had 



scarcely put his foot on shore before the 
Roman governor sent an officer to bid him 
leave the country. This last blow almost 
unmanned Marius : his only reply was — 
"Tell the praetor that you have seen 
C. Marius a fugitive, sitting on the ruins of 
Carthage." Soon afterwards Marius returned 
to Italy, where the consul Cinna (b.c. 87) 
had taken up arms against Sulla's party. 
Cinna had been driven out of Rome, but he 
now entered it along with Marius. The 
most frightful scenes followed. The guards 
of Marius stabbed every one whom he did not 
salute, and the streets ran with the blood of 
the noblest of the Roman aristocracy. With- 
out going through the form of an election, 
Marius and Cinna named themselves consuls 
for the following year (86). But on the 18th 
day of his consulship Marius died of an attack 
of pleurisy, in his 71st year. — (2) Son of the 
preceding, but only by adoption ; was consul 
in b.c. 82, when he was 27 years of age. In 
this year he was defeated by Sulla, near 
Sacriportus, on the frontiers of Latium, 
whereupon he took refuge in the strongly 
fortified town of Praeneste. Here he was 
besieged for some time ; but after Sulla's 
great victory at the Colline gate of Rome 
over Pontius Telesinus, Marius put an end 
to his own life, after making an unsuccessful 
attempt to escape. — (3) The false Marius, 
put to death by Antony, b.c. 44. 

MARMARICA (-ae),"a district of N. Africa, 
between Cyrenaica and Egypt, extending 
inland as far as the Oasis of Ammon. Its 
inhabitants were called Marmaridae. 
MARO, VIRGILIUS. [Yirgiltus.] 
MAROBODTJUS (-i), king of the Marco- 
manni, was a Suevian by birth, and was 
brought up at the court of Augustus. After his 
return to his native country, he succeeded in 
establising a powerful kingdom in central 
Germany [Marcomanni] ; but having become 
an object of suspicion to the other German 
tribes, he was expelled from his dominions 
about A.r>v 19, and took refuge in Italy, where 
Tiberius allowed him to remain. 

MARONEA (-ae), a town on the S. coast of 
Thrace, on the lake Ismaris, belonged origi- 
nally to the Cicones, but afterwards colonised 
from Chios. It was celebrated for its excel- 
lent wine, and is mentioned in Homer as the 
residence of Maron, son of Evanthes, grand- 
son of Dionysus (Bacchus) and Ariadne, and 
priest of Apollo. 

MARPESSA (-ae). (1) Daughter of Evenus. 
[Idas.] — (2) A mountain in Paros, from 
which the celebrated Parian marble was 
obtained. Hence Virgil speaks of Marpesia 
cautes {i.e. Parian). 

MARRUCLNI or MARtCINI (-orum), a 



MARRUYIUM. 



255 



MARSYAS. 



brave and warlike people in Italy of the 
Sabellian race, occupying a narrow slip of 
country along the right bank of the river 
Aternus, and bounded on the N. by the Yes- 
tini, on the W. by the Peligni and Marsi, on 
the S. by the Frentani, and on the E. by the 
Adriatic sea. Their chief town was Teate. 
Along with their neighbours the Marsi, Pe- 
ligni, &c, they submitted to the Romans in 
B.C. 304. 

MARRUYIUM or MARUVITJM (-i), the 
chief town of the Marsi (who are therefore 
called gens Maruvia by Virgil), situated on 
the E. bank of the lake Fucinus. 

MARS (-rtis), an ancient Roman god, iden- 
tified by the Romans with the Greek Ares. 
[Ares.] The name of the god in the Sabine and 
Oscan wa& Mamers ; and Mars itself is a con- 
traction of Mayers or Mayors. Next to Jupi- 
ter, Mars enjoyed the highest honours at Rome. 
He was considered the father of Romulus, the 
founder of the nation. [Roaroxus.] He is 
frequently designated as father Mars, whence 
the forms Marspiter and Maspiter, analogous 
to Jupiter. Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus, 
were the 3 tutelary divinities of Rome, to 
each of whom king Xuma appointed a fiamen. 
He was worshipped at Rome as the god of 
war, and war itself was frequently designated 
by the name of Mars. His priests, the Salii, 
danced in full armour, and the place dedicated 
to warlike exercises was called after his name 
{Campus Martins). But being the father of 
the Romans, Mars was also the protector of 
the most honourable pursuit, i.e. agriculture ; 
and under the name of Silvanus, he was wor- 
shipped as the guardian of cattle. Mars was 
also identified with Quirinus, who was the 
deity watching over the Roman citizens in 
their civil capacity as Quirites. Thus Mars 
appears under 3 aspects. As the warlike god, 
he was called Gradivus ; as the rustic god, he 
was called Silvanus ; while, in his relation to 
the state, he bore the name of Quirinus. His 
wife was called Xeria or Xeriene, the femi- 
nine of Nero, which in the Sabine language 
signified " strong." The wolf and the wood- 
pecker (picus) were sacred to Mars. Nume- 
rous temples were dedicated to him at Rome, 
the most important of which was that outside 
the Porta Capena, on the Appian road, and 
that of Mars Ultor, which was built by 
Augustus in the forum. 

MARSI (-orom). (1) A brave and warlike 
people of the Sabellian race, dwelt in the 
centre of Italy, in the high land surrounded 
by the mountains of the Apennines, in which 
the lake Fucinus is situated. Along with 
their neighbours the Peligni, Marrucini, &c, 
they concluded a peace with Rome, e.c. 304. 
Their bravery was proverbial ; and they were 



the prime movers of the celebrated war waged 
against Rome by the Socii or Italian allies in 
order to obtain the Roman franchise, and 
which is known by the name of the Marsic or 
Social war. Their chief town was Marru- 
vioi. — The Marsi appear to have been ac- 
quainted with the medicinal properties of 
several of the plants growing upon their 
mountains, and to have employed them as 
remedies against the bites of serpents, and in 
other cases. Hence they were regarded as 
magicians, and were said to be descended 
from a son of Circe. — (2) A people in the 
N.W. of Germany, belonging to the league of 
the Cherusci. They joined the Cherusci in 
the war against the Romans, which termi- 
nated in the defeat of Varus. 

MARSIGXI (-drum), a people in the S.E. 
of Germany, of Suevic extraction. 

MARSUS, DOMITIUS (4), a Roman poet 
of the Augustan age. 

MARSYAS or MARSYA (-ae). (1) A 
satyr of Phrygia, who, having found the 
flute which Athena (Minerva) had thrown 
away in disgust on account of its distorting 
her features, discovered that it emitted of its 
own accord the most beautiful strains. 
Elated by his success, Marsyas was rash 
enough to challenge Apollo to a musical con- 
test, the conditions of which were that the 
victor should do what he pleased with the 




Marsyas. 



(Osterley, Denk. der air. Kunst, 
part 2, tav. 14.) 



vanquished. Apollo played upon the cithara, 
and Marsyas upon the flute. The Muses, who 
were the umpires, decided in favour of Apollo. 



MARTIALIS, 



256 



MASSILIA, 



As a just punishment for the presumption of 
Marsyas, Apollo bound him to a tree, and 
flayed him alive. His blood was the source 
of the river Marsyas, and Apollo hung up his 
skin in the cave out of which that river flows. 
In the fora of ancient cities there was fre- 
quently placed a statue of Marsyas, which 
was probably intended to hold forth an ex- 
ample of the severe punishment of arrogant 
presumption. The statue of Marsyas in the 
forum of Rome is well known by the allusions 
of the Soman poets. — (2) A small and rapid 
river of Phrygia, rising in the palace of the 
Persian kings at Celaenae, beneath the 
Acropolis, and falling into the Maeander, out- 
side of the city. — (3) A considerable river of 
Caria, falling into the S. side of the Maeander, 
nearly opposite to Tralles. 

MARTIALIS (-is), M. VALERIUS (-i), the 
epigrammatic poet, born at Bilbilis in Spain, 
a.d. 43. He came to Rome in 66 ; and after 
residing in the metropolis 35 years, he re- 
turned to the place of his birth in 100. His 
death cannot have taken place before 101. 
His fame was widely extended, and he se- 
cured the patronage of the emperors Titus 
and Domitian, His extant works consist of a 
collection of short poems, all included under 
the general appellation Epigrammata, divided 
into 1-4 books. They are distinguished by 
fertility of imagination, flow of wit, and 
felicity of language ; but they are denied by 
impurity of thought and expression, and by 
base flattery of the emperor Domitian. 

MART ITS CAMPUS. [Campus Marties.] 

MARUVIUM. [Makbxjvium.] 

MASCAS. an E. tributary of the Euphrates, 
in Mesopotamia. 

MASIXISSA [-ae), king of the Xumidians, 
son of Gala, king of the Massylians, the 
easternmost of the 2 great tribes into which 
the Xumidians were at that time divided. 
In the 2nd Punic war he at first fought on 
the side of the Carthaginians in Spain 
(b.c. 212), but he afterwards deserted their 
cause and joined the Romans. On his re- 
turn to Africa, he was attacked by the Car- 
thaginians and his neighbour Syphax, and 
with difficulty maintained his ground tiU the 
arrival of Scipio in Africa (b.c. 204). He 
rendered important service to Scipio, and 
reduced Cirta, the capital of Syphax. Among 
the captives that feU into his hands on this 
occasion was Sophonisba, the wife of Syphax, 
who had been formerly promised in marriage 
to Masinissa himself. The story of his hasty 
marriage with her, and its tragical termina- 
tion, is related elsewhere. [Sophoxisba.] 
In the decisive battle of Zama (202), Masi- 
nissa commanded the cavalry of the right 
wing. On the conclusion of the peace between 



Rome and Carthage, he was rewarded vrith 
the greater part of the territories which had 
belonged to Syphax, in addition to his heredi- 
tary dominions. Eor the next 50 years 
Masinissa reigned in peace. He died in the 
2nd year of the 3rd Punic war, b.c. 148, at 
the advanced age of 90, having retained in an 
extraordinary degree his bodily strength and 
activity to the last. He left 3 sons, Micipsa, 
Mastanabal, and Gulussa, among whom Scipio 
Africanus the younger divided his kingdom. 

MASS A [-ae} 3 BAEBIUS, or BEBIUS (-i), 
was accused by Pliny the younger and He- 
rennius Senecio, of plundering the province 
of Baetica, of which he had been governor, 
a.d. 93. He was condemned, but escaped 
punishment by the favour of Domitian ; and 
from this time he became one of the informers 
and favourites of the tyrant. 

MASSAESYLI or -II. [Maeeetaxia : 
NtjmidiaJ 

MASSaGETAE (-arum), a wild and Arar- 
like people of Central Asia, X. of the Jaxartes 
(the Araxes of Herodotus) and the Sea of 
Aral, and on the peninsula between this lake 
and the Caspian. Herodotus appears to in- 
clude under the name all the nomad tribes of 
Asia E. of the Caspian. It was in an expe- 
dition against them that Cyrus the Great was 
defeated and slain. [Cyeus.] 

MASSICUS (-i), or MASSICA (-orum% a 
mountain in the X.W. of Campania near the 
frontiers of Latium, celebrated for its excel- 
lent wine, the produce of the vineyards on 
the southern slope of the mountain. The 
famous Falernian wine came from the eastern 
side of this mountain. 

MASS ILIA (-ae), called by the Greeks 
MASSA.LIA [ITarseiUes], a Greek city in 
Gallia Xarbonensis, on the coast of the Medi- 
terranean, in the country of the Salves, founded 
by the Phocaeans of Asia Minor about b.c. 600. 
It v-as situated on a promontory, connected 
with the mainland by a narrow isthmus, and 
washed on 3 sides by the sea. Its excellent 
harbour was formed by a small inlet of the 
sea, about half a mile long and a quarter of a 
mile broad. This harbour had only a narrow 
opening, and before it lay an island, where 
ships had good anchorage. At an early 
period the Massilienses cultivated the friend- 
ship of the Romans, to whom they always 
continued faithful allies. Massilia was for 
many centuries one of the most important 
commercial cities in the ancient world. In 
the civil war between Caesar and Pompey 
'b.c 49), it espoused the cause of the latter, 
but after a protracted siege, in which it lost 
its fleet, it was obliged to submit to Caesar. 
Its inhabitants had long paid attention to 
literature and philosophy; and under the 



MAS SIVA. 



MAXIMIANUS. 



early emperors it became one of the chief 
seats of learning, to which the sons of many 
Eomans resorted, in order to complete their 
studies. 

MAS SIVA (-ae). (1) A Numidian, grand- 
son of Gala, king of the Massylians, and 
nephew of Masinissa, whom he accompanied 
into Spain. — [2] Son of Gulussa, and grand- 
son of Masinissa, assassinated at Rome by 
order of Jugurtha, because he had put in his 
claim to the kingdom of Nuinida. 

MASSYLI or -II. " M a m e t an i a : NU- 
MIDIA." 

MASTANABAL or MANASTABAL (-alis), 
tne youngest of the 3 legitimate sons of Ma- 
sinissa. 

MATHO (-onis), a pompous blustering 
advocate, ridiculed by Juvenal and Martial. 

M ATI AN A, the * S.W.-most district of 
Media Atropatine, along the mountains sepa- 
rating Media from Assyria, inhabited by the 
Matiani. 

MATINUS (-i), a mountain in Apulia, run- 
ning out into the sea, one of the offshoots of ] 
Mt. Garganus, and frequently mentioned by 
Horace in consequence of his being a native 
of Apulia. 

MATISCO {Jfaco?i), a town of the Aedui 
in Gallia Lugdunensis on the Arar. 

MATE ON A (-ae) [ITanie), a river in Gaul, 
falling into the Sequana, a little S. of Paris. 

MATTIACT (-orum), a people in Germany, 
dwelling on the E. bank of the Ehine, between 
the Main and the Lahn, were a branch of the 
Chatti. Their chief towns were Aquae Mat- 
tiacae {Wiesbaden) and Mattiaeum [Marburg^ 

MATTIUM Maden), the chief town of the 
Chatti, situated on the Adrana [Eder). 

MATUTA (-ae), commonly called MATER 
MATUTA, the goddess of the dawn, identified 
by the Eomans with Leucothea. Her festival, 
the Matralia, was celebrated on the 11th of 
June [Diet, o f Ant. art. Matralia). 

MAUEETlNIA or MAUEITANIA (-ae), a 
country in the N. of Africa, lying between 
the Atlantic on the VT., the Mediterranean on 
the N., Numidia on the E., and Gaetulia on 
the S. ; but the districts embraced under the 
names of Mauretania and Numidia respec- 
tively were of very different extent at dif- 
ferent periods. The northern coast of Africa 
from the Atlantic to the Syrtes was inhabited 
at a very ancient period by 3 tribes : the 
Mauri or Maurusii, TV. of the river Malva 
or Malucha ; thence the MassaesyEi to the 
river Ampsaga ; and the Massylii between 
the Ampsaga and the Tusca, the W. boundary 
of the Carthaginian territory. Of these 
people, the Mauri applied themselves more 
to the settled pursuits o|£ igriculture than 
their kindred neighbours on the E. Hence 



arose a difference, which the Greeks marked 
by applying the general name of IX^taifs to 
the tribes between the Malva and the Tusca ; 
whence came the Roman names of Numidia 
for the district, and Numidae for its people. 
[Numidia.] Thus Mauretania was at first 
only the country W. of the Malva, but it 
afterwards embraced a considerable portion of 
the western part of Numidia. The Eomans 
first became acquainted with the country 
during the war with Jugurtha, b.c 106. 
'Boccnus.] It was made a Eoman province 
by Claudius, who added to it all the country 
as far as the Ampsaga, and divided it into 2 
parts, of which the W. was called Tingitana, 
from its capital Tingis [Tangier], and the E. 
Caesariensis from its capital Julia Caesarea, 
the boundary between them being the river 
Malva, the old limit of the kingdom of 
Bocchus I. 

MATTEL 1 Maiee t ax ia . ] 

MAURITANIA. 'Mauritania.; 

MAUBUSIL [Maeret axia. " 

MAUSOLUS (-i), king of Caria, eldest son of 
Hecatomnus, reigned b.c 37 7 — 353. He 
was succeeded by his wife and sister Arte- 
misia, who erected to his memory the costly 
monument called from him the Mausoleum. 
'Artemisia.] 

mavors."^ [Mass.] 

MAXENTIUS (-i'., Eoman emperor a.d. 
308 — 312. He was passed over in the 
division of the empire which followed the abdi- 
cation of his father Maximianus and Diocletian 
in a,d. 305 : but he seized Rome, where he 
was proclaimed emperor, in 306. He reigned 
till 312, when he was defeated by Constan- 
tine at Saxa Eubra near Eome. He tried to 
escape over the Milvian bridge into Eome, 
but he perished in the river. Maxentius is 
represented by aU historians as a monster of 
rapacity, cruelty, and lust. 

MAXIMIANUS (-i). (1) Eoman emperor, 
a.d. 2S6 — 30'5, originally a Eannonian soldier, 
was made by Diocletian his colleague in the 
empire, but was compelled to abdicate along 
with the latter. ' "Dioceetianes.' When his 
son Maxentius assumed the imperial title in 
the foUowing year (306), he resided some 
time at Eome ; but being expelled from the 
city by Maxentius, he took refuge in Gaul 
with Constantine, who had married his 
daughter Eausta. Here he was compelled by 
Constantine to put an end to his own life, in 

310. — (2; Galeries Maximianus, usually 
called Galeries, Eoman emperor, a.d. 305 — 

311. He was first made Caesar by Dio- 
cletian, whose daughter he had married : and 
upon the abdication of Diocletian and Maxi- 
mianus (305) he became Augustus or em- 
peror. He died in 311, of the disgusting 



MAXIMINUS. 



25S 



MEDEA. 



disease known in modern times by the name 
of morbus pediculosus. He was a cruel per- 
secutor of the Christians. 

MAXIMINUS (-i). (1) Roman emperor, a.d. 
235 — 238, was born in Thrace, of barbarian 
parentage. He succeeded Alexander Severus ; 
but his government was characterised by the 
utmost cruelty. He was slain by his own 
soldiers before Aquileia. The most extra- 
ordinary tales are related of his physical 
powers. His height exceeded 8 feet. It is 
said that he was able single-handed to drag 
a loaded waggon, and could with a kick break I 
the leg of a horse ; while his appetite was 
such, that in one day he could eat 40 pounds 
pf meat, and drink an amphora of wine, — 
(2) Roman emperor, 308—314, nephew of 
Galerius, by a sister, was raised to the em- 
pire by the latter. On the death of Galerius, 
in 311, Maxim in us and Licinius divided the 
East between them ; but having attacked 
Licinius, he was defeated by the latter, and 
died shortly afterwards. He was a cruel i 
persecutor of the Christians. 

MAXIMUS (-i), MAGNUS CLEMEXS, 
Roman emperor, a.d. 383 — 38S, in Gaul, ! 
Britain, and Spain, obtained the throne by 



putting Gratian to death, but was afterwards 
slain by Theodosius. 

MAXIMUS TYRIUS (-i), a native of Tyre, 
a Greek rhetorician and Platonic philosopher, 
lived during the reigns of the Antonines and 
of Commodus, and is the author of 41 ex- 
tant dissertations on philosophical subjects, 
written in an easy and pleasing style. 

MAZACA. [Caesabea, Xo. 1.] 

MECYBERXA (-ae), a town of Macedonia in 
Chalciclice, at the head of the Toronaic gulf, 
E. of Olynthus, of which it was the seaport. 

MEDAURA (-ae), a flourishing city of X. 
Africa, on the borders of Xumidia and Byza- 
cena ; the birth-place of Appuleius. 

MEDEA (-ae), daughter of Aeetes, king of 
Colchis, celebrated for her skill in magic. 
When Jason came to Colchis to fetch the 
golden fleece, she fell in love with the hero, 
assisted him in accomplishing the object for 
which he had visited Colchis, afterwards fled 
with him as his wife to Greece, and prevented 
her father, who was . in pursuit, from over- 
taking them, by killing her brother Absyrtus, 
and strewing the sea with his limbs, which her 
father stopped to gather. Having been de- 
serted by Jason for the youthful daughter of 



"1 




: 2d 

Medea and her Children. (Museo Borbonico, vol. 5, tav. 33.) 



Creon, king of Corinth, she took fearful ven- 
geance upon her faithless spouse by murdering 
the two children which she had had by him, 



and by destroying his young wife with a 
poisoned garment ; and she then fled to 
Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. 



MEDEON. 



MEGARA. 



At Athens she is said to have married king 
Aegeus. Her story is given in greater detail 
under Absyrtus, Argonaut ae, and Jason. 

MEDEON (-dnis). (1) A town in the in- 
terior of Acarnania, near the road which 
led from Lirnnaea to Stratos. — 2. A town on 
the coast of Phocis near Anticyra. — (3) A 
town in Boeotia, near Onchestus and the lake 
Copais. — 4 A town of the Labeates in Dal- ; 
matia, near Scodra. 

MEDIA -a e , an important country of Asia, 
above Persis, and bounded on the X. by the | 
Araxes, on the W. and S.W. by the range of j 
moimtains called Zagros and Parachoatras 
[Mts. of Kurdistan and Zowistan), which i 
divided it from the Tigris and Euphrates 
valley, on the E. by the Desert, and on the j 
X.E. by the Caspii Montes [Elburz M.]. It 
was a fertile country, well peopled, and one 
of the most important provinces of the ancient ; 
Persian empire. After the Macedonian con- 
quest, it was divided into 2 parts, Great 
Media and Atropatene. ] Atropatene/ The j 
earliest history of Media is involved in much 
obscurity. Herodotus reckons only 4 kings | 
of Media, namely: 1. Deioces, b.c. 710 — 657; | 
2 . Phraortes,. 6 5 7 — 6 3 5 : 3 . Cyaxares, 6 3 5 — 
595 ; 4. Astyages, 595 — 560. The last king 
was dethroned by a revolution, which trans- t 
ferred the supremacy to the Persians, who j 
had formerly been the subordinate people in j 
the united Medo-Persian empire. 'Gyres. ~ 
The Medes made more than one attempt to j 
regain their supremacy ; the usurpation of 
the Magian Pseudo-Smerdis was no doubt 
such an attempt ] S:\eerdis] ; and another I 
occurred in the reign of Darius II., when the ! 
Medes revolted, but were soon subdued (b.c. 
40 S . With the rest of the Persian empire, j 
Media fell under the power of Alexander ; it 
next formed a part of the kingdom of the 
Seleucidae, from whom it was conquered by j 
the Parthians, in the 2nd century b.c, from 
which time it belonged to the Parthian, and \ 
then to the later Persian empire. — It is im- 
portant to notice the use of the names Medes i 
and Mem by the Roman poets, for the nations 
of Asia E. of the Tigris in general, and for 
the Parthians in particular. 

MEDIAE MURUS, an artificial wall, 
which ran from the Euphrates to the Tigris, I 
at the point where they approach nearest, I 
and divided Mesopotamia from Babylonia. It i 
is described by Xenophon (Anab. ii. 4), as 
being 20 parasangs long, 100 feet high, and j 
20 thick, and as built of baked bricks, ce- 
mented with asphalt. 

MEDIOLAXOI (1) [MUanJ, the 

capital of the Insubres in Gallia Transpadana, 
was taken by the Romans b.c. 222, and ! 
afterwards became both a municipium and a j 



colony. From the time of Diocletian till its 
capture by Attila, it was the usual residence 
of the emperors of the West. It is celebrated 
in ecclesiastical history as the see of St. Am- 
brose. — (2) (Saintes-), a town of the Santones, 
in Aquitania, X.E. of the mouth of the Ga- 
runina ; subsequently called Santones after 
the people, whence its modern name. 

MEDIOMATRICI (-drum), a people in the 
S.E. of Gallia Belgica, on the Moselle, S. of 
the Treviri. Their chief town was Divo- 
durum [Metz) . 

MEDITERRlXEUM MARE. 'Internet! 
Mare.] 

MEDOACUS or MEDUACUS '-i\ a river 
in Venetia, in the X. of Italy, falling into the 
Adriatic sea near Edron, the harbour of 
Patavium. 

MEDOBRIGA (-ae^ , a town in Lusitania, 
on the road from Emerita to Scalabis. 

MED OX (-ontis), son of Codrus, the first 
archon. [Codres.] 

MEDULI (-orum}, a people in Aquitania, 
on the coast of the Ocean,. S. of the mouth of 
the Garumna, in the modern ATedoc. There 
were excellent oysters found on their shores. 

MEDULLI (-orom), a people on the E. 
frontier of Gallia Xarbonensis and in the 
Maritime Alps, in whose country the Druen- 
tia (Durante) and Duria {Boria Minor) took 
their rise. 

MEDULLIA (-ae', a colony of Alba, in the 
land of the Sabines, situated between the 
Tiber and the Anio. 

MEDUSA. [Gorgones.] 

MEGAERA. ]Erinnyes.] 

ME GAL I A or MEG ARIA, a small island in 
the Tyrrhene sea, opposite Xeapolis. 

MEGALOPOLIS (-is), the most recent but 
the most important of the cities of Arcadia, 
was founded on the advice of Epaminondas, 
after the battle of Leuctra, b.c 371, and was 
formed out of the inhabitants of 38 villages, 
It was situated in the district Maenalia, near 
the frontiers of Messenia r on the river Helis- 
son, which flowed through the city. It 
became afterwards one of the chief cities of 
the Achaean league. Philopoemen and the 
historian Polybius were natives of Megalo- 
polis^ 

MEGARA (-ae, and pi. Megara, -orum}. 
(1) The town of Megara, the capital of Me- 
garis, a small district in Greece between the 
Corinthian and Saronic gulfs, bounded on the 
X. by Boeotia, on the E. and X.E. by Attica, 
on the S. by the territory of Corinth, and situ- 
ated a mile from the sea, opposite the island of 
Sal amis. Its citadel was called Alcathoe, from 
its reputed founder Alcathous, son of Pelops. 
Its seaport was Xisaea, which was connected 
with Megara bv 2 walls, built bv the Athe- 



MEGAREUS. 



260 



MELEAGER. 



nians when they had possession of Megara, 
B.C. 461' — 445. In front of Nisaea lay the 
small island Muioa, which added greatly to 
the security of the harbour. In ancient 
times Megara formed one of the 4 divisions of 
Attica. It was next conquered by the Do- 
rians, and was for a time subject to Corinth ; 
but it finally asserted its independence, and 
rapidly became a wealthy and powerful city. 
Its power at an early period is attested by 
the flourishing colonies which it founded, of 
which Selymbria, Chalcedon, and Byzantium, 
and the Hyblaean Megara in Sicily, were the 
most important. After the Persian wars, 
Megara was for some time at war with Corinth, 
and was thus led to form an alliance with 
Athens, and to receive an Athenian garrison 
into the city, 461 ; but the oligarchical party 
having got the upper hand, the Athenians 
were expelled, 441. Megara is celebrated in 
the history of philosophy, as the seat of a 
philosophical school, usually called the Mega- 
rian, which was founded by Euclid, a native 
of the city, [Euclides, No. 2.]— (2) A town 
in Sicily on the E. coast, N. of Syracuse, 
founded by Dorians from Megara in Greece, 
b.c. 728, on the site of a small town, Hybla, 
and hence called Megara Hyblaea, and its 
inhabitants Megarenses Hyblaei. From the 
time of Gelon it belonged to Syracuse. 

MEGAREUS (-ei or -eos), son either of 
Onchestus or Poseidon (Neptune), and father 
of Hippomenes and Evaechme. 

MEGARIS. [Megara.] 

MEGIDDO, a considerable city of Palestine, 
on the river Kishon, in a valley of the same 
name, on the confines of Galilee and Samaria. 

MELA, river. [Mella.] 

MELA or MELLA (-ae), M, ANNAEUS (-i), 
youngest son of M. Annaeus Seneca, the rhe- 
torician, brother of L. Seneca, the philosopher, 
and father of the poet Lucan. 

MELA (-ae), POMPONIUS (-i), a native 
of Spain, under the emperor Claudius, and the 
author of an extant Latin work on geography, 
entitled Be Situ Orbis Libri III. 

MELAMPUS (-odis), son of Amythaon, a 
celebrated prophet and physician, and the 
first who introduced the worship of Dionysus 
(Bacchus) into Greece. He is said to have cured 
the women of Argos of the madness with which 
they had been seized, and to have received in 
consequence, with his brother Bias, two-thirds 
of the kingdom of Argos. Melampus and Bias 
married the two daughters of Proetus. 

MELANCHLAENI (-orum), a people in the 
N. of Asia, about the upper course of the river 
Tanai's {Don), resembling the Scythians in 
manners, though of a different race. Their 
Greek name was derived from their dark 
clothing. 



MELANIPPE (-es), daughter of Chiron, 
also called Evippe. Being with child by 
Aeolus, she fled to mount Pelion, and was 
there metamorphosed by Artemis (Diana) into 
a mare. 

MKLANLPPIDES, of Melos, a celebrated 
lyric poet in the department of the dithyramb, 
who flourished about b.c. 440. 

MELANTHIUS (-i), a goat-herd of 
Ulysses. 

MELAS (-anis and -ae), the name of several 
rivers, whose waters were of a dark colour. 
(1) A small river in Boeotia, flowing between 
Orchomenus and Aspledon. — (2) A river of 
Thessaly, in the district Malis, falling into 
the Malic gulf. — (3) A river of Thessaly in 
Phthiotis, falling into the Apidanus. — (4) A 
river of Thrace, falling into the Melas Sinus. 
— (5) A river in the N.E. of Sicily, flowing 
into the sea between Mylae and Naulochus, 
through excellent meadows, in which the 
oxen of the sun are said to have fed.— (6) A 
river in Asia Minor, the boundary between 
Pamphylia and Cilicia. 

MELAS SINUS. [Melas, No. 4.] 

MELDI (-orum) or MELDAE (-arum), a 
people in the N. of Gaul, and upon the river 
Sequana {Seine). 

MELEAGER or MELEAGRUS (-gri), son of 
the Calydonian king Oeneus, took part in 
the Argonautic expedition, and was afterwards 
the leader of the heroes, who slew the monstrous 
boar which laid waste the fields of Calydon. 




Meleager. ( From a Painting at Pompeii.) 



According to the later tradition he gave the 
hide of the animal to Atalanta, with whom 



MELETUS. 



261 



MELPOMENE. 



he was in love ; but his mother's brothers, 
the sons of Thestius, took it from her, where- 
upon Meleager in a rage slew them. This, 
however, was the cause of his own death. 
"When he was 7 days old the Moerae or Fates 
declared that the boy would die as soon as 
the piece of wood which was burning on the 
hearth should be consumed. Althaea, upon 
hearing this, extinguished the firebrand, and 



concealed it in a chest ; but now, to revenge 
the death of her brothers, she threw the 
piece of wood into the fire, whereupon Me- 
leager expired. Althaea, too late repenting 
what she had done, put an end to her life. 
The sisters of Meleager wept unceasingly 
after his death, until Artemis (Diana) changed 
them into guinea-hens (AcsAea&ygiS^), which 
were transferred to the island of Leros. 




Althaea and the Fates. (Zoega, Bassirilievi, tav. 46.) 



MELETUS or MELITUS (-i), an obscure 
tragic poet, but notorious as one of the ac- 
cusers of Socrates. 

MELIA (-ae) or MELIE (-es), a nymph, 
daughter of Oceanus, became by Inachus 
the mother of Phoroneus. 

MELIBOEA (-ae), a town on the coast of 
Thessaly in Magnesia, between Mt. Ossa and 
Mt. Pelion, where Philoctetes reigned, who 
is hence called by Virgil dux Meliboeus. 

MELICEPvTES. [Palaemox.] 

MELISSA (-ae), a nymph, said to have dis- 
covered the use of honey, and from whom 
bees were believed to have received their 
name [fukiara-oti). There can be no doubt, 
however, that the name really came from 
honey, and was hence given to nymphs. 

MELITA (-ae) or MELITE (-es). (1) [Malta), 
an island in the Mediterranean sea, colonised 
by the Phoenicians, and afterwards belonging 
to the Carthaginians, from whom it was 
taken by the Romans in the 2nd Punic war. 
It is celebrated as the island on which the 
Apostle Paul was shipwrecked ; though some 
writers erroneously suppose that the apostle 
was shipwrecked on the island of the same 
name off the Illyrian coast. The inhabitants 
manufactured fine cloth (JfeUtensia sc. vesti- 
menta). — (2) {Meleda), a small island in the 
Adriatic sea on the coast of Illyria (Dalmatia), 
EF,W. of Epidaurus. 

MEL'ITAEA, MELITE A, or MELITIA (-ae), 



a town in Thessaly in Phthiotis, on the X. 
! slope of Mt. Othrys, and near the river 
Enipeus. 

MELITE (-es), a nymph, one of the Ne- 
reides, a daughter of Xereus and Doris. 

MELITEXE (-es), a city and district of 
I Armenia Minor, between the Anti-Taurus and 
j the Euphrates. 

| MELLA or MELA (-ae : Mella), a river 
in Gallia Transpadana, flowing by Brixia, 
and falling into the Ollius [Oglio). 

MELLARIA (-ae). (1) A town of the 
Bastuli in Hispania Baetica between Belon 
and Calpe. — (2) A town in the same province, 
considerably X. of the former. 

MELODtXUM (-i: Melun), a town of the 
Senones in Gallia Lugdunensis, on an island 
j of the Sequana [Seine). 

MELOS (-i), an island in the Aegaean sea, 
| and the most W.-ly of the Cyclades, first 
' colonised by the Phoenicians, and afterwards 
j colonised by Lacedaemonians, or at least by 
j Dorians. Hence in the Peloponnesian war it 
embraced the side of Sparta. In b.c. 416 it 
| was taken by the Athenians, who killed all 
the adult males, sold the women and children 
as slaves, and peopled the island with an Athe- 
nian colony. Melos was the birthplace of 
I Diagoras, the Atheist. 

| MELPOMENE (-es), i.e. the singing god- 
dess, one of the 9 Muses, presided over 
I Tragedy. [Mvsae.] 



MEMMIUS. 



262 



MENELAUS. 



MEMMIUS (-i), the name of a Roman 
gens, which claimed descent from the Trojan 
Mnestheus. (i) C. Memmtus, tribune of the 
plebs b.c. Ill, was an ardent opponent of 
the oligarchical party at Rome during the 
Jugurthine war. He was slain by the 
mob of Saturninus and Glaucia, while a 
candidate for the consulship in 100. — (2) 
C. Memmius Gexelixs, tribune of the plebs 
66, curule aedile 60, and praetor 58, was 
impeached for ambitus, and withdrew from 
Rome to Mytilene. Memmius married 
Fausta, a daughter of the dictator Sulla, by 
whom he had a son. He was eminent 
both in literature and in eloquence. Lu- 
cretius dedicated to him his poem, De Rervm 
Xatura. 

MEMNON (-bnis). (1) The beautiful son 
of Tithonus and Eos (Aurora), was king of 
the Ethiopians, and came to the assistance of 
Priam towards the end of the Trojan war. 
He wore armour made for him by Hephaestus 
(Tulcan) at the request of his mother. He 
slew Antilochus, the son of Xestor, but was 
himself slain by Achilles, after a long and 
fierce combat. While the two heroes were 
fighting, Zeus (Jupiter) weighed their fates, 
and the scale containing Memnoirs sank. 
To soothe the grief of his mother, Zeus con- 
ferred immortality upon Memnon, and caused 
a number of birds to issue out of the funeral 
pile, which fought oxer the ashes of the hero. 
These birds were called Jlemnomdes, and 
were said to have visited every year the tomb 
of the hero on the Hellespont. The Greeks 
gave the name of Memnomurn and Meninonia 
to certain very ancient buildings and monu- 
ments in Europe and Asia, which they sup- 
posed to have been erected by, or in honour 
of, Memnon. Of these the most celebrated 
was a great temple of Thebes, behind which 
was a colossal statue (called the statue of 
Memnon), which, when struck by the first 
rays of the rising sun, was said to give 
forth a sound like the snapping asunder 
of a chord. It appears, however, that the 
statue represented in reality the Egyptian 
king Amenophis. The citadel of Susa was 
also called Meninonia by the Greeks. — (2) A 
native of Rhodes, had the command of the 
"W. coast of Asia Minor, when Alexander 
invaded Asia. He was an able officer, and 
his death, in b.c. 333, was an irreparable 
loss to the Persian cause. 

MEMNONIUM. [Memnon, Xo. 1.] 
MEMPHIS (-is, and -idos), a great city of 
Egypt, second in importance only to Thebes, ] 
after the fall of which it became the capital j 
of the whole country, a position which it I 
had previously shared with Thebes. It is 
said to have been founded by Menes. It j 



stood on the left (TV.) bank of the Nile, about 
10 miles above the Pyramids. 

MENAENUM or MENAE, a town on the 
E. coast of Sicily, S. of Hybla, the birthplace 
and residence of the Sice! chief Ducetius, 

MEXALIPPUS. [Melaxippes.] 

MEXAXDER, MEXAXDROS, or -DRITS 
(-dri), of Athens, the most distinguished poet 
of the Xew Comedy, was born b.c. 342, and 
was drowned in 291, while swimming in 
the harbour of Piraeus. He was a pupil of 
Theophrastus, and an intimate friend of 
Epicurus. Though his comedies have been 
lost, we can form some idea of them from 
those of Terence, who was little more than a 
translator of Menander. 

MEXAPII (-drum), a powerful people in 
the X. of Gallia Belgica, originally dwelt on 
both banks of the Rhine, but were afterwards 
driven out of their possessions on the right 
bank by the Usipetes and Tenchteri, and 
inhabited only the left bank near its mouth, 
and TV. of the Mosa. 

MEXDE (-es), or MEXDAE (-arum), a 
town on the TV. coast of the Macedonian pen- 
insula Peliene and on the Therm aic gulf, a 
colony of the Eretrians, and celebrated for its 
wine . 

MEXDES, a considerable city of the Delta 
of Egypt, on the bank of one of the lesser 
arms of the Xile, named after it the Mende- 
sian mouth. 

MEXEDEMUS (-i), a Greek philosopher, 
of Eretria, where he established a school of 
philosophy, called the Eretrian. He after- 
wards went to Antigonus in Asia, where lie 
starved himself to death in the 7 4th year of 
his age, probably about b.c. 2 7 7. 

MEXELAI PORTUS, an ancient city on 
the coast of Marmarica, in X. Africa, founded 
according to tradition, by Menelaus, where 
Agesilaus died. 

MEXELAIUM (-i), a mountain in Laconia, 
S.E. of Sparta near Therapne, on which the 
heroum of Menelaus was situated. 

MEXELAUS (-i), son of Plisthenes or 
Atreus, and younger brother of Agamemnon, 
was king of Lacedaemon, and married to 
the beautiful Helen, by whom he became the 
father of Hermione. His early life, the rape 
of his wife by Paris, and the expedition of 
the Greeks to Asia to punish the Trojans are 
related under Agamemnon. In the Trojan 
war Menelaus killed many Trojans, and would 
have slain Paris also in single combat, had 
not the latter been carried off by Aphrodite 
(Venus), in a cloud. As soon as Troy was 
taken Menelaus and Ulysses hastened to the 
house of Deiphobus, who had married Helen 
after the death of Paris, and put him to death 
in a barbarous manner. Menelaus is said to 



MENENIUS. 



263 



MEROE. 



have been secretly introduced into the cham- 
ber of Deiphobus by Helen, who thus became 
reconciled to her former husband. He was 
among the first that sailed away from Troy, 
accompanied by his wife Helen and Nestor ; 
but he was 8 years wandering about the 
shores of the Mediterranean, before he reached 
home. Henceforward he lived with Helen 
at Sparta in peace and wealth. When Tele- 
machus visited Sparta to inquire after his 
father, Menelaus was solemnising the mar- 
riage of his daughter Hermione with 
Neoptolemus, and of his son Megapenthes 
with a daughter of Alector. In the Homeric 
poems Menelaus is described as a man of 
athletic figure ; he spoke little, but what he 
said was always impressive ; he was brave 
and courageous, but milder than Agamemnon, 
intelligent and hospitable. According to the 
prophecy of Proteus in the Odyssey, Menelaus 
and Helen were not to die, but the gods were 
to conduct them to Elysium. According to 
a later tradition, he and Helen went to the 
Taurians, where they were sacrificed by 
Iphigenia to Artemis, Respecting the tale 
that Helen never went to Troy, but was de- 
tained in Egypt, see Helena. 

MENENIUS (-i) LANATUS (-i), AGRIPPA 
(-ae), consul, b.c. 503. It was owing to his 
mediation that the first great rupture between 
the patricians and plebeians, when the latter 
seceded to the Sacred Mount, was brought to 
a happy and peaceful termination in 493 ; 
and it was upon this occasion he is said to 
have related to the plebeians his well-known 
fable of the belly and the members. 

MENES, first king of Egypt, according to 
the Egyptian traditions. 

MENESTHEUS (-eos, el or el), (l) Son 
of Peteus, an Athenian king, who led the 
Athenians against Troy. He is said to have 
driven Theseus from his kingdom. — (2) A 
charioteer of Diomedes. 

MENINX (-gis), or LOTOPHAGITIS, 
(-is), an island close to the coast of Africa 
Propria, at the S.E. extremity of the Lesser 
Syrtis. 

MENIPPUS (-i), a cynic philosopher, was 
a native of Gadara in Coele-Syria, and 
flourished about b.c. 60. He was noted for 
his satirical writings, whence Yarro gave to 
his satires the name of Saturae Menippeae. 

MENOECEUS (-eos, el or el). (1) A 
Theban, grandson of Pentheus, and father of 
Hipponome, Jocasta, and Creon. — (2) Grand- 
son of the former, and son of Creon, put an 
end to his life because Tiresias had declared 
that his death would bring victory to his 
country, when the 7 Argive heroes marched 
against Thebes. 
^MENOETIUS (-i), son of Actor and Aegina, 



and father of Patroclus, who is hence called 
Menbeifctd&s. 

MENON (-onis), a Thessalian adventurer, 
one of the generals of the Greek mercenaries 
in the army of Cyrus the Younger, when the 
latter marched into Upper Asia against his 
brother Artaxerxes, b.c. 401. After the 
death of Cyrus he was apprehended along 
with the other Greek generals by Tissaphernes, 
and was put to death by lingering tortures, 
which lasted for a whole year. His character 
is drawn in the blackest colours by Xenophon. 
He is the same as the Menon introduced in 
the dialogue of Plato, which bears his name. 

MENTESA. (1) Surnamed Bastia, a 
town of the Oretani in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis. — (2) A town of the Bastuli in the S. 
of Hispania Baetica. 

MENTOR (-oris). (1) Son of Alcimus and 
a faithful friend of Ulysses, frequently men- 
tioned in the Odyssey. — (2) A Greek of 
Rhodes, appointed by Darius Ochus to the 
satrapy of all the western coast of Asia Minor, 
in which he was succeeded . by his brother 
Memnon. [Memxox.] — (3) The most cele- 
brated silver-chaser among the Greeks, who 
flourished before b.c. 356. His works were 
vases and cups, which were highly prized by 
the Romans. 

MERCTJRII PROMONTORIUM. [Hee- 

MAEUM.] 

MERCURIUS (4) , a Roman divinity of com- 
merce and gain, identified by the Romans with 
the Greek Hermes. The Romans of later 
times transferred all the attributes and myths 
of Hermes to their own god. [Hermes.] 
The Fetiales, however, never recognised the 
identity ; and instead of the caduceus, they 
used a sacred branch as the emblem of 
peace. The resemblance between Mercu- 
rius and Hermes is indeed very slight. The 
character of the Roman god is clear from his 
name, which is connected with merx and 
mercari. -A temple was built to him as early 
as b.c. 495 near the Circus Maximus ; and 
an altar of the god existed near the Porta 
Capena, by the side of a well. His festival 
was celebrated on the 25th of May, and 
chiefly by merchants, who visited the well 
near the Porta Capena, to which magic 
powers were_ ascribed. 

MERIONES (-ae), a Cretan hero, son of 
Molus, was one of the bravest heroes in the 
Trojan war, and usually fought along with 
his friend Idomeneus. 

MERMERUS (-i), one of the Centaurs 
present at the wedding of Pirithous. 

MEROE (-es), the island, formed by the 
rivers Astapus and Astaboras, and the portion 
of the Nile between their mouths, was a 
j district of Ethiopia. Its capital, also called 



MEROPE. 



264 



ME S SANA. 



Meroe', became at a very early period the 
capital of a powerful state. The priests of 
Meroe were closely connected in origin and 
customs with those of Egypt ; and, according 
to some traditions, the latter sprang from 
the former, and they from India. For details 
respecting the kingdom of Meroe, see 
Aethiopia. 

MEROPE (-es). (1) One of the Heliades 
or sisters of Phaethon. — (2) Daughter of 
Atlas, one of the Pleiades, wife of Sisyphus 
of Corinth and mother of Glaucus. In the 
constellation of the Pleiades she is the 7 th and 
the least visible star, because she is ashamed 
of having had intercourse with a mortal 
man. — (3) Daughter of Cypselus, wife of Cres- 
phontes, and mother of Aepytus. [Aepytus.] 

MEROPS (-opis), king of the Ethiopians, 
by whose wife, Clymene, Helios (Sol) became 
the father of Phaethon. 

MESEMBRIA (-ae), (1) A celebrated town 
of Thrace on the Pontus Euxinus, and at the 
foot of Mt. Haemus, founded by the inhabi- 
tants of Chalcedon and Byzantium in the time 
of Darius Hystaspis, and hence called a colony 
of Megara, since those 2 towns were founded 
by the Megarians. — (2) A town in Thrace, 
but of less importance, on the coast of the 
Aegaean sea, and in the territory of the 
Cicones, near the mouth of the Lissus. 

MESOPOTAMIA (-ae), a district of Asia, 
named from its position between the Euphrates 
and the Tigris, divided by the Euphrates from 
Syria and Arabia, and by the Tigris from 
Assyria. On the N. it was separated from 
Armenia by a branch of the Taurus, called 
Masius, and on the S. from Babylonia, by 
the Median Wall. The name was first used 
by the Greeks in the time of the Seleucidae. 
In earlier times the country was reckoned a 
part, sometimes of Syria, and sometimes of 
Assyria. In the division of the Persian empire 
it belonged to the satrapy of Babylonia. The 
N. part of Mesopotamia was divided into the 
districts of Mygdonia and Osroene. In a 
wider sense, the name is sometimes applied 
to the whole country between the Euphrates 
and the Tigris. 

MESPILA (-ae), a city of Assyria, on the 
E. side of the Tigris, which Xenophon men- 
tions as having been formerly a great city, 
inhabited by Medes, but in his time fallen to 
decay. Layard places it at Kouyouvjik, 
opposite to Mosul. 

MESSA (-ae), a town and harbour in 
Laconia, near C : Taenarum. 

MESSALA or MESSALLA (-ae), the name 
of a distinguished family of the Valeria gens 
at Rome. The first who bore the name of 
Messala was M. Valerius Maximus Corvixis 
Messala, consul b.c. 263, who carried on the 



war against the Carthaginians in Sicily, and 
received this cognomen in consequence of his 
relieving Messina. The most celebrated 
member of the family was M. Valerius 
Messala Corvinus. He fought on the 
republican side at the battle of Philippi 
(b.c. 42), but was afterwards pardoned by 
the triumvirs, and became one of the chief 
generals and friends of Augustus. He was 
consul b.c. 3], and proconsul of Aquitania 
28, 27. He died about b.c 3 — a.d. 3. 
Messala was a patron of learning, and was 
himself an historian, a poet, a grammarian, 
and an orator ; but none of his works are 
extant. His friendship for Horace and his 
intimacy with Tibullus are well known. In 
the elegies of the latter poet, the name of 
Messala is continually introduced. 

MESSALINA, VALERIA (-ae), wife of the 
emperor Claudius, and mother of Britan- 
nicus, was notorious for her profligacy and 
licentiousness, and long exercised an un- 
bounded empire over her weak husband. 
Narcissus, the freedman of Claudius, at length 
persuaded the emperor to put Messalina to 
death, because she had publicly married a 
handsome Roman youth, C. Silius, during the 
absence of Claudius at Ostia, a.d. 48. 

MESSANA (-ae : Messina), a celebrated 
town of Sicily, on the straits separating Italy 
from this island, which are here about 4 
miles broad. The Romans called the town 
Messana, according to its Doric pronun- 
ciation, but Messene was its more usual name 
among the Greeks. It was originally a town 
of the Siceli, and ' was called Zancle, or a 
sickle, on account of the shape of its harbour, 
which is formed by a singular curve of sand 
and shells. It was first colonised by Chal- 
cidians, and was afterwards seized by 
Samians, who had come to Sicily after the 
capture of Miletus by the Persians (b.c 494). 
The Samians were shortly afterwards driven 
out of Zancle by Anaxilas, who changed the 
name of the town into Messana or Messene, 
both because he was himself a Messenian, 
and because he transferred to the place a 
body of Messenians from Rhegium. In b.c 
396 it was taken and destroyed by the Car- 
thaginians, but was rebuilt by Dionysius. 
It afterwards fell into the hands of Aga- 
thocles. Among the mercenaries of this 
tyrant were a number of Mamertini, an 
Oscan people, from Campania, who had been 
sent from home under the protection of the 
god Mamers or Mars, to seek their fortune in 
other lands. These Mamertini were quartered 
in Messana ; and after the death of Aga- 
thocles (b.c 282), they made themselves 
masters of the town, killed the male inhabit- 
ants, and took possession of their wives 



MESSAPIA. 



265 



METELLUS. 



their children, and their property. The 
town was now called Mamebtina, and the 
inhabitants Mamertini ; but its ancient 
name of Messana continued to be in more 
general use. The new inhabitants could not 
lay aside their old predatory habits, and in 
consequence became involved in a war with 
Hieron of Syracuse, who would probably 
have conquered the town, had not the Cartha- 
ginians come in to the aid of the Mamertini, 
and, under the pretext of assisting them, 
taken possession of their citadel. The Mamer- 
tini had at the same time applied to the 
Romans for help, who gladly availed them- 
selves of the opportunity to obtain a footing 
in Sicily. Thus Messana was the immediate 
cause of the 1st Punic war, 264. The 
Mamertini expelled the Carthaginian gar- 
rison, and received the Romans, in whose 
power Messana remained till the latest times. 

MESSAPIA (-ae), the Greek name of 
Calaeria. 

MESSENIA (-ae), a country in Pelopon- 
nesus, bounded on the E. by Laconia, from 
which it was separated by Mt, Taygetus, on 
the N. by Elis and Arcadia, and on the S. and 
W. by the sea. In the Homeric times the 
western part of the country belonged to the 
Neleid princes of Pylos, of whom Nestor was 
the most celebrated ; and the eastern to the 
Lacedaemonian monarchy. On the conquest 
of Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Messenia fell 
to the share of Cresphontes, who became king 
of the whole country. Messenia was more 
fertile than Laconia ; and the Spartans soon 
coveted the territory of their brother Dorians ; 
and thus war broke out between the two 
people. The 1st Messenian war lasted 20 
years, b.c 743 — 723 ; and notwithstanding 
the gallant resistance of the Messenian king, 
Aristodemus, the Messenians were obliged to 
submit to the Spartans after the capture of 
their fortress Ithome. [Aristodemus.] After 
bearing the yoke 38 years, the Messenians 
again took up arms under their heroic leader 
Aristomenes. [Aristomenes.] The 2nd Mes- 
senian war lasted 17 years, b.c. 685 — 668, 
and terminated with the conquest of Ira and 
the complete subjugation of the country. 
Most of the Messenians emigrated to foreign 
countries, and those who remained behind 
were reduced to the condition of Helots or 
serfs. In this state they remained till 464, 
when the Messenians and other Helots took 
advantage of the devastation occasioned by 
the great earthquake at Sparta, to rise 
against their oppressors. This 3rd Messenian 
war lasted 10 years, 464 — 455, and ended by 
the Messenians surrendering Ithome to the 
Spartans on condition of being allowed a free 
departure from Peloponnesus. "When the 



supremacy of Sparta was overthrown by the 
battle of Leuctra, Epaminondas collected the 
Messenian exiles, and founded the town of 
Messene (b.c 369), at the foot of Mt. Ithome, 
which formed the acropoli of the city. Messene 
was made the capital of the country. Mes- 
senia was never again subdued by the Spar- 
tans, and it maintained its independence till 
the conquest of the Achaeans and the rest of 
Greece by the Romans, 146. 

MESTRA (-ae), daughter of Erysichthon, 
and granddaughter of Triopas, whence she 
is called Triopcis by Ovid. 

MET ABU S (-i), a chief of the Yolsci, father 
of Camilla._ 

METANIRA (-ae), wife of Celeus, and 
mother of Triptolemus. [Celeus.] 

METAPONTIUM, called MET AP NTUM 
(-i) by the Romans, a celebrated Greek city 
in Lucania, and on the Tarentine gulf. It 
was founded by the Greeks at an early period, 
was afterwards destroyed by the Samnites, 
and was repeopled by a colony of Achaeans. 
It fell into the hands of the Pvomans with the 
other Greek cities in the S» of Italy in the 
war against Pyrrhus; but it revolted to 
Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. 

METAURUM. [Metaurus, No. 2.] 

METAURUS (-i). (1) A small river in 
Umbria, flowing into the Adriatic sea, memo- 
rable by the defeat and death of Hasdrubal, 
the brother of Hannibal, on its banks b.c 
207. — (2) A river on the E. coast of Brut- 
tium, at whose mouth was the town of 
Metaurum. 

METELLUS (-i), a ' distinguished plebeian 
family of the Caecilia gens at Rome. (1) L. 
Caecilius Metellus, consul b.c 251, when he 
defeated the Carthaginians in Sicily ; consul a 
2nd time in 249 ; and afterwards pontifex 
maximus ; while holding the latter dignity he 
rescued the Palladium when the temple of Vesta 
was on fire, and lost his sight in consequence. 
— (2) Q. Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus, 
was praetor 148, when he defeated the usurper 
Andriscus in Macedonia, and received in con- 
sequence the surname of Macedonicus. He 
was consul in 143, and carried on the war 
against the Celtiberians in Spain. — (3) Q. 
Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, consul 
b.c 109, carried on the war against Jugurtha 
in Numidia with great success, and received 
in consequence the surname of Xumidicus. 
[Jugurtha.] In 107 he was superseded in 
the command by Marius. [Marius.] In 102 
he was censor, and two years afterwards (100) 
he was banished from Rome through the 
intrigues of his enemy Marius. He was 
however recalled in the following year (99). 
Metellus was one of the chief leaders of the 
aristocratical party, and a man of unsullied 



METHONE. 



266 



MIDAS. 



character. — (4) Caecilius Metelles Pies, 
son of of the preceding, received the surname 
of Pius on account of the love which he dis- 
played for his father when he besought the 
people to recal him from banishment in 99. 
He was praetor b.c. 89, and one of the com- 
manders in the Mar sic or Social war. He 
subsequently fought as one of Sulla's generals 
against the Marian party, and was consul 
with Sulla himself in b.c. 80. In the follow- 
ing year (79), he went as proconsul into 
Spain, where he carried on the war against 
Sertorius for many years (b.c. 79 — 7 2). He 
died in b.c 63, and was succeeded in the 
dignity of pontifex maximus by Julius 
Caesar. — (5) Q. Caecilies Metelles Celeb, 
praetor b.c 63, and consul 60, was a warm 
supporter of the aristocratical party. He 
died in 59, and it was suspected that he had 
been poisoned by his wife Clodia. — (6) Q. 
Caecilies Metelles Xepos, younger brother 
of the preceding, tribune b.c. 62, praetor 60, 
and consul 57, supported Pompey against 
the aristocracy. — (7) Q. Caecilies Metelles 
Pies Scipio, the adopted son of Metellus 
Pius [Xo. 4], was the son of P. Scipio 
Nasica, praetor 94. Pompey married Cornelia, 
the daughter of Metellus Scipio in b.c 52 and 
in the same year made his father-in-law 
his colleague in the consulship. Scipio fought 
on the side of Pompey in the civil war, and 
after the tattle of Pharsalia, crossed over to 
Africa, where he received the command of 
the Pompeian troops. He was defeated by 
Caesar at the battle of Thapsus in 46 ; and 
shortly afterwards he put an end to his own 
life. — (8) Q. Caecilies Metelles Cbetices, 
consul b.c 69, carried on war against Crete, 
which he subdued in the course of 3 years. 
— (9) L. Caecilies Metelles, brother of the 
last, praetor 71, and as propraetor the 
successor of Yerres in the government of 
Sicily. — (10) M. Caecilies Metelles, praetor 
69, presided at the trial of Yerres. 

METHONE (-es). (1) Or Mothoxe, a 
town at the S.W. corner of Messenia, with an 
excellent harbour, protected from the sea by 
a reef of rocks, of which the largest was 
called Mothon. — (2) A town in Macedonia on 
the Thermaic gulf, founded by the Eretrians, 
and celebrated from Philip having lost an eye 
at the siege of the place. — (3) Or Methana, 
an ancient town in Argolis, situated on a 
peninsula of the same name, opposite the 
island of Aegina. 

METHYMXA (-ae), the second city of 
Lesbos, stood at the X. extremity of the island. 
It was the birthplace of the poet Arion, and 
of the historian Hellanicus. The celebrated 
Lesbian wine grew in its neighbourhood. In 
the Peloponnesian war it remained faithful 



to Athens, even during the great Lesbian 
revolt [Mytilene" : afterwards it was sacked 
I by the Spartans (b.c 406). 

METIS (-Mis), the personification of pru- 
I dence, described as a daughter of Oceanus and 
I Tethys, and the first wife of Zeus Jupiter , 
I Afraid lest she should give birth to a child 
| wiser and more powerful than himself, Zeus 
devoured her in the first month of her preg- 
nancy. Afterwards he gave birth to Athena, 
j who sprang from his head. 
METIUS. [Mettles.] 
METOX (-onis), an astronomer of Athens, 
who, in conjunction with Eectemox. intro- 
I duced the cycle of 19 years, by which he 
i adjusted the course of the sun and moon. 
The commencement of this cycle has been 
placed b.c 432. 

METPODOPUS (-i), a native of Lampsaeus 
or Athens, an Epicurean philosopher, and 
the most distinguished of the disciples of 
j Epicurus, died b.c 27 7. 

METROPOLIS (-is), a town of Thessaly 
in Histiaeotis, near the Peneus, and between 
j Gomphi and Pharsalus. There were several 
other cities of this name. 

METTIUS or METIUS. (l) Certies. 
[Curtecs.] — (2) Feffeties, dictator of Alba, 
1 was torn asunder by chariots driven in oppo- 
site directions, by order of Tullus Hostilius, 
3rd king of Pome, on account of his treachery 
toward^ the Pomans. 

METULUM (-i), the chief town of the 
Iapydes in Illyricuni. 

MEVANIA -ae : Bevagna), an ancient 
city in the interior of Umbria on the river 
j Tinea, situated in a fertile country, and cele- 
brated for its breed of beautiful white oxen. 
According to some accounts Propertius was a 
native of this place. 

MEZEXTITJS (-i), king of the Tyrrhenian 
Caere or Agylla, was expelled by his subjects 
j on account of his cruelty, and took refuge 
I with Turnus, king of the Putulians, whom he 
assisted in the war against Aeneas and the 
I Trojans. Mezentius and his son Lausus were 
slain in battle by Aeneas. 

MICIPSA (-ae), king of Xumidia (b.c 148 
< — 118), eldest of the sons of Masinissa. He 
i left the kingdom to his 2 sons, Adherbal and 
i Hiempsal, and their adopted brother Je- 

GUETHA. 

MICOX, of Athens, a distinguished painter 
and statuary, contemporary with Polygnotus, 
| about b.c 460. ^ 

MIDAS or MID A (-ae), son of Gordius and 
king of Phrygia, renowned for his immense 
riches. In consequence of his kind treatment 
of Silenus, the companion and teacher of Dio- 
nysus (Bacchus), the latter allowed Midas to 
ask a favour of him. Midas in his folly desired 



MIDEA. 



267 



M1LTIADES. 



that all things which he touched should he 
changed into gold. The request was granted ; 
but as even the food which he touched became 
gold, he implored the god to take his favour 
back. Dionysus accordingly ordered him to 
bathe in the sources of the Pactolus near Mt. 
Tmolus. This bath saved Midas, but the 
river from that time had an abundance of 
gold in its sand. Once when Pan and 
Apollo were engaged in a musical contest on 
the flute and lyre, Midas was chosen to decide 
between them. . The king decided in favour 
of Pan, whereupon Apollo changed his ears 
into those of an ass. Midas contrived to 
conceal them under his Phrygian cap, but 
the servant who used to cut his hair dis- 
covered them. The secret so much harassed 
the man, that as he could not betray it to a 
human being, he dug a hole in the earth, and 
whispered into it, " King Midas has ass's 
ears." He then filled up the hole, and his 
heart was released. But on the same spot a 
reed grew, which in its whispers betrayed 
the secret. 

MIDEA or MIDEA (-ae), a town in Argolis. 

MILANION (-onis), husband of Atalanta. 
[Atalaxta.] 

MILETUS (-i). (1) Son of Apollo and Aria 
of Crete, fled from Minos to Asia, where he 
built the city of Miletus. Ovid calls him a 
son of Apollo and De'ione, and hence De'ioni- 
des. — (2) One of the greatest cities of Asia 
Minor, belonged territorially to Caria and 
politically to Ionia, being the S.-most of 
the 12 cities of the Ionian confederacy. 
The city stood upon the S. headland of the 
Sinus Latmicus, opposite to the mouth of the 
Maeander, and possessed 4 distinct harbours, 
protected by a group of islets; its territory 
was rich in flocks, and the city was celebrated 
for its woollen fabrics, the Milesia vellera. At 
a very early period it became a great maritime 
state, and founded numerous colonies, espe- 
cially on the shores of the Euxine. It was 
the birthplace of the philosophers Thales, 
Anaximander, and Anaximenes, and of the 
historians Cadmus and Hecataeus. It was 
the centre of the great Ionian revolt against 
the Persians, after the suppression of which 
it was destroyed (b.c. 494). It recovered 
sufficient importance to oppose a vain re- 
sistance to Alexander the Great, which 
brought upon it a second ruin. Under the 
Roman empire it still appears as a place of 
some consequence. 

MILO or MILON (-onis). (1) Of Crotona, 
a celebrated athlete, G times victor in wrest- 
ling at the Olympic games, and as often at 
the Pythian. He was one of the followers of 
Pythagoras, and commanded the army which 
defeated the Sybarites, b.c 511. Many 



stories are related of his extraordinary feats 
of strength ; such as his carrying a heifer four 
years old on his shoulders through the 
stadium at Olympia, and afterwards eating 
the whole of it in a single day. Passing 
through a forest in his old age, he saw the 
trunk of a tree which had been partially 
split open by woodcutters, and attempted to 
rend it further, but the wood closed upon his 
hands, and thus held him fast, in which 
state he was attacked and devoured by wolves. 
— (2) T. Annius Milo Papixiaxus, was born 
at Lanuvium, of which place he was in b.c. 
53 dictator or chief magistrate. As tribune 
of the plebs, b.c. 57, Milo took an active part 
in obtaining Cicero's recal from exile ; and 
from this time he carried on a fierce and 
memorable contest with P. Clodius. In 53 
Milo was candidate for the consulship, and 
Clodius for the praetorship of the ensuing 
year. Each of the candidates kept a gang of 
gladiators, and there were frequent combats 
between the rival ruffians in the streets of 
Rome. At length, on the 20th of January, 
52, Milo and Clodius met apparently by ac- 
cident at Bovillae on the Appian road. An 
affray ensued between their followers, in 
which Clodius was slain. At Rome such 
tumults followed upon the burial of Clodius, 
that Pompey was appointed sole consul in 
order to restore order to the state. Milo was 
brought to trial. He was defended by Cicero ; 
but was condemned, and went into exile at 
Massilia {Marseilles) . The soldiers who lined 
the forum intimidated Cicero ; and he could 
not deliver the oration which he had pre- 
pared, Milo returned to Italy in 48, in order 
to support the revolutionary schemes of the 
praetor, M. Caelius ; but he was slain under 
the walls of an obscure fort in the district of 
Thurii. Milo, in 57, married Fausta, a 
daughter of the dictator Sulla. 

MILTIADES {-is). (1) Son of Cypselus, 
an Athenian, in the time of Pisistratus, 
founded a colony in the Thracian Chersonesus, 
of which he became tyrant. He died with- 
out children, and his sovereignty passed 
into the hands of Stesagoras, the son of his 
half-brother Cimon, — (2) Son of Cimon and 
brother of Stesagoras, became tyrant of the 
Chersonesus on the death of the latter, being 
sent out by Pisistratus from Athens to take 
possession of the vacant inheritance. He 
joined Darius Hystaspis on his expedition 
against the Scythians, and was left with the 
other Greeks in charge of the bridge over the 
Danube. When the appointed time had 
expired, and Darius had not returned, Mil- 
tiades recommended the Greeks to destroy 
the bridge, and leave Darius to his fate. 
After the suppression of the Ionian revolt, 



MILVIUS PONS. 



268 



MINOS. 



and the approach of the Phoenician fleet, 
Miltiades fled to Athens. Here he was 
arraigned, as being amenable to the penal- 
ties enacted against tyranny, but was ac- 
quitted. AVhen Attica was threatened with 
invasion by the Persians under Datis and 
Artaphernes, Miltiades was chosen one of 
the ten generals. Miltiades by his arguments 
induced the polemarch Callimachus to give 
the casting vote in favour of risking a battle 
with the enemy, the opinions of the ten 
generals heing equally divided. Miltiades 
waited till his turn came, and then drew his 
army up in battle array on the memorable 
field of Marathon. [Marathon.] After the 
defeat of the Persians, Miltiades induced the 
Athenians to entrust to him an armament of 
70 ships, without knowing the purpose for 
which they were design 3d. He proceeded to 
attack the island of Paros, for the purpose 
of gratifying a private enmity. His attacks, 
however, were unsuccessful ; and after re- 
ceiving a dangerous hurt in the leg, he was 
compelled to raise the siege and return to 
Athens, where he was impeached by Xan- 
thippus for having deceived the people. His 
wound had turned into a gangrene, and 
being unable to plead his cause in person, 
he was brought into court on a couch, his 
brother Tisagoras conducting his defence for 
him. He was condemned ; but on the ground 
of his services to the state the penalty was 
commuted to a fine of 50 talents, the cost of 
the equipment of the armament. Being unable 
to pay this, he was thrown into prison, where 
he not long after died of his wound. The 
fine was subsequently paid by his son Cimon. 

MILVIUS PONS. [Roma.] 

MILYAS. [Lycia.] 

MIMALLONES, or MIMALLQNLDES 
(-urn), the Macedonian name of the Bac- 
chantes. 

MIMAS (-antis). (1) One of the giants 
who warred against the gods, slain by a flash 
of lightning, — (2) A promontory in Ionia, 
opposite the island of Chios. 

MIMNEBMUS (-i), a celebrated elegiac 
poet, generally called a Colophonian, was pro- 
perly a native of Smyrna, and was descended 
from those Colophonians who reconquered 
Smyrna from the Aeolians. He flourished 
from about b.c. 634 to 600, and was a con- 
temporary of Solon. Mimnermus was the 
first who systematically made the elegy the 
vehicle for plaintive, mournful, and erotic 
strains. Only a few fragments of his poems 
are extant. 

MINCIUS (-i : Mincio), a river in Gallia 
Transpadana, flowing through the lake Be- 
nacus (Lago di Garcia), and falling into the 
Po, a little below Mantua. 



MINEBVA (-ae), called ATHENA by the 
Greeks. The Greek goddess is spoken of in 
a separate article [Athena], and we here 
confine ourselves to the Boman goddess. 
Minerva was one of the great Boman divini- 
ties. Her name probably contains the same 
root as mens ; and she is accordingly the 
thinking power personified. In the Capitol 
Minerva had a chapel in common with 
Jupiter and Juno. She was worshipped as 
the goddess of wisdom and the patroness of 
all the arts and trades. Hence the proverbs 
"to do a thing pingui Minerva," i.e. to do a 
thing in an awkward or clumsy manner ; and 
sus Minervam, of a stupid person who pre- 
sumed to set right an intelligent one. Minerva 
also guided men in the dangers of war, where 
victory is gained by prudence, courage, and 
perseverance. Hence she was represented 
with a helmet, shield, and a coat of mail ; 
and the booty made in war was frequently 
dedicated to her. She was further believed 
to be the inventor of musical instruments, 
especially wind instruments, the use of which 
was very important in religious worship, and 
which were accordingly subjected to a sort of 
purification every year on the last day of the 
festival of Minerva. This festival lasted 5 
days, from the 19th to the 23rd of March, 
and was called Qirinquatrus. The most 
ancient temple of Minerva at Borne was pro- 
bably that on the Capitol ; another existed on 
the Aventine ; and she had a chapel at the 
foot of the Caelian hill, where she bore the 
surname of Capta. 

MINEBVAE PBOMONTOBIUM (-i), a 
rocky promontory in Campania, running out 
a long way into the sea, 6 miles S.E. of Sur- 
rentum, on whose summit was a temple of 
Minerva, said to have been built by Ulysses. 
Here the Sirens are reported to have dwelt. 

MINIO (-onis : Mignone), a small river in 
Etruria, falling into the Tyrrhene sea, be- 
tween Graviscae and Centum Cellae. 

MINOA. [Megara.] 

MINOS (-ois). (1) Son of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and Europa, brother of Bhadamanthus, king 
and legislator of Crete, and after death one 
of the judges of the shades in Hades. — (2) Son 
of Lycastus, and grandson of the former, 
was likewise a king and lawgiver of Crete. 
He was the husband of Pasiphae, a daughter 
of Helios (the sun), and the father of Deuca- 
lion, Androgeos, Ariadne, and Phaedra. In 
order to avenge the wrong done to his son 
Androgeos [Androgeus] at Athens, he made 
war against the Athenians, and compelled 
them to send to Crete every year, as a tribute, 
7 youths and 7 maidens, to be devoured 
in the labyrinth by the Minotaurus. The 
Minotaur was a monster, half man and half 



MINOTAURUS 



269 



MITHRIDATES. 



bull, and the offspring of the intercourse of • 
Pasiphae with a bull. The labyrinth in 
which it was kept was constructed by Dae- 
dalus. This monster was slain by Theseus, 
with the assistance of Ariadne, the daughter J 
of Minos. [Theseus.] Daedalus having fled 




Theseus and .Minotaur. (From a painted Vase.) 



from Crete to escape the wrath of Minos, 
Minos followed him to Sicily, and was there 
slain by Cocalus and his daughters. From 
Minos we have Minois, a daughter or a 
female descendant of Minos, as Ariadne, and 
the adjectives Mlnmus and Hindus, used by 
the poets as equivalent to Cretan. 
MIXOTAURUS. [Minos.] 
MIXTHA (-ae) or MIXTHE (-es), a 
daughter of Cocytus, beloved by Hades, 
metamorphosed by Demeter (Ceres), or Per- 
sephone (Proserpina), into a plant called 
after her mintha, or mint, 

MIXTURXAE (-arum), an important town 
in Latium, on the frontiers of Campania, 
situated on the Appia Via, and on both banks 
of the Liris, and near the mouth of this river. 
It was an ancient town of the Ausones or 
Aurunci, but surrendered to the Romans of 
its own accord, and received a Roman colony 
b.c. 296. In its neighbourhood was a grove 
sacred to the nymph Marica, and also exten- 
sive marshes (Paludes Mintu metises), formed 
by the overflowing of the river Liris, in 
which Marius was taken prisoner. [See p. 
258, a.] w 

MINUCIUS (-i), the name of a Roman gens, 
of whom the most celebrated was M. Minu- 
cius Rufus, magister equitum to the dictator 
Q. Fabius Maximus, b.c. 217, in the war 



against Hannibal. He fell at the battle of 
Cannae. 

MIXYAE (-arum), an ancient Greek race, 
originally dwelling in Thessaly. Their an- 
cestral hero, Minyas, is said to have migrated 
from Thessaly into the X. of Bceotia, and 
there to have established the empire of the 
Minyae, with the capital of Orchomenos. 
[Orchomenos.] As the greater part of the 
Argonauts were descended from the Minyae, 
they are themselves called Minyae. The 
Minyae founded a colony in Lemnos, called 
Minyae, whence they proceeded to Elis 
Triphylia, and to the island of Thera. A 
daughter of Minyas was called Mlnyeias 
(-Mis) or Minyeis (-idis). His daughters 
were changed into bats, because they had 
slighted the festival of Dionysus (Bacchus). 

MISEXEM (-i), a promontory in Cam- 
pania, S. of Cumae, said to- have derived its 
name from Misenus, the companion and 
trumpeter of Aeneas, who was drowned and 
buried here. The bay formed by this pro- 
montory was converted by Augustus into an 
excellent harbour, and was made the prin- 
cipal station of the Roman fleet on the Tyr- 
rhene sea. A town sprang up around the 
harbour. Here was the villa of C. Marius, 
which afterwards passed into the hands of 
the emperor Tiberius, who died at this place. 

MITHRAS (-ae), the god of the sun among 
the Persians. Under the Roman emperors 
his worship was introduced at Rome. The 
god is commonly rem-esented as a handsome 
youth, wearing the Phrygian cap and attire, 
and kneeling on a bull, whose throat he is 
cutting. 

MITHRIDATES (-is), the name of several 
kings of Pontus, of whom the best known is 
Mithridates VI., surnamed the Great, and 
celebrated on account of his wars with the 
Romans. He reigned b.c. 120 — 63. He 
was a man of great energy and ability ; and 
so powerful was his memory, that he is said 
to have learnt not less than 25 languages. 
Having greatly extended his empire in the 
early part of his reign by the conquest of the 
neighbouring nations, he at length ventured 
to measure his strength with Rome. The 
first Mithridatic war lasted from e.c SS to 
84. At first he met with great success. He 
drove Ariobarzanes out of Cappadocia, and 
Xicomedes out of Bithynia, both of whom 
had been previously expelled by him, but 
restored by the Romans ; and he at last 
made himself master of the Roman province 
of Asia. During the winter he ordered all 
the Roman and Italian citizens in Asia to be 
massacred ; and on one day no fewer than 
80,000 Romans and Italians are said to have 
perished. Meantime Sulla had received the 



MITHRIDATES. 270 MOIEAE. 



command of the war against Mithridates, and 1 accompanied Aeneas to Italy, and is said to 
crossed over into Greece in S7. Arche- havejbeen the ancestral hero of the Memmii. 
laus, the general of Mithridates, was twice MOABITIS, called MOAB in the Old 
defeated by Snlla in Boeotia (86) ; and about j Testament, a district of Arabia Petraea, E. 
the same time the king himself was defeated ; of the Dead Sea. The MoaMtes were fre- 
in Asia by Fimbria. [Fembkia.] Mithridates ; quently at war with the Israelites. They 
now sued for peace, which was granted him \ were conquered by David, but they after- 
by Sulla in 84. The second Mithridatic war j wards recovered their independence. 
(b.c. S3 — 82), was caused by the unprovoked I MOEBIS (-idis), a king of Egypt, who 
attacks of Murena, who had been left in is said to have dug the great lake known by 
command of Asia by Sulla. Murena invaded I his name ; but it is really natural, and not 
the dominions of Mithridates, but was an artificial lake. It is on the W. side of 
defeated by the latter, and was ordered by the Nile, in Middle Egypt, and used for the 
Sulla to desist from hostilities. The third reception and subsequent distribution of a 
Mithridatic war was the most important of part of the overflow of the Nile, 
the three. It lasted from b.c. 74 to the MOESIA (-ae), a country of Europe, was 
king's death in 63. It broke out in conse- bounded on the S. by Thrace and Macedonia; 
quence of the king seizing Bithynia, which on the W. by Illyricum and Pannonia ; on the 
had been left by Xiconiedes III. to the Bonian X. by the Danube, and on the E. by the 
people. The consul LucuUus was appointed Pontus Euxinus, thus corresponding to the 
to the command, and conducted it with great present Servia and Bulgaria. This country 
success. In b.c. 7 3 he relieved Cyzieus, \ was subdued in the reign of Augustus, and 
which was besieged by Mithridates, and in i was made a Eoman province at the com- 
the course of the next two years drove the j mencement of the reign of Tiberius. It was 
king out of Pontus, and compelled him to ! afterwards formed into 2 provinces, called 
flee to his son-in-law, Tigranes, the king of j Moesia Superior and Moesia Inferior, the 
Armenia. The latter espoused the cause former being the western, and the latter the 
of his father-in-law ; whereupon Lucullus eastern half of the country. When Aurelian 
marched into Armenia, and defeated Tigra- j surrendered Dacia to the barbarians, and 
nes and Mithridates, in two battles in b.c. 69 I removed the inhabitants of that province to 
and 68. But in consequence of the mutiny the S. of the Danube, the middle part of 
of his soldiers, who demanded to be led home, j Moesia was called Dacia Aureliani. 
Lucullus could not follow up his conquests ; s MOGONTIACUM, MOGUNTIACUM, or 
and Mithridates recovered Pontus. In b c. MAGONTIACUM (-i : Mainz or May ence), a 
66 Lucullus was succeeded in the command town on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite 
by Pompey. Mithridates was defeated by the mouth of the river Moenus {Main). 
Pompey ; and as Tigranes now refused to ; MOIEAE, called PAECAE (-arum) by the 
admit him into his dominions, he marched Romans, the Fates, were 3 in number, viz., 
into Colchis, and thence made his way to I Clotho, or the spinning fate ; Lachesis, or 
Panticapaeum, the capital of the Cimmerian ; the one who assigns to man his fate ; and 
Bosporus. Here he conceived the daring j Atropos, or the fate that cannot be avoided, 
project of marching round the N. and W. Sometimes they appear as divinities of fate in 
coasts of the Euxine, through the wild tribes j the strict sense of the term, and sometimes 
of the Sarmatians and Getae, and of invading j only as allegorical divinities of the duration of 
Italy at the head of these nations. But ' human life. In the former character they take 
meanwhile disaffection had made rapid ! care that the fate assigned to every being by 
progress among his followers. His son, j eternal laws may take its course without 
Pharnaces, at length openly rebelled against I obstruction ; and both gods and men must 
him, and was joined by the whole army, and . submit to them. These grave and mighty 
the citizens of Panticapaeum, who proclaimed goddesses were represented by the earliest 
him king. Mithridates, resolved not to fall ; artists with staffs or sceptres, the symbol of 
into the hands of the Eomans, put an end to dominion. The Moirae, as the divinities of 
his own life, b.c. 63, at the age of 68 or 69, j the duration of human life, which is deter- 
after a reign of 57 years. ; mined by the two points of birth and of death, 

MITHRIDATES, Kings of Parthia. [Ar-. j are conceived either as goddesses of birth or 
saces, 6, 9, 13.] as goddesses of death. The distribution of 

MITYLEXE. [Mytilexe.] the functions among the 3 was not strictly 

MNEMOSYNE (-es), i.e., Memory, daugh- observed, for we sometimes find all 3 de- 
ter of Uranus (Heaven), and mother of the scribed as spinning the thread of life, 
Muses by Zeus (Jupiter). j although this was prcperly the function of 

MXESTHEUS (-ei or -el), a Trojan, who ! Clotho alone. Hence Clotho, and sometimes 



MOLIONE. 



271 



mopsium. 



the other fates, are represented with a are represented as grave maidens, with 
spindle ; and they are said to break or cut different attributes, viz., Clotho, with a 
off the thread when life is to end. The poets | spindle or a roll (the book of fate) ; Lachesis 
sometimes describe them as aged and hideous ! pointing with a staff to the globe ; and 
women, and even as lame, to indicate the j Atropos, with a pair of scales, or a sun-dial, 
slow march of fate ; but in works of art they | or a cutting instrument. 




The Moirae or Parcae (Fates) and Prometheus. (Yisconti, Mus. Pio Clem. vol. 4, tav. 34.) 



MOLIONE. [Molioxes.] 

MOLIONES (-urn) or MOLIONIDAE 
(-arum), that is, Eurytus and Cteatus, so 
called after their mother Molione. They are 
also called Actoridae or Actorzune ('AxTegfaivi) 
after their reputed father Actor, the husband 
of Molione. They are mentioned as con- 
querors of Nestor in the chariot race, and as 
having taken part in the Calydonian hunt. 
Having come to the assistance of Augeas 
against Hercules, they were slain by the latter. 

MOLOSSI (-orum), a people in Epirus, in- 
habiting a narrow slip of country, called after 
them Molossia or Molossis, which extended 
along the W. bank of the Arachthus, as far as 
the Ambracian gulf. They were the most 
powerful people in Epirus, and their kings 
gradually extended their dominion over the 
whole of the country. The first of their 
kings, who took the title of king of Epirus, 
was Alexander, who perished in Italy b.c. 326. 
[Epirus.] Their capital was Ambracia. The 
Molossian hounds were celebrated in antiquity. 

MOLYCEIUM (-i), a town in the S. of 
Aetolia, at the entrance of the Corinthian gulf. 

MOMUS (-i), the god of mockery and cen- 
sure, called by Hesiod the son of Night. Thus 
he is said to have censured in the man formed 
by Hephaestus (Vulcan) , that a little door had 
not been left in his breast, so as to enable 
one to look into his secret thoughts. 

MONA (-ae : Anglesey), an island off the 



coast of the Ordovices, in Britain, one of the 
chief seats of the Druids. Caesar erroneously 
describes this island as half way between 
Britannia and Hibernia. Hence it has been 
supposed by some critics that the Mona of 
Caesar is the Isle of Man ; but it is more pro- 
bable, on account of the celebrity of Mona 
in connection with the Druids, that he had 
heard of Anglesey, and that he received a 
false report respecting its real position. 

MONAESES (-is), a Parthian general men- 
tioned by Horace, probably the same as Su- 
renas, the general of Orodes, who defeated 
Crassus. 

MONETA (-ae), a surname of Juno among 
the Bomaris, as the protectress of money. 
Under this name she had a temple on the 
Capitoline, which was at the same time the 
public mint. 

MONOECI POBTUS, also HEBCULIS 
MONOECI POBTUS [Monaco), a port-town 
on the coast of Liguria, founded by the Mas- 
silians, was situated on a promontory (hence 
the arx Monoeci of Virgil), and possessed a 
temple of Hercules Monoecus, from whom 
the place derived its name. 

MOPSIA or MOPSOPIA, an ancient name 
of Attica, whence Mopsopius is frequently used 
by the poets as equivalent to Athenian. 

^MOPSIUM (-i), a town of Thessaly, in 
Pelasgiotis, situated en a hill of the same 
name between Tempe and Larissa. 



MOPSUESTIA. 



272 



MUSAE. 



MOPSUESTIA (-ae), an important city of 
Cilicia, on both banks of tbe river Pvramus. 

MOPSUS (-i). (1) Son of Ampyx and the 
nymph Chloris, the prophet and soothsayer 
of the Argonauts, died in Lybia of the bite of 
a snake. — (2) Son of Apollo and Manto, the 
daughter of Tiresias, and also a celebrated 
seer. He contended in prophecy with Calchas 
at Colophon, and showed hiniself superior to 
the latter in prophetic power. [Calchas.] 
He was believed to have founded Mallos, in 
Cilicia, in conjunction with the seer Arnphi- 
lochus. A dispute arose between the two seers 
respecting the possession of the town, and 
both fell in combat by each other's hand. 

MORGAXTIUM (-i), MORGAXTIXA, 
MURGAXTIA, MORGEXTIA (-ae), a town 
in Sicily, S.E. of Agyrium, and near the 
Symaethus, founded by the Morgetes, after 
they had been driven out of Italy by the 
Oenotrians. 

MORGETES. [aIorgaxtioi.] 

MORIXI (-5rum), the most N.-ly people in 
all Gaul, whence Virgil calls them extremi 
hominum. They dwelt on the coast, at the 
narrowest part of the channel between Gaul 
and Britain. 

MORPHEUS (-eos, -el, or -el), the son of 
Sleep, and the god of dreams. The name 
signifies the fashioner or moulder, because 
he shaped or formed the dreams which ap- 
peared to the sleeper. 

MORS (-tis), called THAN AT OS by the 
Greeks, the god of death, is represented as a 
son of Xight, and a brother of Sleep. 

MOSA (-ae : JIaas or Jleuse), a river in 
Gallia Belgica, rising in Mt. Yogesus, and 
falling into the Vahalis or W. branch of the 
Rhine. 

MOSCHI (-oruni), a people of Asia, dwell- 
ing in the S. part of Colchis. 

MOSCHUS (-i), of Syracuse, a bucolic poet, 
lived about b.c 250. There are 4 of his idyls 
extant, usually printed with those of Biox. 

MOSELLA(-ae : Mosel, Moselle), a river in 
Gallia Belgica, rising in Mt. Yogesus, and 
falling into the Rhine at Confiuentes (Coblenz). 

MOSTEXI (-oruni), a city of Lydia, S.E. of 
Thyatira. 

MOSYXOECT (-orum), a barbarous people 
on the X. coast of Asia Minor, in Pontus, so 
called from the conical wooden houses in 
which they dwelt. 

MOTUCA (-ae), a town in the S. of Sicily, 
W. of the promontory Pachynus. The inha- 
bitants were called Mutycenses. 

MOTYA (-ae), an ancient town in the N.W, 
of Sicily, situated on a small island near the 
coast, with which it was connected by a mole. 
It was founded by the Phoenicians, and next 
belonged to the Carthaginians, who trans- 



planted its inhabitants to the town of Liiy- 
baeum, b.c 397. 

MtJCIUS SCAEYOLA. [Scaevola.] 

MULCIBER (-bri), a surname of Yulcan, 
I which seems to have been given him as an 
| euphemism, that he might not consume the 
habitations of men, but might kindly aid 
j them in their pursuits. 

MULUCHA (-ae), a river in the X. of 
Africa, rising in the Atlas, and forming the 
boundary between Mauretania and Xuniidia. 

MUMMIES (-i), L., consul b.c 148, won 
for himself the surname of Achaicus, by the 
conquest of Greece, and the establishment of 
the Roman province of Achaia. After defeat- 
ing the army of the Achaean league at the 
Isthmus of Corinth, he entered Corinth with- 
out opposition, and rased it to the ground. 
[ComxTircs.] He was censor in 142 with 
Scipio Africanus the younger. 

MUXATIUS PLAXCUS. [Plaxces.] 

MUXDA (-ae), a town inHispania Baetica, 
celebrated on account of the victory of Julius 
Caesar over the sons of Pompey, b.c 45. 

MUXYCHIA (-ae), the smallest and the 
most E.-ly of the 3 harbours of Athens. The 
poets use Mimychian in the sense of Athenian. 

MURCIA, MURTEA, or MURTIA (-ae), a 
surname of Yenus at Rome, where she had a 
chapel in the circus, with a statue. This 
surname, which is said to be the same as 
Myrtea (from myrt us 7 a myrtle), was believed 
to indicate the fondness of the goddess for the 
myrtle tree. 

MUREXA (-ae), which signifies a lamprey, 
was the name of a family in the Licinia gens, 
of whom the most important were : — (1) L. 
Eicixies Merexa, who was left by Sulla as 
propraetor in Asia, b.c 84, and was the cause 
of the 2nd Mithridatic war.— (2) E. Licixies 
Mi ben a, son of the former, consul e.g. 63, 
was accused of bribery, and defended by 
Cicero in an extant oration. 

MURGAXTIA. [Morgaxtiem.] 

MUS, DECIUS. [Decies.] 

MUSA (-ae), AXTOXIUS, a celebrated phy- 
sician at Rome, was brother to Euphorbus, the 
physician to king Juba, and was himself the 
physician to the emperor Augustus. He had 
been originally a slave. 

MUSAE (-arum,) the Muses, were, ac- 
cording to the earliest writers, the inspiring 
goddesses of song, and, according to later 
notions, divinities presiding over the different 
kinds of poetry, and over the arts and sciences. 
They are usually represented as the daughters 
of Zeus (Jupiter) and Mnemosyne, and born 
in Pieria, at the foot of Mt. Olympus. Their 
original number appears to have been 3 ; but 
afterwards they are always spoken of as 9 in 
number. Their names and attributes were ■ — 



MUSAE. 



273 



MUSAE. 



1. Clio, the Muse of history, represented 
in a sitting- or standing attitude, with an 
open roll of paper, or chest of books. 




Clio, the Muse of History. (From a Statue 
now in Sweden.) 

2. Euterpe, the Muse of lyric poetry, with a flute. 




Euterpe, the Muse of Lyric Poetry. (From a Statue 
in the Vatican.) 

3. Thalia, the Muse of comedy, and of 



merry or idyllic poetry, appears with a comic 
mask, a shepherd's staff, or a wreath of ivy. 




Thalia, the Muse of Comedy. (From a Statue 
in the Vatican.) 

4. Melpomene, the Muse of tragedy, with 
a tragic mask, the club of Hercules, or a 




Melpomene, the Muse of Tragedy. (From a Statue 
in the Vatican.) 

sword : her head is surrounded with vine 
leaves, and she wears the cothurnus. 

T 



MUSAE. 



274 



MUSAE. 



5. Terpsichore, the Muse of choral dance and 
song, appears with the lyre and the plectrum. 

6. Erato, the Muse of erotic poetry and 
mimic imitation, sometimes also has the lyre, 




Erato, the Muse of Erotic Poetiy. (Prom a Statue 
in the Vatican.) 




Folymnia, the Muse of the Sublime Hymn. 
LFroni a Statue in the Louvre.) 



7. Poly mum or Polyhymnia, the Muse of 
the sublime hymn, usually appears without any 
attribute, in a pensive or meditating attitude. 

8. Urania the Muse of astronomy, with a 
staff pointing to a globe. 




Calliope, the Muse of Epic Poetry. (From a Statue 
in the Vatican.) 



MXTSAEUS, 



275 



MYRINA. 



and stylus, "and sometimes with, a roll of paper 
or a book. 

The worship of the Muses was introduced 
from Thrace and Pieria into Boeotia ; and 
their favourite haunt in Boeotia was Mt. 
Helicon, where were the sacred fountains of 
Aganippe and Hippocrene. Mt. Parnassus 
was likewise sacred to them, with the Casta- 
lian spring. The sacrifices offered to the 
Muses consisted of libations of water or milk, 
and of honey. The Muses were invoked by 
the poets as the inspiring goddesses of song ; 
and all who ventured to compete with them 
in song were severely punished by them. 
Thus the Sirens, who had done so, were de- 
prived of the feathers of their wings, which 
the Muses put on their own persons as 
ornaments ; and the 9 daughters of Pierus, 
who had likewise presumed to rival the 
Muses, were metamorphosed into birds. 
Being goddesses of song, they were naturally 
connected with Apollo, the god of the lyre, 
who is even described as the leader of the 
choirof the Muses by the surname Musagetes. 

MUSAEL'S (4), a semi-mythological per- 
sonage, to be classed with Olen and Orpheus, 
is represented as one of the earliest Grecian 
poets. The extant poem on the loves of 
Hero and Leander, bearing the name of 
Musaeus, is a late production. 

MUSAGETES. [Mtjsae.] 

MTJTINA ( -ae : Modena), an important town 
in Gallia Cispadana, originally a town of the 
Boii, and afterwards a Roman colony. It is 
celebrated in the history of the civil war after 
Caesar's death. Decimus Brutus was be- 
sieged here by M. Antonius from December, 
44, to April 43 ; and under its walls the 
battles were fought, in which the consuls 
Hirtius and Pansa perished. 

MYCAEE (-es), a mountain in the S. of 
Ionia in Asia Minor, X. of the mouth of the 
Maeander, and opposite the island of Samos. 
Here a great victory was gained by the 
Greeks over the Persian fleet on the same 
day as the battle of Plataea, B.C. 47 9. 

MYCALESSES (-i), an ancient city in 
Boeotia, on the road from Aulis to Thebes. 
In b.c. 413 it was sacked by some Thracian 
mercenaries in the pay of Athens. 

MYCENAE (-arum), sometimes MYCEXE 
(-es), an ancient town in Argolis, about 6 
miles N.E. of Argos, situated on a hill at the 
head of a narrow valley. Mycenae is said to 
have been founded by Perseus, and was sub- 
sequently the favourite residence of the 
Pelopidae. During the reign of Agamemnon 
it was regarded as the first city in all Greece ; 
but after the conquest of Peloponnesus by 
the Dorians, it ceased to be a place of import- 
ance. It continued an independent town till 



b.c. 468, when it was attacked by the Argives, 
and the inhabitants were compelled by famine 

; to abandon it. Mycenae was now destroyed 

: by the Argives ; but there are still numerous 
remains of the ancient city, which on account 
of their antiquity and grandeur are some of 

1 the most interesting in all Greece. 

MYCEBIXUS (-i), son of Cheops, king of 
Egypt, succeeded his uncle Chephren on the 

t throne, and reigned with justice. He began 
to build a pyramid, but died before it was 

' finished. 

MYCOXL'S (-i), a small island in the 

! Aegaean sea, one of the Cyclades, E. of Delos, 
is celebrated in mythology as one of the 

'. places where the giants were defeated by 

i Hercules. _ 

MYGDOX (-onis), son of Acmon, who 

[ fought against the Amazons, and from whom 

\ some of the Phrygians are said to have been 

! called Mygdonians. He had a son, Coroebus, 
who is hence called llygdonides. 

I MYGDOXIA (-ae). (1) A district in the E. 

' of Macedonia, bordering on the Thermaic gulf 
and the Chalcidic peninsula. — (2) A district 
in the E. of Mysia and the W, of Bithynia, 

! named after the Thracian people, Mygdones, 
who formed a settlement here, but were after- 

; wards subdued by the Bithyni. — (3) The X.E. 
district of Mesopotamia, between Mt. Masius 

j and the Chaboras, which divided it from 
Osroene. The name of Mygdonia was first 
introduced after the Macedonian conquest. 
MYEAE (-arum), a town on the E. part of 

: the X. coast of Sicily, founded by Zanele 
(Messana), and situated on a promontory run- 
ning out into the sea. It was off Mylae that 
Agrippa defeated the fleet of Sex. Pompeius, 
b.c. 36. 

j M YL AS A or M YE AS S A ( -orum) , a flourish- 
ing inland city of Caria, in a fertile plain. 

MYXDES (-i), a Dorian colony on the 
coast of Caria, situated at the AY. extremity 

I of the same peninsula on which Halicarnassus 
stood. 

MYOXXESE"S (-i), a promontory of Ionia, 
| with a town and a little island of the same 
j name, forming the X. headland of the gulf 
j of Ephesus. 

MYOS HOBMOS [e Mtws e°uo;, i. e. Muscle- 
port), an important port-town of Epper 
I Egypt, built by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, on 
the Bed Sea, 6 or 7 days' journey from 
Coptos. 

MYRA (-ae and -5rum), one of the chief 
cities of Lycia, built on a rock 2 miles from 
the sea.^ 

MYBIAXDBUS (-i), a Phoenician colony 
I in Syria, on the E. side of the Gulf of Issus, 

a little S. of Alexandria. 
I MYB.IXA (-ae). (1) An ancient and ini- 



MYRLEA. 



276 



MYTILENE. 



portant city of the Aeolians on the W. coast 
of Mysia. — (2) A town in Lemnos. 

MYRLEA (-ae), a city of Bithynia, not far 
from Prusa, founded by the Colophonians, 
and almost rebuilt by Prusias I., who called 
it Apamea, after his wife. 

MYRMIDQNES (-urn), an Achaean race 
in Phthiotis in Thessaly, whom Achilles ruled 
over and who accompanied this hero to Troy. 
They are said to have inhabited originally 
the island of Aegina, and to have emigrated 
with Peleus into Thessaly ; but modern critics 
on the contrary suppose that a colony of them 
emigrated from Thessaly into Aegina. The 
Myrmidones disappear from history at a later 
period. The ancients derived their name 
either from a mythical ancestor Myrmidon, 
son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Eurymedusa, and 
father of Actor ; or from the ants (/xv^yixis) 
in Aegina, which were supposed to have been 
metamorphosed into men in the time of 
Aeacus._ [Aeacus.] 

MYRON (-onis), a celebrated Greek 
statuary, and also a sculptor and engraver, 
was born at Eleutherae, in Boeotia, about b.c. 
480. He was the disciple of Ageladas, the 
fellow-disciple of Polycletus, and a younger 
contemporary of Phidias. He practised his 
art at Athens, about the beginning of the 
Peloponnesian war (b.c. 431). 
, MYRRHA, or SMYRNA. [Adonis.] 

MYRTILUS (-i), son of Hermes (Mercury) 
and charioteer of Oenomaus king of Pisa, 
thrown into the sea by Pelops. [Pelops.] 
After his death, Myrtilus was placed among 
the stars as auriga. 

MYRTOUM MARE, the part of the 
Aegaean sea, S. of Euboea, Attica and Argolis, 
which derived its name from the small island 
Myrtus, though others suppose it to come 
from Myrtilus, whom Pelops threw into this 
sea. 

MYRTUNTIUM (-i), called Myrsintjs in 
Homer, a town of the Epeans in Elis, on the 
road from Elis to Dyme. 

MYRTUS. [Myetoum Mare.] 

MYS (-^os), one of the most distinguished 
Greek engravers, who engraved the battle of 
the Lapithae and the Centaurs and other 
figures on the shield of Phidias's statue of 
Athena Promachos, in the Acropolis of Athens. 

MYSCELUS (-i), a native of Achaia, who 
founded Croton in Italy, b.c. 710. 

MYSIA (-ae), a district occupying the 
N.W. corner of Asia Minor, between the. 
Hellespont on the N.W. ; the Propontis on 
the N. ; Bithynia and Phrygia on the E. ; 
Lydia on the S. ; and the Aegaean Sea on the 
W. It was subdivided into 5 parts: (1.) 
Mysia Minor, along the N. coast. (2.) Mysia 
Major, the S.E. inland region, with a small 



portion of the coast between the Troad and 
the Aeolic settlements about the Elaitic Gulf. 
(3.) Troas, the N.W. angle, between the 
Aegaean and Hellespont and the S. coast along 
the foot of Ida. (4.) Aeolis or Aeolia, the 
S. part of the W. coast, around the Elai'tic 
Gulf, where the chief cities of the Aeolian 
confederacy were planted; and (5.) Tetj- 
thrania, the S.W. angle, between Temnus 
and the borders of Lydia, where, in very 
early times, Teuthras was said to have esta- 
blished a Mysian kingdom, which was early 
subdued by the kings of Lydia. This account 
applies to the time of the early Roman 
empire ; the extent of Mysia, and its sub- 
divisions, varied greatly at other times. The 
Mysi were a Thracian people, who crossed 
over from Europe into Asia at a very early 
period. In the heroic ages we find the great 
Teucrian monarchy of Troy in the N.W. of 
the country, and the Phrygians along the 
Hellespont : as to the Mysians, who appear 
as allies of the Trojans, it is not clear whether 
they are Europeans or Asiatics. The Mysia 
of the legends respecting Telephus is the 
Teuthranian kingdom in the S., only with a 
wider extant than the later Teuthrania. 
Under the Persian empire, the N.W. portion, 
which was still occupied in part by Phrygians, 
but chiefly by Aeolian settlements, was called 
Phrygia Minor, and by the Greeks Helles- 
pontus. Mysia was the region S. of the chain 
of Ida ; and both formed, with Lydia, the 
second satrapy. Mysia afterwards formed a 
part of the kingdom of Pergamus (b.c 280.) 
With the rest of the kingdom of Pergamus, 
Mysia fell to the Romans in 133, by the 
bequest of Attalus III., and formed part of the 
province of Asia. 

MYTILENE or M1TYLENE (-es), the 
chief city of Lesbos, situated on the E. side 
of the island, opposite the coast of Asia, was 
early colonised by the Aeolians. [Lesbos.] 
It attained great importance as a naval 
power, and founded colonies on the coasts of 
Mysia and Thrace. At the beginning of the 
7th century b.c, the possession of one of 
these colonies, Sigeum, at the mouth of the 
Hellespont, was disputed in war between the 
Mytilenaeans and Athenians. After the 
Persian war, Mytilene formed an alliance 
with Athens; but in the 4th year of the 
Peloponnesian War, b.c 428, it headed a 
revolt of the greater part of Lesbos, the pro- 
gress and suppression of which forms one of 
the most interesting episodes in the history 
of the Peloponnesian War. (See the His- 
tories of Greece.) This event destroyed the 
power of Mytilene. Respecting its important 
position in Greek literary history, see 
Lesbos. . 



MYUS. 



277 



NAUCRATIS. 



MYUS (-untis), the least city of the Ionian 
confederacy, stood in Caria, on the S. side of 
the Maeander. 



"XTABATAEI (-5rum), NABATHAE (-arum), 
an Arabian people, who occupied nearly 
the whole of Arabia Petraea, on both sides of 
the Aelanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, and the 
Idumaean mountains, where they had their 
rock-hewn capital, Petra, The Roman poets 
frequently use the adjective Nabathaeus in 
the sense of Eastern. 

NABIS (-is), tyrant of Lacedaemon, noted 
for his acts of cruelty, succeeded Machanidas 
in the sovereignty, b.c. 207. He was defeated 
by Philopoemen in b.c. 192, and was soon 
afterwards assassinated by some Aetolians. 

NABONASSAB, king of Babylon, whose 
accession to the throne was the era from 
which the Babylonian astronomers began 
their calculations. This era is called the Era 
of Ndbonassar^ and commenced b.c. 747. 

NAEVIUS (-i), CN., an ancient Roman 
poet, probably a native of Campania, produced 
his first play, b.c. 235. He was attached to 
the plebeian party ; attacked Scipio and the 
Metelli in his plays ; but he was indicted by 
Q. Metellus and thrown into prison, and 
obtained his release only by recanting his 
previous imputations. His repentance did 
not last long, and he was soon compelled to 
expiate a new offence by exile. He retired 
to Utica, where he died about b.c 202. 
Naevius wrote a poem on the first Punic war 
as well as comedies and tragedies. 

NAHARVALI (-orum), a tribe of the Lygii 
in Germany, probably dwelling on the banks 
of the Vistula. 

NAIADES. [Nymphae.] 
NAISUS, NAISSUS, or NAESUS (-i : 
Nissa), a town of Upper Moesia, situated on 
an E. tributary of the Margus, and celebrated 
as the birthplace of Constantine the Great. 

NAMNETAE (-arum), or NAMNETES 
(-urn), a people on the W. coast of Gallia 
Lugdunensis, on the N. bank of the Liger. 
Their chief town was Condivincum, afterwards 
Namnetes [Nantes). 

NANTUATAE (-arum), or NANTUATES 
(-urn), a people in the S.E. of Gallia Belgica, 
at the E. extremity of the Lacus Lemanus 
{Lake of Geneva). 

NAPAEAE. [Nymphae.] 
NAB (-aris : Nera) t a river in central 
Italy, rising in Mi. Fiscellus, forming the 
boundary between Umbria and the land of 
the Sabini, and falling into the Tiber, not far 
from Ocriculum. It was celebrated for its 
sulphureous waters and white colour. 



NABBO (-onis) MARTIUS (4), a town 
in the S. of Gaul, and the capital of the 
Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis, situ- 
ated on the river Atax (Aude). It was made 
a Roman colony by the consul Q. Marcius or 
Martius, b.c 118, and hence received the 
surname Martius. It was the first colony 
founded by the Bomans in Gaul. 

NARBONENSIS GALLIA. [Gallia.] 

NARCISSUS (-i). (1) A beautiful youth, 
son of Cephissus and Liriope, was inac- 
cessible to the feeling of love ; and the 
nymph Echo, who was enamoured of him, 
died of grief. [Echo.] But Nemesis, to 
punish him, caused him to see his own 
image reflected in a fountain, whereupon he 
became so enamoured of it, that he gradually 
pined away, until he was metamorphosed 
into the flower which bears his name. — (2) 
A favourite freedman and secretary of the 
emperor Claudius, who amassed an enormous 
fortune. He was put to death by order of 
Agrippina, a.d. 54. 

NARISCI (drum), a people in the S. of 
Germany, in the Upper Palatinate and the 
country of the Fichtelgebirge. 

NARNIA (-ae : Narni), a town in Umbria, 
situated on a lofty hill, on the S. bank of the 
river Nar, originally called Nequinum, and 
made a Roman colony b.c 299, when its 
name was changed into Narnia, after the 
river. 

NARONA (-ae), a Roman colony in Dal- 
matia, situated on the river Naro. 

NARYX (-ycis), also NARYCUS or NA- 
RYCIUM (-i), a town of the Locri Opuntii, 
on the Euboean sea, the birthplace of Ajax, 
son of Oileus, who is hence called Narycius 
herds. Since Locri Epizephyrii, in the S. of 
Italy, claimed to be a colony from Naryx, in 
Greece, we find the town of Locri called 
Narycia by the poets, and the pitch of Brut- 
tium, also named Narycia. 

NASAMONES (-urn), a powerful bv.t 
savage Libyan people, who dwelt originally 
on the shores of the Great Syrtis, but were 
driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyre- 
naica, and afterwards by the Bomans. 

NASICA, SCIPIO. [Scipio.] 

NASIDIENUS (-i), a wealthy Roman, who 
gave a supper to Maecenas, which Horace 
ridicules in one of his satires. 

NASO, OVIDIUS. [Ovidius.] 

NATTA or NACCA, " a fuller," the name 
of an ancient family of the Pinaria gens. The 
Natta, satirised by Horace for his dirty 
meanness, was probably a member of the 
noble Pinarian family, and therefore attacked 
by the poet for such conduct, 

NAUCRATIS (-is), a city in the Delta of 
Egypt, on the E. bank of the Canopic 



NAULOCHUS, 



NEAPOLIS. 



branch, of the >~ile, was a colony of the 
Milesians, founded in the reign of Amasis, 
about b.c. 550, and remained a pnre Greek 
city. It was the only place in Egypt where 
Greeks were permitted to settle and trade. 
It was the birthplace of Athenaeus, Julius 
Pollux, and others. 

NAULOCHUS (4), a naval station on the 
E. part of the X. coast of Sicily, between 
Mylae and the promontory Pelorus. 

NATO ACTUS (-i: Lepanto), an ancient town 
of the Locri Ozolae, near the promontory 
Antirrhium, possessing the best harbour on 
the N; coa-t of the Corinthian gulf. It is 
said to have derived its name from the Hera- 
clidae having here built the fleet, with which 
they crossed over to the Peloponnesus (from 
vetZq and srifonwfu). After the Persian wars 
it fell into the power of the Athenians, who 
settled here the Messenians who had been 
compelled to leave their country at the end 
of the 3rd Messenian war, b.c 455. 

XAUPLIA (-ae), the port of Argos, situ- 
ated on the Saronic gulf, was never a place 
of importance in antiquity ; but is at the 
present day one of the chief cities in Greece. 

NAUPLIUS [4), king of Euboea, and father 
of Palamedes, who is hence called XAEPLI- 
ADES. To avenge the death of his son, 
whom the Greeks had put to death during 
the siege of Troy, he watched for the return 
of the Greeks, and as they approached the 
coast of Euboea he lighted torches on the 
dangerous promontory of Caphareus. The 
sailors, thus misguided, suffered shipwreck. 

NATJPORTUS(4: Oberoi Upper Laibach), 
an important town of the Taurisci, situated 
on the river Xauportus (Laibach), a tributary 
of the Sayus, in Pannonia Superior. 

>~AUSICAA (-ae), daughter of Alcinous, 
king of the Phaeacians, and Arete, who con- 
ducted Elysses to the court of her father, 
when he was shipwrecked on the coast. 

XAETES. "Nattia Gexs.) 

NAUTIA GENS, a patrician gens at Home, 
claiming descent from Xautes, one of the 
companions of Aeneas, who was said to have 
brought with him the Palladium from Troy, 
which was placed under the care of the 
Nautii at Pome. 

NAT A (-ae: Xahe) , a tributary of thePhine, 
falling into the Phine at the modern 
Biiigen. 

XAYIUS, ATTES, or ATTIES (-i), a 
renowned augur in the time of Tarquinius 
Prisons, who opposed the project of the king 
to double the number of the equestrian 
centuries. Tarquin then commanded him to 
divine whether what he was thinking of in 
his mind could be done ; and when Navius 
declared that it could, the king held out a 



whetstone and a razor to cut it with. Navius 
immediately cut it. 

XAXOS, or NAXUS (-i). (1) An island 
in the Aegaean sea, and the largest of 
the Cyclades, especially celebrated for its 
wine. Here Dionysus (Bacchus) is said to 
have found Ariadne after she had been 
deserted by Theseus. It was colonised by 
Ionians, who had emigrated from Athens. 
After the Persian wars, the Xaxians were'the 
first of the allied states whom the Athenians 
reduced to subjection (b.c 471). — (2) A 
Greek city on the E. coast of Sicily, founded 
b.c. 735 by the Chalcidians of Euboea, and the 
first Greek colony established in the island. 
In b.c 403 the town was destroyed by Dio- 
nysius of Syracuse, but nearly 50 years 
afterwards (358) the remains of the Naxians 
scattered over Sicily were collected by Andro- 
machus, and a new city was founded on Mt. 
Taurus, to which the name of Tauromenium 
was given. ^Taitio3iexicm:.] 

NAZARETH, NAZARA (-ae), a city of 
Palestine, in Galilee, S. of Cana. 

N'AZIAXZUS, a city of Cappadocia, cele- 
brated as the diocese of the Eather of the 
Church, Gregory N'azianzen. 

NEAEBA (-ae), the name of several 
nymphs and maidens mentioned by the poets. 

' XEAETHES (-i : ffieto), a river in Brut- 
tiuni, falling into the Tarentine gulf a little 
N. of Croton. Here the captive Trojan 
women are said to have burnt the ships of 
the Greeks. 

NEAPOLIS (-is). (1) [Naples), a city in 
Campania, at the head of a beautiful bay, 
and on the W. slope of Mt. Vesuvius, was 
founded by the Chalcidians of Cuniae, on the 
site of an ancient place called Pabthexope, 
after the Siren of that name. Hence we 
find the town called Parthenope by Tirgil 
and Ovid. "When the town is first mentioned 
in Ponian history, it consisted of 2 parts, 
divided from each other by a wall, and called 
respectively Palaeopolis, or the " Old City," 
and Neapolis, or the " New City/' This 
division probably arose after the capture of 
Cuniae by the Samnites, when a large 
number of. the Cumaeans took refuge in the 
city they liad founded ; whereupon the old 
quarter was called Palaeopolis, and the new 
quarter, built to accommodate the new- 
inhabitants, was named Xeapolis. In b.c 
32 7 the town was taken by the Sa mni tes, 
and in 290 it passed into the hands of the 
Pomans, but it continued to the latest times 
a Greek city. Under the Romans the 2 
quarters of the city were united, and the 
name of Palaeopolis disappeared. Its beau- 
tiful scenery, and the luxurious life of 
its Greek population, made it a favourite 



NEAR CHI'S, 



279 



NEMESIANUS, 



residence with many of the Romans. In the 
neighbourhood of Neapolis there were warm 
baths, the celebrated villa of Lucullus, and 



the villa Pausflypi or Pausilypum, bequeathed | 
by Vedius Pollio to Augustus, and which j 
has given its name to the celebrated grotto 
of Posilippo, between Naples and Puzzoli, 
at the entrance of which the tomb of Yirgil 
is still shown. — (2) A part of Syracuse. 

[SYBACTJSAE.] 

NEARCHUS (-i), an officer of Alexander, 
who conducted the Macedonian fleet from the 
mouth of the Indus to the Persian gulf, B.C. 
326—325. He left a history of the voyage, 
the substance of which has been preserved 
to us by Arrian. 

NEBO, a mountain of Palestine, on the E. 
side of the Jordan, and in the S. part of the 
range called Abarim. It was on a summit of 
this mountain, called Pisgah, that Moses 
died. 

NEBRODES (-ae), the principal chain of 
mountains in Sicily, running through the 
whole of the island, and a continuation of 
the Apennines. 

NECESSITAS (-atis), called ANANKE by 
the Greeks, the personification of Necessity, 
is represented as a powerful goddess, whom 




.Necessitas. (Causei, Museum Romanum, 
vol. 1, tav. -23.) 

neither gods nor men can resist. She carries 
in her hand brazen nails, with which she 
fixes the decrees of fate. 



NECO or NECHO, King of Egypt b.c. 
617 — 601, son and successor of Psammet- 
ichus. In his reign the Phoenicians, in his 
service, are said to have circumnavigated 
Africa. In his march against the Baby- 
lonians he defeated at Magdolus (Megiddo) 
Josiah, king of Judah, who was a vassal of 
Babylon; and he afterwards defeated the 
Babylonians themselves at the Euphrates, 
and took Carchemish or Circesium ; but in 
606 he was in his turn defeated by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 

NECTANABIS (-is). (1) King of Egypt, 
b.c. 374 — 364, who successfully resisted the 
invasion of the Persian force under Pharna- 
bazus and Iphicrates. He was succeeded by 
Tachos. — (2) The nephew of Tachos, de- 
prived the latter of the sovereignty in 361, 
with the assistance of Agesilaus. He was 
defeated by the Persians in 350, and fled 
into Aethiopia. 

NELEUS (-eos, el, or ei), son of Poseidon 
(Neptune), and of Tyro, the daughter of 
Salmoneus. Together with his twin-brother 
Pelias, he was exposed by his mother, but 
the children were found and reared by some 
countrymen. They subsequently learnt their 
parentage ; and after the death of Cretheus, 
king of Iolcos, who had married their 
mother, they seized the throne of Iolcos, 
excluding Aeson, the son of Cretheus and 
Tyro. But Pelias soon afterwards expelled 
his brother, and thus became sole king. 
Thereupon Neleus went with Melampus and 
Bias to Pylos, in Peloponnesus, of which he 
became king. [Pylos.] Neleus had 12 
sons, but they were all slain by Hercules, 
when he attacked Pylos, with the exception 
of Nestor. 

NELIDES or NEIEIADES (-ae), patro- 
nymics of Neleus, by which either Nestor, the 
son of Neleus, or Antilochus, his grandson, is 
designated. 

NEMArsrS (-i: JSlsmes), an important 
town of Gallia Narbonensis, the capital of the 
Arecomici and a Roman colony, was situated 
W. of the Rhone on the high road from Italy 
to Spain. The Roman remains at JSismes are 
some of the most perfect on this side of the 

NEMEA (-ae) or NEMEE (-es), a valley in 
Argolis between Cleonae and Phlius, cele- 
brated in mythical story as the place where 
Hercules slew the Nemaean lion. [See p. 196.] 
In this valley there was a splendid temple of 
Zeus Nemeus (the Nemaean Jupiter) sur- 
rounded by a sacred grove, in which the Ne- 
maean games were celebrated every other 
year. 

* NEMESIANUS (-i), M. AURELICS OLYM- 
PIUS, a Roman poet at the court of the 



NEMESIS. 



280 



NEPTUNUS. 



emperor Carus (a.d. 283), the author of an 
extant poem on hunting-, entitled Cynegetica. 

NEMESIS (-is), a Greek goddess, who mea- 
sured out to mortals happiness and misery, 
and visited with losses and sufferings all who 
were blessed with too many gifts of fortune. 
This is the character in which she appears in 
the earlier Greek writers ; but subsequently 
she was regarded, like the Erinnyes or Furies, 
as the goddess who punished crimes. She is 
frequently mentioned under the surnames of 
Adrastia, and Rhamnusia or Rhamnusis, the 
latter from the town of Rhamnus, in Attica, 
where she had a celebrated sanctuary. 




Nemesis and Elpis. (From the Chigi Vase.) 



NEMETACUMorNEMETOCENNA. [Atre- 

BATES.] 

NEMETES (-urn) or NEMETAE (-arum), 
a people in Gallia Belgica on the Rhine, whose 
chief town was Noviomagus, subsequently 
Nemetae (Speyer or Spires). 

NEMORENSIS LACUS. [Aricia.] 

NEMOSSUS. [Arverni.] 

NEOBULE. [Archilochtjs.] 

NEOCAESAREA (-ae), a city of Pontus, in 
Asia Minor, standing on the river Lycus. 

NEON, an ancient town in Phocis, at the 
E. foot of Mt. Tithorea, a branch of Mt. Par- 
nassus, destroyed by the Persians under 
Xerxes, but rebuilt and named Tithorea, 
after the mountain on which it was situated. 

NEONTICHOS {i. e. New Wall). (1) One 
of the 12 cities of Aeolis, on the coast of 
Mysia. — (2) A fort on the coast of Thrace, 
near the Chersonesus. 

NEOPTOLEMUS (-i), also called PYR- 
RHUS, son of Achilles and Deidamla, the 
daughter of Lycomedes. He was named 
Pyrrhus on account of his fair (*vppk) hair, 
and Neoptolemus because he came to Troy 
late in the war. From his father he is some- 
times called Achillldes, and from his grand- 



father or great-grandfather, Pelides and 
Aeacides. Neoptolemus was brought up in 
Scyros, in the palace of Lycomedes, and was 
fetched from thence by Ulysses, because it 
had been prophesied that Neoptolemus and 
Philoctetes were necessary for the capture of 
Troy. At Troy Neoptolemus showed himself 
worthy of his great father. He was one of 
the heroes concealed in the wooden horse. 
At the capture of the city he killed Priam at 
the sacred hearth of Zeus (Jupiter), and sacri- 
ficed Polyxena to the spirit of his father. 
When the Trojan captives were distributed 
among the conquerors, Andromache, the 
widow of Hector, was given to Neoptolemus. 
On his return to Greece, he abandoned his 
native kingdom of Phthia, in Thessaly, and 
settled in Epirus, where he became the an- 
cestor of the Molossian kings. He married 
Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, but 
was slain in consequence by Orestes, to whom 
Hermione had been previously promised. 

NEPETE or NEPET (-is : Nepi), an ancient 
town of Etruria, situated near the saltus 
Ciminius.^ 

NEPHELE (-es), wife of Athamas and 
mother of Phrixus and Helle. Hence Helle 
is called Nepheleis. [Athamas.] 

NEPOS (-otis), CORNELIUS (-i), the con- 
temporary and friend of Cicero, Atticus, and 
Catullus, was probably a native of Verona, 
and died during the reign of Augustus. 
Nepos wrote several historical works ; and 
there is still extant under his name a work 
entitled Vitae Excellentiwn Imperatorum, con- 
taining biographies of several distinguished 
commanders. But in all MSS. this work is 
ascribed to an unknown Aemilius Probus, 
living under Theodosius at the end of the 4th 
century of the Christian aera ; with the excep- 
tion, however, of the life of Atticus, and the 
fragment of a life of Cato the Censor, which 
are expressly attributed to Cornelius Nepos. 
These 2 lives may safely be assigned to Cor- 
nelius Nepos ; but the Latinity of the other 
biographies is such that we cannot suppose 
them to have been written by a learned con- 
temporary of Cicero. It is probable that 
Probus abridged the work of Nepos, and that 
the biographies, as they now exist, are in 
reality epitomes of lives actually written by 
Nepos. 

NEPTUNUS (-i), called POSEIDON by the 
Greeks. Neptunus was the chief marine 
divinity of the Romans ; but as the early 
Romans were not a maritime people, we 
know next to nothing of the worship of the 
Italian god of this name. His temple stood 
in the Campus Martins. At his festival the 
people formed tents (umbrae) of the branches 
of trees, in which they enjoyed themselves in 



NEREIS. 



281 



NERO. 



feasting and drinking-. In the Roman poets 
Neptune is completely identified with the 
Greek Poseidon, and accordingly all the attri- 
butes of the latter are transferred by them to 
the former. [Poseidox.] 

NEREIS or NEREIS (-idis), daughter of 
Nereus and Doris, and used especially in the 
plural, NEREIDES or NEREIDES (-urn), to 
indicate the 50 daughters of Nereus and 
Doris. The Nereides were the marine nymphs 
of the Mediterranean, in contradistinction 
to the Naiades, the nymphs of fresh water, 
and the Oceanides, the nymphs of the great 
ocean. One of the most celebrated of the 
Nereides was Thetis, the mother of Achilles. 
They are described as lovely divinities, dwell- 
ing with their father at the bottom of the 
sea, and were believed to be propitious to 
sailors. They were worshipped in several 
parts of Greece, but more especially in sea- 
port towns. They are frequently represented 
in works of art, and commonly as youthful 
beautiful maidens ; but sometimes they ap- 



pear on gems as half maidens and half 
fishes. 

NEREIUS (-i), a name given by the poets 
to a descendant of Nereus, such as Phocus and 
Achilles. 

NEREUS (-eos, -el, or -el), son of Pontus 
and Gaea, and husband of Doris, by whom he 
became the father of the 50 Nereides. He is 
described as the wise and unerring old man 
of the sea, at the bottom of which he dwelt. 
His empire is the Mediterranean or more par- 
ticularly the Aegaean sea, whence he is some- 
times called the Aegaean. He was believed, 
like other marine divinities, to have the power 
of prophesying the future, and of appearing 
to mortals in different shapes ; and in the 
story of Hercules he acts a prominent part, 
just as Proteus in the story of Ulysses, and 
Glaucus in that of the Argonauts. In works 
of art, Nereus, like other sea-gods, is some- 
times represented with pointed sea-weeds 
taking the place of hair in the eyebrows, the 
chin, and the breast. 




Nereus. (Panofka, Musee Blacas, pi. 20.) 



NERICUS. [Leucas.] 
NERINE (-es), equivalent to Nereis, a 
daughter of Nereus. [Nereis.] 

NERIO, NERIENE, orNERIENIS. [Mars.] 
NERITUM or -US (-i), a mountain in 



Ithaca, and also a small rocky island near 
Ithaca. The adjective Ne)'ituis is often used by 
the poets as equivalent to Ithacan or Ulyssean. 

NERO (-onis), the name of a celebrated 
family of the Claudia gens. (1) C. Claudius 



NERVA. 



282 



NICAEA. 



Nero, consul b.c. 207, when he defeated and 
slew Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, on 
the river Metaurus. — (2) Tib. Claudius Nero, 
husband of Livia, and father of the emperor 
Tiberius and of his brother Drusus. [Liyia.] 
— (3) Roman Emperor, a.d. 54 — 68, was the 
son of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, and of 
Agrippina, daughter of Germanicus. Nero's 
original name was L. Doj)iitius Ahenobarbus, 
but after the marriage of his mother with her 
uncle, the emperor Claudius, he was adopted 
by Claudius (a.d. 50), and was called Hero 
Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus. Nero 
was born at Antium, a.d. 37. Shortly after 
his adoption by Claudius, Nero, being then 16 
years of age, married Octavia, the daughter 
of Claudius and Messalina (53). Among his 
early instructors was Seneca. On the death 
of Claudius (54), Agrippina secured the suc- 
cession for her son, to the exclusion of Britan- 
nicus, the son of Claudius. The young em- 
peror soon distinguished himself by his 
licentiousness, brutality, and cruelty. He 
put to death Britannicus, his mother Agrip- 
pina, and finally his wife Octavia ; he mur- 
dered the latter that he might marry his 
mistress, Poppaea Sabina, the wife of Otho. 
The great fire at Rome happened in Nero's 
reign (a.d. 64), but it is hardly credible that 
the city was fired by Nero's order, as some 
ancient writers assert. The emperor set 
about rebuilding the city on an improved 
plan, with wider streets. The odium of the 
conflagration, which the emperor could not 
remove from himself, he tried to throw 
on the Christians, and many of them were 
put to a cruel death. The tyranny of Nero 
at last (a.d. 65) led to the organisation of a 
formidable conspiracy against him, usually 
called Piso's conspiracy, from the name of one 
of the principal accomplices. The plot was 
discovered, and many distinguished persons 
were put to death, among whom was Piso 
himself, the poet Lucan, and the philosopher 
Seneca. Three years afterwards, Julius Vin- 
dex, the governor of Gaul, raised the standard 
of revolt. His example was followed by 
Galba, who was governor of Hispania Tarra- 
conensis. Soon after this news reached 
Rome, Nero was deserted. He fled to a house 
about 4 miles from Rome, where he put 
an end to his life on hearing the trampling of 
the horses on which his pursuers were 
mounted, a.d. 68. The most important ex- 
ternal events in his reign were the conquest 
of Armenia by Domitius Corbulo [Corbtjlo], 
and the insurrection of the Britons under 
Boadicea, which was quelled by Suetonius 
Paulinus. 

NERYA (-ae), M. COCCEIUS (4), 
Roman emperor, a.d. 96 — 98, was born at 



Narnia, in Umbria, a.d. 32. On the assassi- 
nation of Domitian, Nerva was declared 
emperor, and his administration at once 
restored tranquillity to the state. The class 
of informers was suppressed by penalties, 
and some were put to death. At the com- 
mencement of his reign, Nerva swore that he 
would put no senator to death ; and he kept 
his word, even when a conspiracy had been 
formed against his life by Calpurnius Crassus. 
Though Nerva was virtuous and humane, he 
did not possess much energy and vigour. He 
adopted as his son and successor, M. Ulpius 
Trajanus. [Trajanus.] 

NERVII (-orum), a powerful and warlike 
people in Gallia Belgica, whose territory 
extended from the river Sabis (Sambre) to 
the ocean." 

NESIS (-Idis : Nisita), a small island off 
the coast of Campania between Puteoli and 
Neapolis, a favourite residence of the Roman 
nobles. 

NESSONIS, a lake in Thessaly, a little S. 
of the river of Peneus. 

NESSUS. [Hercules, p. 200.] 
NESTOR (oris), king of Pylos, son of Neleus 
and Chloris, and the only one of the 1 2 sons 
of Neleus, who was not slain by Hercules, 
[Neleus.] In his early manhood, Nestor 
was a distinguished warrior. He defeated 
both the Arcadians and Eleans. He took 
part in the fight of the Lapithae against the 
Centaurs, and he is mentioned among the 
Calydonian hunters and the Argonauts. 
Although far advanced in age, he sailed with 
the other Greek heroes against Troy. Having 
ruled over three generations of men, he was 
renowned for his wisdom, justice, and know- 
ledge of war. After the fall of Troy he re- 
turned home, and arrived safely in Pylos. 
Respecting the position of this Pylos, see 
Pylos. 

NESTUS, sometimes NESSUS (-i), a river 
in Thrace, rising in Mt. Rhodope, and falling 
into the Aegaean sea opposite the island of 
Thasos. The Nestus formed the E. boundary 
of Macedonia from the time of Philip and 
Alexander the Great. 

NETUM (-i), a town in Sicily S.W. of 
Syracuse. 

NEURI (-orum), a people of Sarmatia 
Europaea, to the N.W. of the sources of the 
Tyras {Dniester). 

- NICAEA (-ae). (1) A celebrated city of Asia, 
situated on the E. side of the lake Ascania 
in Bithynia, built by Antigonus, king of Asia, 
and originally called Antigonea ; but Lysi- 
machus soon after changed the name into 
Nicaea, in honour of his wife. Under the 
kings of Bithynia it was often the royal resi- 
dence ; and under the Romans it continued 



NICANDER. 



2S3 



N ILL'S, 



to be one of the chief cities of Asia. It is 
famous in ecclesiastical history as the seat of 
the great Oecumenical Council, which Con- 
stantine convoked in a.d. 325, chiefly for the 
decision of the Arian controversy, and which 
drew up the Nicene Creed. — (2) A fortress 
of the Epicnemidian Locrians on the sea, near 
the pass of Thermopylae, which it com- 
manded. — (3j [Nissza, Xice), a city on the 
coast of Liguria, a little E. of the river Yar ; 
a colony of Massilia, and subject to that city. 

NICANDER (-dri), a Greek poet, gram- 
marian and physician, was a native of Claros 
near Colophon in Ionia, and nourished about 
b.c. 185 — 135. Two of his poems are extant, 
entitled Theriaca and Alexipharmaca. 

NICE (-es), called VICTORIA (-ae), by the 
Romans, the goddess of victory, is described 
as a daughter of Pallas and Styx, and as a 
sister of Zelus (zeal), Cratos (strength), and I 
Bia (force). Nice had a celebrated temple 
on the acropolis of Athens, which is still 
extant. She is often seen represented in ancient 
works of art, especially with other divinities, 
such as Zeus (Jupiter), and Athena (Minerva), 
and with conquering heroes whose horses 
she guides. In her appearance she resembles 
Athena, but has wings, and carries a palm or 
a wreath, and is engaged in raising a trophy, 
or in inscribing the victory of the conqueror 
on a_ shield. 

NICEPHORIUM (-i), a fortified town of 
Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, and due S. 
of Edessa, built by order of Alexander, and 
probably completed under Seleucus. 

NICEPHORIUS (-i), a .river of Armenia 
Major, on which Tigranes built his residence 
Tigeaxocerta. It was a tributary of the 
Upper Tigris ; probably identical with the 
Cexteites, or a small tributary of it. 

NICIAS (-ae). (1) A celebrated Athenian 
general, was a man of large fortune and the 
leader of the aristocratical party during the 
Peloponnesian war. It was through his 
influence that peace was concluded with 
Sparta in b.c 421. He used all his efforts 
to induce the Athenians to preserve this 
peace, but he was opposed by Alcibiades, who 
had now become the leader of the popular 
party. In 415, the Athenians resolved on 
sending their great expedition to Sicily, and 
appointed Nicias, Alcibiades and Lamachus 
to the command, although Nicias disapproved 
of the expedition altogether. Alcibiades was 
soon afterwards recalled [Alcibiades] ; and 
the irresolution and timidity of Xicias were 
the chief causes of the failure of the expedi- 
tion. Notwithstanding the large reinforce- 
ments, which were sent to his assistance in 
b.c 413, under the command of Demosthenes, 
the Athenians were defeated, and obliged to 



retreat. — (2) A celebrated Athenian painter, 
flourished about b.c 320._ 

NICOLAUS DAMASCENES (-i), a Greek 
historian, was a native of Damascus, and an 
intimate friend both of Herod the Great and 
of Augustus. Some fragments of his works 
have come down to us, of which the most im- 
I portant is a portion of a life of Augustus. 
NICOMACHUS (-i). (1) Father of Aris- 
totle. — (2) Son of Aristotle by the slave 
Herpyilis. — (3) Of Thebes, a celebrated 
painter, flourished b.c 360, and onwards. 

NICOMEDES (-is), the name of 3 kings of 
Bithynia. — (1) Reigned b.c 278 — 250, was 
the eldest son and successor of Zipoetes. He 
founded the city of Nicomedia, which he 
made the capital of his kingdom. — (2) Sur- 
named Epiphaxes, reigned b.c 142 — 91, and 
was the son and successor of Prusias IE, 
whom he dethroned and put to death. He 
was a faithful ally of the Romans. — (3) Sur- 
named Philopatoe, son and successor of the 
preceding, reigned b.c 91 — 74. He was twice 
expelled by Mithridates, and twice restored 
by the Romans. Having no children, he be- 
queathed his kingdom to the Roman people. 

NICOMEDIA (-ae), a celebrated city of 
Bithynia, built by king Nicomedes I. (b.c 
264), at the N.E. corner of the Sinus Asta- 
cenus. Under the Romans it was a colony, 
and a favourite residence of several of the 
later emperors, especially of Diocletian and 
Constantine the Great. It is memorable in 
history as the scene of Hannibal's death. It 
was the birthplace of the historian Arrian. 

NICONIA or NICONIUM, a town in 
Scythia on the right bank of the Tyras 
[Dniester). 

NICOPOLIS (-is), a city at the S.W. ex- 
tremity of Epirus, on the point of land which 
forms the N. entrance to the Gulf of Ambracia, 
opposite to Actium. It was built by Augustus 
in memory of the battle of Actium, and was 
peopled from Ambracia, Anactorium, and 
other neighbouring cities, and also with 
settlers from Aetolia. 

NIGER (-gri), a great river of Aethiopia 
Interior, which modern usage has identified 
with the river called Joli-ba {i.e. Great River) 
and Quorra, in W. Africa. Many of the 
t ancients imagined the Niger to be a branch 
of the Nile. 

NIGER, C. PESCENNIUS (-i), was saluted 
emperor by the legions in the East, after the 
; death of Conmiodus, a.d. 193, but in the 
following year he was defeated and put to 
, death by Septimius Severus. 

N ILL'S (-i), one of the most important rivers 
; of the world, flowing through Aethiopia and 
I Egypt northwards into the Mediterranean 
| sea. An account of its course through Egypt, 



XIX us. 



NIOBE. 



and of its periodical rise, is given under 
Aegyptus. 

NINUS, NINUS (-i). (1) The reputed 
fomider of the city of Xinus, or Xineveh, and 
the husband of Semiramis. [Semiramis.] — (2) 
Or Nineveh, the capital of the great As- 
syrian monarchy, stood on the E. side of the 
Tigris, at the upper part of its course, in the 
district of Aturia. The prophet Jonah (b.c. 
825) describes it as " an exceeding great city, 
of 3 days' journey," and as containing " more 
than 120,000 persons that cannot discern 
between their right and their left hand," 
which, if this phrase refers to children, would 
represent a population of 600,000 souls. 
Diodorus also describes it as an oblong 
quadrangle of 150 stadia by 90, making 
the circuit of the walls 480 stadia (more 
than 55 statute miles) : if so, the city was 
twice as large as London together with its 
suburbs. In judging of these statements, not 
only must allowance be made for the immense 
space occupied by palaces and temples, but 
also for the Orienta] mode of building a city, 
so as to include large gardens and other open 
spaces within the walls. The walls of Nine- 
veh are described as 100 feet high, and thick 
enough to allow 3 chariots to pass each other 
on them; with 1500 towers, 200 feet in 
height. The city is said to have been entirely 
destroyed by fire when it was taken by the 
Medes and Babylonians, about b.c. 606 ; and 
frequent allusions occur to its desolate state. 
Under the Roman empire, however, we again 
meet with a city Xineve, in the district of 
Adiabene, but this must have been some later 
place built among or near the ruins of the 
ancient Nineveh. Of all the great cities of 



the world, none was thought to have been 
more utterly lost than the capital of the most 
ancient of the great monarchies. Tradition 
pointed out a few shapeless mounds oppo- 
site Mosul on the Upper Tigris, as all that 
remained of Nineveh ; but within the last 
years, those shapeless mounds have been 
shown to contain the remains of great palaces. 
The excavations conducted by Layard and 
Botta have brought to light the sculptured 
remains of immense palaces, not only at the 
traditional site of Nineveh, namely Kouyunjik 
and Nebbi-Yotmis, opposite to Mosul, and at 
Khorsdbad, about 10 miles to the X.X.E., but 
also in a mound, 1 8 miles lower down the 
river, in the tongue of land between the 
Tigris and the Great Zdb, which still bears 
the name of Nimroud. Which of these ruins 
corresponds to the true site of Nineveh, or 
whether that vast city may have extended all 
the way along the Tigris from Kouyunjik to 
Nimroud, and to a corresponding breadth 
X.E. of the river, as far as Khorsabad, are 
questions still under discussion. Some 
splendid fragments of sculpture obtained by 
Layard from Nimroud, are now to be seen in 
the British Museum.^ ^ 

NIOBE (-es) or XIOBA (-ae), daughter of 
Tantalus, and wife of Amphion, king of 
Thebes. Proud of the number of her children, 
she deemed herself superior to Leto (Latona), 
who had given birth to only 2 children. 
Apollo and Artemis (Diana), indignant at 
such presumption, slew all her children with 
their arrows. Xiobe herself was metamor- 
phosed by Zeus (Jupiter] into a stone on 
Mt. Sipylus in Lydia, which during the sum- 
mer always shed tears. The number of her 




Niobe and her Children. (Yisconti, Mus. Pio. Clem., vol. 4, tav. 1".) 



children is stated variously, but the usual 
number in later times was 7 sons and 7 
daughters. The story of Xiobe and her 



children was a favourite subject with ancient 
artists. There is at Florence a beautiful 
group consisting of Xiobe, who holds her 



NIPHATES. 



285 



NITRIAE. 



youngest daughter on her knees, and 13 
statues of her sons and daughters. 



NIPHATES (-ae), a mountain chain of Arme- 
nia, forming an E. prolongation of the Taurus. ' 




The Group of Niobe. (Zatinoni, Gal. di Firenze, serie 4, vol. 1.) 



NIREUS (-eos, el, or el), son of Charopus 
and Aglaia, and the handsomest among the 
Greeks at Troy. 

NISAEA. [Megara.]' 

NISAEUS CAMPUS, a plain in the N. of 
Great Media, near Rhagae, celebrated for its 
breed of horses. 

NISIBIS (-is), also Antiochia Mygdoniae, 
a celebrated city of Mesopotamia, and the 
capital of the district of Mygdonia, stood on 
the river Mygdonius in a very fertile district. 
It was of great importance as a military post. 
Its name was changed into Antiochia, but it 
soon resumed its original name. In the suc- 
cessive wars between the Romans, and the 
Parthians and Persians, it was several times 
taken and retaken, until at last it fell into 
the hands of the Persians in the reign of 
Jovian. 

NISUS (-i). (1) King of Megara, and 
father of Scylla. Scylla having fallen in love 
with Minos when the latter was besieging 
Megara, pulled out the purple or golden hair 
which grew on the top of her father's head, 
and on which his life depended. Nisus 
thereupon died, and Minos obtained possession 
of the city. Minos, however, was so horri- 
fied at the conduct of the unnatural daughter, 
that he ordered her to be fastened to the poop 
of his ship, and drowned her in the Saronic 
gulf. According to others, Minos left Megara 
in disgust ; Scylla leapt into the sea, and 
swam after his ship ; but her father, who had 
been changed into a sea-eagle {haliaeetus), 



pounced down upon her, whereupon she was 
metamorphosed into either a fish or a bird 
called Ciris. — Scylla, the daughter of Nisus, 
is sometimes confounded by the poets with 
Scylla, the daughter of Phorcus. Hence the 
latter is sometimes erroneously called Niseia 
Virgo, and Niseis. [Scylla.] — Nisaea, the 
port town of Megara, is supposed to have 
derived its name from Nisus, and the promon- 
tory of Scyllaeum to have been named after 
his daughter. — (2) Son of Hyrtacus, and a 
friend of Euryalus. The two friends accom- 
panied Aeneas to Italy, and perished in a 
night attack against the Rutulian camp. 

NISYRUS (-i), a small island in the Car- 
pathian Sea, off Caria. Its volcanic nature 
gave rise to the fable respecting its origin, 
that Poseidon (Neptune) tore it off the neigh- 
bouring island of Cos to hurl it upon the 
giant Polybotes. 

NITIOBRIGES (-urn), a Celtic people in 
Gallia Aquitanica between the Garumna and 
the Liger. 

NTTOCRIS. (1) A queen of Babylon, men- 
tioned by Herodotus, is supposed by modem 
writers to be the wife of Nebuchadnezzar. — 
(2) A queen of Egypt, elected to the sove- 
reignty in place of her brother, whom the 
Egyptians had killed. After putting to death 
the Egyptians who had murdered her brother, 
she threw herself into a chamber full of 
ashes. She is said to have built the third 
pyramid. 

NITRIAE, NITRA.RIAE, the celebrated 



NOBILIOR. 



2S6 



NOYIODUNUM. 



natron lakes in Lower Egypt, which lay in a 
valley on the S.W. margin of the Delta. 

NOBILIOR (-oris), the name of a distin- | 
guished family of the Fulvia gens. The most 
distinguished memher of the family was M. j 
Funvrus Xobilior, consul B.C. 189, when 
he conquered the Aetolians, and took the 
town of Ambracia. He had a taste for lite- 
rature and art, and was a patron of the poet 
Ennius, who accompanied him in his Aetolian 
campaign. 

NOLA (-ae : 2Tola) 3 one of the most ancient 
towns in Campania, 21 Roinan miles S.E. of 
Capua, celebrated as the place where the 
emperor Augustus died. In "the neighbour- 
hood of the town some of the most beautiful 
Campanian rases have been found in modern 
times. 

NOMENTANTJS (-i), mentioned by Horace 
as proverbially noted for extravagance and a 
riotous mode of living. 

NOMENTUM (-i), a Latin town founded 
by Alba, but subsequently a Sabine town, 14 
(Romanl miles from Eome. Its neighbour- 
hood was celebrated for its wine. 

NOMIXJS (-i), the Pasturer, a surname of 
divinities protecting the pastures and shep- 
herds, such as Apollo, Pan, Hermes (Mercury;, 
and Aristaeus. 

NONACEIS (-is), a town in the N. of 
Arcadia, surrounded by lofty mountains, in 
which the river Styx took its origin. From 
this town Evander is called Konacrlus, 
Atalanta Nondcria, and Callisto Nonacrina 
Virgo, in the general sense of Arcadian. 

NONIUS MARCELLUS. [Mabcelltjs.] 

NORA (-oruni). (1) A city of Sardinia, 
on the coast of the Sinus Caralitanus. — (2) A 
mountain fortress of Cappadocia, on the 
borders of Lycaonia. 

NORBA (-ae). (1) A town in Latium on 
the slope of the Volscian mountains and near 
the sources of the Nymphaeus, originally 
belonging to the Latin, and subsequently 
to the Yolscian league. As early as b.c. 492 
the Romans founded a colony at Norba. — 
(2) Surnamed Caesarea {Alcantara), aRoman 
colony in Lusitania on the left bank of the 
Tagus. The bridge built by order of Traj an 
over the Tagus at this place is still extant. 

NORBANTJS (-i), C, one of the leaders of 
the Marian party in the war with Sulla, was 
consul b.c 83. 

NORBAXI'S FLACCUS. [Flacctjs.] 

NOREIA {Xeumarkt, in Styria), the ancient 1 
capital of the Taurisci or Norici in Noricum, j 
from which the whole country derived its 
name. It is celebrated as the place where 
Carbo was defeated by the Cimbri, b.c. 113. 

NORICUM (-i), a Roman province S. of 
the Danube, bounded on the N. by the Danube, | 



on the W. by Rhaetia and Tindelicia, on the 
E. by Pannonia, and on the S. by Pannonia 
and Italy. It thus corresponds to the greater 
part of Styria and Carinthia, and to a part 
of Austria, Bavaria, and Salzburg. One of 
the main branches of the Alps, the Alpes 
Noeicae (in the neighbourhood of Salzburg), 
ran right through the province. In those 
mountains a large quantity of excellent iron 
was found ; and the Noric swords were cele- 
brated in antiquity, The inhabitants of the 
country were Celts, divided into several 
tribes, of which the Taurisci, also called 
Xorici, after their capital Noreia, were the 
most important. They were conquered by 
the Romans towards the end of the reign of 
Augustus, after the subjugation of Rhaetia by 
Tiberius and Drusus, and their country was 
formed into a Roman province. 

XORTIA or NURTIA (-ae), an Etruscan 
divinity, worshipped at Yolsinii. 

NOTUS (4), called AUSTER (-tri), by the 
Romans, the S. wind, or strictly the S.W. 
wind, brought with it fogs and rain. 




Notus. (From the Temple of the Winds at Athens. ) 

XOVARIA (-ae : Novara), a town in Gallia 
Transpadana, situated on a river of the same 
name {Gogna), and on the road from Medio- 
lanuni to Yercellae. 

NOVESIUM (4 : Xeuss), a fortified town 
of the L'bii on the Rhine, and on the road 
leading from Colonia Agrippina {Cologne), to 
Castra Vetera {JsLanten). 

XOYIODUXUM (4), a name given to many 
Celtic places from their being situated on a 
hill {dun). (1) {Xouafi), a town of the 
Bituriges Cubi in Gallia Aquitanica. — 
(2) {Never s), a town of the Aedui in Gallia 
Lugdunensis, at the confluence of the Niveris 
and the Liger, afterwards called Xevirnum. 
— (3) A town of the Suessones in Gallia 
Belgica, probably the same as Augusta 
Suessonuni. {Soisso?is.) — (4) {Nion), a town 
of the Helvetii in Gallia Belgica, on the X. 
bank of the Lacus Lemanus {Lake of Geneva). 



N0VIU3. 



287 



NYMPHAE. 



NOVIUS (4), Q., a celebrated writer of 
Atellane plays, a contemporary of the dic- 
tator Sulla. 

NOX (-ctis), called NYX by the Greeks, a 
personification of Night. She is described as 
the daughter of Chaos, and the sister of 
Erebus, by whom she became the mother of 
Aether (Air) and Hemera (Day) . Her resi- 
dence was in the darkness of Hades. 

NUBAE (-arum), NUBAEI (-orum), an 
African people, S. of Egypt, in modern Nubia. 

NUCERIA (-ae) . (1) Surnamed Alfaterna 
(Nocera), a town in Campania on the Sarnus 
(Sarno), and 9 (Roman) miles from the coast. 
— (2) Surnamed Camellaria (Nocera), a 
town in the interior of Umbria on the Via 
Flaminia. — (3) {Luzzara), a small town in 
Gallia Cispadana on the Po, N.E. of Brixel- 
lum. — (4) A town in Apulia, more correctly 
called Ltjceria. 

NUITHONES (-urn), a people of Germany, 
dwelling on the right bank of the Albis (Elbe), 
in the modern Mecklenburg. 

NUMA (-ae), POMPILIUS (-i), the 2nd 
king of Rome, who belongs to legend and not 
to history. He was a native of Cures in the 
Sabine country, and was elected king one 
year after the death of Romulus, when the 
people became tired of the interregnum of 
the senate. He was renowned for his wisdom 
and his piety ; and it was generally believed 
that he had derived his knowledge from 
Pythagoras. His reign was long and peace- 
ful, and he devoted his chief care to the 
establishment of religion among his rude 
subjects. He was instructed by the Camena 
Egeria, who visited him in a grove near 
Rome, and who honoured him with her love. 
He was revered by the Romans as the author 
of their whole religious worship. It was he 
who first appointed the pontiffs, the augurs, 
the namens, the virgins of Vesta, and the 
Salii. He founded the temple of Janus, 
which remained always shut during his reign. 
He died after a reign of 39 or 43 years. 

NUMANTIA (-ae : Guarray *Ru.), the 
capital of the Arevacae or Arevaci in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, and the most important 
town in all Celtiberia, was situated near the 
sources of the Durius, on a precipitous hill. 
It was taken by Scipio Africanus the younger 
after a long siege (b.c. 133). 

NUMKRIANUS (-i), M. AURELIUS, the 
younger son of the emperor Cams, whom he 
accompanied in his expedition against the 
Persians, a.d. 283. After the death of his 
father, which happened in the same year, 
Numerianus was acknowledged as joint em- 
peror with his brother Carinus. Eight months 
afterwards he was murdered, and suspicion 
having fallen upon Arrius Aper, praefect of 



the praetorians, and father-in-law of the de- 
ceased, the latter was stabbed to the heart 
by Diocletian. [Diocletiaxus.] 

NUMICIUS or NUMICUS (-i : Numico), a 
small river in Latium flowing into the Tyr- 
rhene sea, near Ardea, on the banks of which 
was the tomb of Aeneas. 

NTJMIDIA (-ae), a country of N. Africa, 
divided from Mauretania on the W. by the 
river Malva or Mulucha, and on the E. from 
the territory of Carthage (aft. the Roman 
province of Africa) by the river Tusca. The 
inhabitants were originally wandering tribes, 
hence called by the Greeks Nomads (Hfofieihs), 
and this name was perpetuated in that of the 
country. Their 2 great tribes were the 
Massylians and the Massaesylians, forming 2 
monarchies, which were united into one 
under Masinissa, b.c. 201. [Masixissa.] On 
the defeat of Jugurtha, in b.c 106, the 
country became virtually subject to the 
Romans, but they permitted the family of 
Masinissa to govern it, with the royal title, 
until b.c 46, when Juba, who had espoused 
the cause of Pompey in the civil wars, was 
defeated and dethroned by Julius Caesar, and 
Numidia was made a Roman province. Part 
of the country was afterwards added to the 
province of Mauretania. [Mauretaxia.] The 
chief city of Numidia was Cirta. 

NUMITOR. [SoMULrs.] 

NTJRSIA (-ae), a town of the Sabines, 
situated near the sources of the Nar and 
amidst the Apennines, whence it is called 
by Virgil frigida Nursia. It was the birth- 
place of Sertorius and of the mother of 
Vespasian. 

NYCTEIS. [Nycteus.] 

NYCTEUS (-eos, -ei or el), son of Hyrieus 
and Clonia and father of Antiope, who is 
hence called Nycteis (-idis). Antiope was 
carried off by Epopeus, king of Sicyon ; 
whereupon Nycteus, who governed Thebes, 
as the guardian of Labdacus, invaded Sicyon 
with a Theban army. Nycteus was defeated, 
and died of his wounds, leaving his brother 
Lycus guardian of Labdacus. [Lvcus.] 

"NYCTY3IENE (-es), daughter of Epopeus, 
king of Lesbos. Having been dishonoured by 
her father she concealed herself in the shade 
of forests, where she was metamorphosed 
by Athene (Minerva) into an owl. 

NYMPHAE (-arum), female divinities of a 
lower rank, with whom the Greeks peopled 
all parts of nature, the sea, springs, rivers, 
grottoes, trees, and mountains. These 
nymphs were divided into various classes, 
according to the different parts of nature of 
I which they are the representatives. (1) The 
Sea-Nymphs, consisting of the Oceamdes, or 
! Nyniphs of the Ocean, who were regarded as 



NYMPHAEUM. 



2S3 



OCEANUS. 



the daughters of Oceanus ; and the Nereides | 
or Nereides, the nymphs of the Mediterranean, i 
■who were regarded as the daughters of 
Nereus. — ,2) The Naiades or Ncndes, the 
nymphs of fresh water, whether of rivers, 
lakes, "brooks, or springs. Many of these nymphs ! 
presided over springs which were believed to 
inspire those who drank of them. The 
nymphs themselves were, therefore, thought 
to be endowed with prophetic power, and to ! 
be able to inspire men. Hence all persons 
in a state of rapture, such as seers, poets, 
madmen. &c., were said to be caught^ by the 
nymphs [lymphati, lymphatici). — [3] Oreddes, 
the nymphs of mountains and grottoes, also 
called by names derived from the particular 
mountains they inhabited. — (4. Napaeae, the 
Nymphs of glens. — (5) Dryades and Hama- 
dryades (from ^ys), nymphs of trees, who 
were believed to die together with the trees 
which had been their abode, and with which 
they had come into existence. There was 
also another class of nymphs, connected with 
certain races or localities, and usually named 
from the places with which they are asso- 
ciated, as Nysiades, Dodonides, Lemniae. — 
The sacrifices offered to nymphs consisted of 
goats, iambs, milk, and oil, but never of 
wine. They are represented in works of art 
as beautiful maidens, either quite naked or 
only half-covered. 

NYMPHAEUM (-i), a mountain, with 
perhaps a village, by the river Aous, near 
Apollonia, in Hiyricuni. 

NYMPHAEUS (-i). (1) A small river of 
Latium, falling into the sea above Astura, 
and contributing to the formation of the 
Pomptine marshes. — (2) A small river of 
Armenia, a tributary of the upper Tigris. 

NYSAor NYSSA (-ae), the legendary scene 
of the nurture of Dionysus (Bacchus), who 
was therefore called Nysaeus, Nyszus, Nyse- 
ius, Nyseus, Nysigena, Arc. Hence the name 
was applied to several places sacred to that 
god. (1) In India, at the N.W. corner of the 
Punjab, near the confluence of the rivers 
Cophen and Choaspes. — [2] A city of Caria, 
on the S. slope of M. Messogis. — (3) A city 
of Cappadocia, near the Halys, the bishopric 
of St. Gregory of Nyssa, 

NYSEIDES or NYSIADES (.urn), the 
nymphs of Nysa, who are said to have reared 
Dionysus, and whose names are Cissei's, Nysa, 
Erato, Eriphia, Bromia, and Polyhymno. 



fYABXFS [-i] , a river of S armaria rising in 
the country of the Thyssagetae, and 
falling into the Palus Maeotis. 

OASIS (-is), the Greek form of an Egyptian 



word, which was used to denote an island in the 
sea of sand of the great Libyan Desert. These 
Oasis are preserved from the shifting sands 
by steep hills of limestone round them, and 
watered by springs, which make them fertile 
and habitable. The name is applied especially 
to 2 of these islands on the W. of Egypt, which 
were taken possession of by the Egyptians at 
an early period. (1) Oasis Major, the 
Greater Oasis, was situated 7 days' journey 
W. of Abydos, and belonged to Upper Egypt. 
This Oasis contains considerable ruins of 
the ancient Egyptian and Eoman periods. 
— (2) Oasis Minor, the Lesser or Second 
Oasis, was a good day's journey from 
the S.W. end of the lake Moeris, and be- 
longed to the Heptanomis, or Middle Egypt. 
— (3) A still more celebrated Oasis than 
either of these was that called Ammox, 
Hammon, Ammonium, Hammonis Oracui,t7m, 
from its being a chief seat of the worship and 
oracle of the god Amnion. It is now called 
Siicah. Its distance from Cairo is 12 days, 
and from the N. coast about 160 statute 
miles. The Ammonians do not appear to 
have been subject to the old Egyptian mon- 
archy. Cambyses, after conquering Egypt 
in e.c 525, sent an army against them, 
which was overwhelmed by the sands of the 
Desert. In b.c. 331, Alexander the Great 
visited the oracle, which hailed him as the 
son of Zeus Ammon. 
6 AXES. [Oaxus.] 

OAXUS (-i;, called Axrs (-i), by Hero- 
dotus, a town in the interior of Crete on the 
river Oaxes. 

OBSEQUENS (-entis), JULIUS [4), the 
author of a work, entitled Be Prodigiis or 
Prodigiorum Libellus, of which a portion is 
extant. JDf the writer nothing is known. 

OCALEA (-ae), an ancient town in Boeotia, 
situated on a river of the same name falling 
into the lake Copais, 

OCEANIDES. [Nymphab.] 
OCEANUS (4), the god of the water which 
was believed to surround the whole earth, 
is. called the son of Heaven and Earth, 
the husband of Tethys, and the father of all 
the river-gods and water-nymphs of the 
whole earth. The early Greeks regarded the 
earth as a fiat circle, which was encompassed 
by a river perpetually flowing round it, and 
this river was Oceanus. Out of, and into this 
river the sun and the stars were supposed to 
rise and set ; and on its banks were the 
j abodes of the dead. "When geographical 
| knowledge advanced, the name was applied 
I to the great outer waters of the earth, in 
', contradistinction to the inner seas, and espe- 
cially to the Atlantic, or the sea without the 
Pillars of Hercules, as distinguished from 



OCELUM. 



289 



OEDIPUS. 



the Mediterranean, or the Sea within that 
limit, and thus the Atlantic is often called 
simply Oceanus. The epithet Atlantic (At- 
lanticum Mare), was applied to it from the 
mythical position of Atlas being on its shores. 

OCELOI (-i), a town in the Cottian Alps, 
was the last place in Cisalpine Gaul, before 
entering the territories of king Cottius. 

OCHUS (-i). (1) A surname of Artaxerxes 
III., king of Persia. [Artaxerxes III.] — (2) 
A great river of Central Asia, supposed by 
some to be the same as the Oxus. 

OCR1CULUM (4 : Otricoli), a town in 
Umbria, situated on the Tiber near its con- 
fluence with the Nar. 

OCTAYIA (-ae). (1) Sister of the emperor 
Augustus, married first to C. Marcellus, 
consul, b.c. 50, and after his death to Antony, 
the triumvir, in 40, but the latter soon 
abandoned her for Cleopatra. She died 
B.c. 11. She had 5 children, 3 by Marcellus, 
a son and 2 daughters, and 2 by Antony, 
both daughters. Her son, M. Marcellus, was 
adopted by Augustus, and was destined to be 
his successor, but died in 23. [Marcelles, 
No. 5.1 The descendants of her 2 daugh- 
ters successively ruled the Koman world. 
[AxTOxiA.] — (2) Daughter of the emperor 
Claudius and Messalina, and wife of Nero. 
She was divorced by the latter, that he 
might marry his mistress Poppaea, and was 
shortly afterwards put to death by Nero's 
orders, a.d. 62. 

OCTAYIUS, the name of a Roman gens, 
to which the emperor Augustus belonged, 
whose original name was C. Octavius. Hence, 
when he was adopted by his great uncle C. 
Julius Caesar, he bore the surname of 
Octctvianus. TAegestes.] 

OCTODtRUS (4 : MarUgny), a town of 
the Yeragri in the country of the Helvetii. 

OCTOGESA (-ae], a town of the Ilergetes 
in Hispania Tarraconensis near the Iberus, 
projoably S. of the Sicoris. 

OCYPETE. [Harptiae.] 

OCYRHOE (-es), daughter of the centaur 
Chiron. 

ODENATHUS, the ruler of Palmyra, who 
checked the victorious career of the Persians 
after the defeat and capture of Yalerian, a.d. 
2 GO. In return for these services, Gallie- 
nus bestowed upon Odenathus the title of 
Augustus. He was soon afterwards murdered, 
and was succeeded bv his wife Zexobia, a.d. 
266. 

ODESSUS [-i : Varna), a Greek town in 
Thracia (in the later Moesia Inferior) on the 
Pontus Euxinus, was founded by the Milesians, 
and carried on an extensive commerce. 

ODOACER (-cri), king of the Heruli, and 
the leader of the barbarians who overthrew 



the Y'estern empire, a.d. 476. He took the 
title of king of Italy, and reigned till his 
power was overthrown by Theodoric, king of 
the Goths, a..d. 493. 

ODBYSAE (-arum,) the most powerful 
people in Thrace, dwelling in the plain of the 
Hebrus, whose king Sitalces in the time of the 
Peloponnesian war exercised dominion over 
almost the whole of Thrace. The poets often 
use the adjective Odrysius in the general 
sense of Thracian. 

ODYSSEUS. [Ulysses.] 
OEAGRUS, or EAGER, (-gri), king of 
| Thrace, and father of Orpheus and Linus, 
j Hence Oeagrius is used by the poets as equiva- 
lent to Thracian. 

OEBALUS (-i). (1) King of Sparta, and 
: father of Tyndareus. The patronymics 
i OebaUdes, Oebdlis and the adjective Oe~ 
! bahus are not only applied to his de- 
j scendants, but to the Spartans generally. 

Hence Tarentum is termed Oebalia arx, be- 
| cause it was founded by the Lacedaemo- 
j nians ; and since the Sabines were, according 
to one tradition, a Lacedaemonian colony, 
we find the Sabine king Titus Tatius named 
Oebalius Titus, and the Sabine women 
I OebaUdes moires. — (2) Son of Telon by a 
I nymph of the stream Sebethus, near Naples, 
' ruled in Campania. 

OECHALIA (-ae). (1) A town in Thes- 
saly on the Peneus near Tricca. — (2) A town 
in Messenia on the frontier of Arcadia. — (3) 
: A town of Euboea in the district Eretria. — The 
ancients were divided in opinion as to which 
of these places was the' residence of Eurytus, 
whom Hercules defeated and slew. The 
original legend probably belonged to the 
I Thessalian Oechalia, and was thence trans- 
j ferred to the other towns. 

OEDIPUS (-i or -odis), son of Laius, king of 
j Thebes, and of Jocasta, sister of Creon. His 
i father having learnt from an oracle that he 
j was doomed to perish by the hands of his own 
son, exposed Oedipus on Mt. Cithaeron, im- 
\ mediately after his birth, with his feet pierced 
I and tied together. The child was found by 
! a shepherd of king Polybus of Corinth, and 
, was called from his swollen feet Oedipus. 

Having been carried to the palace, the king 
j reared him as his own child ; but when 
Oedipus had grown up, he was told by the 
; oracle at Delphi, which he had gone to con- 
I suit, that he was destined to slay his father 
j and commit incest with his mother. Think- 
ing that Polybus was his lather, he resolved 
i not to return to Corinth ; but on the road 
I between Delphi and Daulis he met Laius, 
i whom he slew in a scuffle without knowing 
I that he was his father. In the mean time 
i the celebrated Sphinx had appeared in the 



OENEUS. 



290 



OLEN. 



neighbourhood of Thebes. Seated on a rock, 
she put a riddle to every Theban that passed 
by, and who ever was unable to solve it was 
killed by the monster. This calamity induced 
the Thebans to proclaim that whoever should 
deliver the country of the Sphinx, should 
obtain the kingdom and Jocasta as his wife. 
The riddle ran as follows : "A being with 4 
feet has 2 feet and 3 feet, and only one voice ; 
but its feet vary, and when it has most it is 
weakest." Oedipus solved the riddle by 
saying that it was man, who in infancy 
crawls upon all fours, in manhood stands 
erect upon 2 feet, and in old age supports his 
tottering legs with a staff. The Sphinx 
thereupon threw herself down from the rock. 
Oedipus now obtained the kingdom of Thebes, 
and married his mother, by whom he became 
the father of Eteocles, . Polynices, Antigone, 
and Ismene. In consequence of this in- 
cestuous alliance, the country of Thebes was 
visited by a plague. The oracle, on being 
consulted, ordered that the murderer of Laius 
should be expelled; and the seer Tiresias 
told Oedipus that he was the guilty man. 
Thereupon Jocasta hung herself, and Oedipus 
put out his own eyes, and wandered from 
Thebes, accompanied by his daughter An- 
tigone. In Attica he at length found a place 
of refuge ; and at Colonus near Athens, the 
Eumenides removed him from the earth. 
The tragic fate of Oedipus and of his children 
formed the subject of many of the noblest of 
the Greek tragedies. 

OENEUS (-eos, el, or el), king of Pleuron 
and €alydon in Aetolia, and husband of Al- 
thaea, father of Tydeus, Meleager, Gorge, 
DeianTra, &c. He was deprived of his kingdom 
by the sons of his brother Agrius. He was sub- 
sequently avenged by his grandson Diomedes, 
who slew Agrius and his sons, and placed upon 
the throne Andraemon, the son-in-law of 
Oeneus, as the latter was too old. Diomedes 
took his grandfather with him to Pelopon- 
nesus, but here he was slain by two of the 
sons of Agrius who had escaped the slaughter 
of their brothers. Respecting the boar, 
which laid waste the lands of Calydon in his 
reign, see Meleager. 

OENIADAE (-arum"), a town of Acarnania, 
near the mouth of the Achelous, and sur- 
rounded by marshes, The fortress Nesus or 
Nasus belonging- to the territory of Oeniadae 
was situated in a small lake near Oeniadae. 

OENIDES (-ae), a patronymic from 
Oeneus, and hence given to Meleager, son of 
Oeneus, and Diomedes, grandson of Oeneus. 

OENOMAUS (4), king of Pisa in Elis, son 
of Ares (Mars) and father of Hippodamla. 
[Pelofs,] 

OENONE (-es), daughter of the river-god 



Cebren, and wife of Paris, before he carried 
off Helen. ^ [Paris.] 

OENOPIA (-ae), the ancient name of 
Aegixa. 

OENOPHYTA (-orum), a town in Boeotia, 
on the left bank of the Asopus, memorable for 
the victory gained here by the Athenians 
over the Boeotians, b.c. 456. 

OENOPION (-onis), son of Dionysus 
(Bacchus) and husband of the nymph Helice, 
and father of Merope, with whom the giant 
Orion fell in love. _[Oeion.] 

OENOTRI, OENOTRI A. [Italia.] 

OENOTEPDES, 2 small islands in the 
Tyrrhene sea, off the coast of Lucania, and 
opposite the town of Elea or Yelia and the 
mouth of the Helos. 

OETA (-ae) or OETE (-es), a rugged pile 
of mountains in the S. of Thessaly, an eastern 
branch of Mt. Pindus, extending along the S. 
bank of the Sperchius to the Maliac gulf at 
Thermopylae, thus forming the N. barrier of 
Greece proper. Respecting the pass of Mt. 
Oeta, see Thermopylae, Oeta was celebrated 
in mythology as the mountain on which 
Hercules burnt himself to death. 

OFELLA (-ae), a man of sound sense and 
of a straightforward character, whom Horace 
contrasts with the Stoic quacks of his time. 
Ofella was also the name of a family in the 
Lucietia gens. 

OGYGES (-is), or OGYGUS (-i) son of 
Boeotus, and the first ruler of Thebes, which 
was called after him Ogygia. In his reign 
a great deluge is said to have occurred. The 
name of Ogyges is also connected with Attic 
story, for in Attica an Ogygian flood is like- 
wise mentioned. From Ogyges the Thebans 
are called by the poets Ogpgidae, and Ogpgius 
is used in the sense of Theban. 

6 ILEUS (-eos, el, or el), king of the Lo- 
crians, ^and father of Ajax, who^is hence 
called Oilldes, Olluides, and Ajax OlleT. He 
was one of the Argonauts. 

OLBIA (-ae). (1) Narbonensis, on a hill 
called Olbianus, E. of Telo Martius.— (2) A city 
near the N. end of the E. side of the island 
of Sardinia, with the only good harbour on 
this coast ; and therefore the usual landing- 
place for persons coming from Pome. — (3) 

[BORYSTHENES.] 

OLCADES (.urn), a people in Hispania Tar- 
raeonensis, near the sources of the Anas, in a 
part of the country afterwards inhabited by 
the Oretani. 

OLCINIUM (-i : Dulcigno), a town on the 
coast of Illyria. 

OLEARUS. [Oliarus.] 

OLEN, a mythical personage, who is 
represented as the earliest Greek lyric poet, 
He is called both an Hyperborean, and a 



OLENTJS. 



291 



OMBI. 



Lycian, and is said to have settled at Delos. 
His name seems to signify simply the flute- 
player. 

OLENTJS (-i j . (1) The husband of Lethaea, 
changed with her into a stone. — (2) A town 
in Aetolia, near New Pleuron, destroyed by 
the Aetolians at an early period. — (3) A town 
in Achaia, between Patrae and Dynie. The 
goat Amalthaea, which suckled the infant 
Zeus (Jupiter), is called Olenia capella by 
the poets, either because the goat was sup- 
posed to have been born near the town of 
Olenus, and to have been subsequently trans- 
f erred to Crete, or because the nymph Amal- 
thaea, to whom the goat belonged, was a j 
daughter of 01enus 1 

OLIAKUS or OLEABUS (-i), a small I 
island in the Aegean sea, one of the Cyclades, j 
W. of Par os. 

OLISIPO (Lisbon), a town in Lusitania, j 
near the mouth of the Tagus. 

OLYMPLA (-ae), a small plain in Elis, 1 
bounded on the S. by the river Alpheus, 
and on the W. by the river Cladeus, in 
which the Olympic games were celebrated. 
In this plain was the sacred grove of Zeus 
(Jupiter) called Altis. The Altis and its 
immediate neighbourhood were adorned with 
numerous temples, statues, and public build- 
ings, to which the general appellation of 
Olympia was given ; but there was no town 
of this name. Among the numerous temples i 
in the Altis the most celebrated was the j 
Olympieum, or temple of Zeus Olympius, 
which contained the master-piece of Greek 
art, the colossal statue of Zeus by Phidias. 
The statue was made of ivory and gold, and 
the god was represented as seated on a 
throne of cedar wood, adorned with gold, 
ivory, ebony, and precious stones. The 
Olympic games were celebrated from the 
earliest times in Greece. There was an I 
interval of 4 years between each celebration | 
of the festival, which interval was called an 
Olympiad ; but the Olympiads were not em- 
ployed as a chronological era till the victory 
of Coroebus in the foot-race, B.C. 7 7 6. An 
accoimt of the Olympic games and of the j 
Olympiads is given in the Diet, of Antiq. 

^OLYMPIAS (-adis), wife of " Philip II., j 
king of Macedonia, and mother of Alexander 
the Great, was the daughter of Xeoptolemus 
I., king of Epirus. She withdrew from 
Macedonia, when Philip married Cleopatra, 
the niece of Attains (b.c. 337) ; and it was 
generally believed that she lent her support 
to the assassination of Philip in 336. In the 
troubled times which followed the death of 
Alexander, she played a prominent part. In 
317 she seized the supreme power in Mace- 
donia, and put to death Philip Arrhidaeus 



and his wife Eurydice. But being attacked 
by Cassander, she took refuge in Pydna, and, 
on the surrender of this place after a long 
siege, she was put to death by Cassander 
(b.c. 316.)^ 

OLYMPIUS, the Olympian, a surname of 
Zeus (Jupiter), Hercules, the Muses (Olym- 
piades), and in general of all the gods who 
were believed to live in Olympus, in contradis- 
tinction from the gods of the lower world. 

OLYMPUS (-i). (1) The range of moun- 
tains, separating Macedonia and Thessaly, 
but more specifically the eastern part of 
the chain forming at its termination the 
northern wall of the vale of Tempe. Its 
height is about 9700 feet ; and its chief 
summit is covered with perpetual snow. 
In the Greek mythology, Olympus was the 
residence of the dynasty of gods of which 
Zeus (Jupiter) was the head. The early 
poets believed that the gods actually lived on 
the top of this mountain. Even the fable of 
the giants scaling heaven must be understood 
in a literal sense ; not that they placed 
Pelion and Ossa upon the top of Olympus to 
reach the still higher heaven, but that they 
piled Pelion on the top of Ossa, and both on 
the lower slojies of Olympus, to scale the 
summit of Olympus itself, the abode of the 
gods. Homer describes the gods as having 
their several palaces on the summit of 
Olympus ; as spending the day in the palace 
of Zeus, round whom they sit in solemn con- 
clave, while the younger gods dance before 
them, and the Muses entertain them with the 
lyre and song. They are shut out from the 
view of men upon the earth by a wall of 
clouds, the gates of which are kept v the 
Hours. In the later poets, however, the 
real abode of the gods is transferred from the 
summit of Olympus to the vault of heaven 
(i.e. the sky) itself. — (2) A chain of lofty 
mountains, in the N.W. of Asia Minor, 
usually called the Mysian Olympus. 

OLYXTHUS (-i), a town of Chalcidice, at 
the head of the Toronaic gulf, and the most 
important of the Greek cities on the coast of 
Macedonia, It was at the head of a con- 
federacy of all the Greek towns in its neigh- 
bourhood, and maintained its independence, 
except for a short interval, when it was 
subject to Sparta, till it was taken and 
destroyed by Philip, b.c. 347. The Olynthiac 
orations of Demosthenes were delivered by 
the orator to urge the Athenians to send 
assistance to the city when it \ras attacked 
by Philip. 

OMBI (-orum), the last great city of Upper 
Egypt, except Syene, stood on the E. bank of 
the Nile, in the Ombites Nomos, and was 
celebrated as one of the chief seats of the 

u 2 



OMPHALE. 



292 



ORCADES, 



worship of the crocodile. Juvenal's 15th 
satire is founded on a religious war between 
the people of Onibi and those of Tentyra, who 
hated the crocodile. 

OMPHALE (-es), a queen of Lydia, daugh- 
ter of Iardanus, and wife of Tniolus, after 
whose death she reigned herself. The story 
of Hercules serving her as a slave, and of 
his wearing her dress, while Omphale put on 
the skin and carried the club, is related 
elsewhere, (p. 200, a.) 




Omphale and Hercules. (Farnese Group, now 
at Naples.) 



ONCHESMTJS or ONGBISMTJS -i , a 
seaport town of Epirus, opposite Corcyra. 

ONCHESTUS (-i). (1) An ancient town 
of Boeotia, situated a little S. of the lake 
Copais near Haliartus, said to have been 
founded by Cnchestus, son of Poseidon 
(Neptune). — (2) A river in Thessaly, flowing 
by Cynoscephalae, and falling into the lake 
Boebeis. 

OXOMACBITTS [4), an Athenian, who 
lived about b.c 520 — ±85, and made a collec- 
tion of the ancient oracles. Being detected in 
interpolating an oracle of Musaeus, he was 
banished from Athens by Hipparehus, the 
son of Pisistratus. 

OPHION (-onis) . (1) One of the Titans.— 

(2) One of the companions of Cadmus. — 

(3) Father of the centaur Amycus, who is 
hence called Opluonldes. 



OPHltSA or OPHIUSSA (-ae) s a name 
I given to many ancient places, from their 
| abounding in snakes. It was an ancient 
j name both of Rhodes and Cyprus, whence 
! Ovid speaks of Ophlusia arva, that is, Cy- 
j prian. 

I OPICI. [Osci.] 

OPIMIES -i; . L., consul b.c. 121, when he 

I took the leading part in the proceedings which 
ended in the murder of C. Gracchus. Being 
afterwards convicted of receiving a bribe from 
Jugurtha, he went into exile to Dyrrachiuin, 
in Epirus, where he died in great poverty. 
The year in which he was consul was remark- 
able for the extraordinary heat of the autumn, 

i and the vintage of this year long remained 

j celebrated as the Tinum Opimianum. 

OPiTEEGIOI (-i: Oderzo), a Roman 

j colony in Venetia, in the X : of Italy, on the 

! river Liquentia. 

OPPIANUS (-i), the author of 2 Greek 
hexameter poems still extant, one on fishing, 

i entitled Halieutica, and the other on hunting, 

| entitled Cynegetica. Modern critics, how- 
ever, have shown that these 2 poems were 

! written by 2 different persons of this name. 

! The author of the HaJieutica was a native of 

j Anazarba or Corycus, inCilicia, and flourished 
about a.d. 180. The author of the Cynegetica 

, was a native of Apamea or Pella, in Syria, 

j and flourished about a.d. 206. 

OPPIUS, the name of a Roman gens. (1) 

j C. Oppits, tribune of the plebs b.c 213, car- 

i ried a law to curtail the expenses and luxuries 
of Roman women. — [2) C. Opprrs, an inti- 
mate friend of C. Julius Caesar, whose private 
affairs he managed, in conjunction with Cor- 

I nelius Balbus. 

OPS gen. Opis), the wife of Saturnus, and 
the Roman goddess of plenty and fertility, as 
is indicated by her name, which is connected 
with opimus, opulentus, mops, and copia. 

. She was especially the protectress of agri- 
culture. 

OPUS (-untis), a town of Locris, from 
' which the Opuntian Locrians derived their 
! name. It was the birthplace of Patroclus, 

ORBILIUS PUPILLUS (-i), a Roman 
i grammarian and schoolmaster, best known to 
os from his having been the teacher of Horace, 
who gives him the epithet of plagosus, from 
the severe floggings which his pupils received 
from him. He was a native of Beneventum, 
j and after serving as an apparitor of the ma- 
gistrates, and also as a soldier in the army, 
he settled at Rome in the 50th year of his 
age, in the consulship of Cicero, b.c. 63. He 
lived nearly 100 years. 

ORCADES (-uni : Ork?iey and Shetland 
Isles), a group of several small islands off the 
N. coast of Britain, with which the Romans 



ORCHOMENTJS. 



293 



ORITIIYIA. 



first became acquainted when Agricola sailed 
round the N. of Britain. 

ORCHOMENUS (-i . [1] An ancient, 
wealthy, and powerful city of Boeotia, the 
capital of the Minyans in the ante-historical 
ages of Greece, and hence called by Homer 
the Minyan Orchomenos. It was situated 
X.W. of the lake Copais, on the river Cephis- 
sus. Sixty years after the Trojan war it was 
taken by the Boeotians, and became a mem- 
ber of the Boeotian league. It continued to 
exist as an independent town till b.c. 367, 
when it was taken and destroyed by the 
Thebans : and though subsequently restored, 
it never recovered its former prosperity. — 
(2) An ancient town of Arcadia, situated 
N. "W. of Mantinea. 

ORCUS._ [Hades." 

ORDO VICES [-urn), a people in the W. of 
Britain, opposite the island Mona {Anglesey), 
occupying the N. portion of the modern Wales. 

OREADES. [Xtmphae.] 

ORE^TAE [-arum), a people in the N. of 
Epirus, on the borders of Macedonia, origin- 
ally independent, but afterwards subject to 
the Macedonian monarehs. 

ORESTES -ae and -is] , son of Agamemnon 
and Clytaemnestra. On the murder of his 
father by Aegisthus and Clytaemnestra, 
Orestes was saved from the same fate by 
his sister Electra, who caused him to be 
secretly carried to Strophius, king in Phocis, 
who was married to Anaxibia, the sister of 
Agamemnon. There he formed a close and 
intimate friendship with the king's son Py- 
lades ; and when he had grown up, he 
repaired secretly to Argos along with his 
friend, and avenged his father's death by 
slaying Clytaemnestra and Aegisthus. After 
the murder of his mother he was seized with 
madness, and fied from land to land, pursued 
by the Erinnyes or Furies. At length, on the 
advice of Apollo, he took refuge in the temple 
of Athena (Minerva' , at Athens, where he was 
acquitted by the court of the Areopagus, 
which the goddess had appointed to decide 
his fate. According to another story, Apollo 
told him that he could only recover from his 
madness by fetching the statue of Artemis 
(Diana) from the Tauric Chersonesus. Ac- 
cordingly he went to this country along with 
his friend Pylades ; but on their arrival they 
were seized by the natives, in order to be 
sacrificed to Artemis, according to the custom 
of the country. But Iphigenia, the priestess 
of Artemis, was the sister of Orestes, and, 
after recognising each other, all three escaped 
with the statue of the goddess. After his re- 
turn to Peloponnesus, Orestes took possession 
of his father's kingdom at Mycenae, and mar- 
ried Hermione, the daughter of Menelaus, 



after slaying Xeoptolemus. [Hermioxe ; 
Neoptolemtts.] 

ORESTILLA, AERELIA. [Adbklla.] 
ORETAXI (-orum), a powerful people in 
! the S.W. of Hispania Tarraconensis. 

OREL'S {-f, a town in the N. of Euboea, 
I originally called Hestiaea or Histiaea. Hav- 
ing revolted from the Athenians, in b.c. 445, 
it was taken by Pericles, its inhabitants ex- 
pelled, and their place supplied by 2000 
Athenians. 

ORICUM or ORICTS (-i), an important 
Greek town on the coast of Hlyria, near the 
Ceraunian mountains and the frontiers of 
Epirus ._ 

ORION and ORION (-onis and -onis), son 
of Hyrieus, of Hyria, in Boeotia, a handsome 
I giant and hunter. Having come to Chios, 
| he fell in love with Merope, the daughter of 
| Oenopion; his treatment of the maiden so 
| exasperated her father, that, with the assist- 
j ance of Dionysus (Bacchus), he deprived 
the. giant of his sight. Being informed 
i by an oracle that he should recover his sight 
! if he exposed his eye-balls to the rays of the 
J rising sun, Orion found his way to the island 
of Lemnos, where Hephaestus (Vulcan) gave 
him Cedalion as his guide, who led him to 
the East. After the jecovery of his sight 
he lived as a hunter along with Artemis 
I 'Diana; . The cause of his death is related 
variously. According to some, Orion was 
carried off by Eos (Aurora), who had fallen 
in love with him ; but as this was displeasing 
to the gods, Artemis killed him with an 
arrow in Ortygia. According to others, he 
was beloved by Artemis ; and Apollo, indig- 
I nant at his sister's affection for him, asserted 
that she was unable to hit with her arrow a 
j distant point which he showed her in the sea. 
I She thereupon took aim, the arrow hit its 
j mark, but the mark was the head of 
Orion, who was swimming in the sea. A 
third account, which Horace follows, states 
that he offered violence to Arternis, and was 
killed by the goddess with one of her arrows. 
A fourth account states that he was stung to 
death by a scorpion; and that Aesculapius 
was slain by Zeus (Jupiter) with a flash 
of lightning, when he attempted to recal the 
S giant to life. After his death, Orion was 
! placed among the stars, where he appears as 
j a giant with a girdle, sword, a lion's skin 
I and a club. The constellation of Orion set 
at the commencement of November, at which 
time storms and rain were frequent ; hence 
he is often called imbrifer, nimbosus, or 
aquosiis. 

ORITHYIA (-ae), daughter of Erechtheus, 
king of Athens, and of Praxithea, who was 
i seized by Boreas, and carried off to Thrace, 



ORMENUS. 



294 



OSCA. 



where she became the mother of Cleopatra, 
Chione, Zetes, and Calais. 

ORMENUS (-i), son of Cercaphus, and 
father of Amyntor. Hence Amyntor is called 
Ormenldes, and Astydamla, his grand- 
daughter, Ormenis. 

ORNEAE (-arum), an ancient town of 
Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory of 
Phlius, subdued by the Argives in the Pelo- 
ponnesian war, b.c. 415. 

ORODES (-ae), the names of 2 kings of 
Parthia. [Arsaces XIV., XVII.] 

ORONTES (-is or -ae), the largest river 
of Syria, rising in the Antilibanus, flowing 
past Antioch, and falling into the sea at the 
foot of Mt. Pieria. 

OROPUS (-i), a town on the eastern fron- 
tiers of Boeotia and Attica, was long an 
object of contention between the Boeotians 
and Athenians. It finally remained perma- 
nently in the hands of the Athenians. 

ORPHEUS {gen. eos, ei or el ; dot. el or eo ; 
acc. ea or eum ; voc. eu ; dbl. eo), a mythical 
personage, regarded by the Greeks as the 
most celebrated of the poets who lived before 
the time of Homer. The common story about 
him ran as follows. Orpheus, the son of 
Oeagrus and Calliope, lived in Thrace at the 
period of the Argonauts, whom he accom- 
panied in their expedition. Presented with 
the lyre by Apollo, and instructed by the 
Muses in its use, he enchanted with its 
music not only the wild beasts, but the trees 




Orpheus* (From a Mosaic.) 



and rocks upon Olympus, so that they moved 
from their places to follow the sound of his 
golden harp. After his return from the 
Argonautic expedition, he took up his abode 
in Thrace, where he married the nymph 
Eurydice. His wife having died of the bite 



of a serpent, he followed her into the abodes 
of Hades. Here the charms of his lyre sus- 
pended the torments of the damned, and won 
back his wife from the most inexorable of 
all deities. His prayer, however, was only 
granted upon this condition, that he should 
not look back upon his restored wife till they 
had arrived in the upper world : at the very 
moment when they were about to pass the 
fatal bounds, the anxiety of love overcame 
the poet ; he looked round to see that Eury- 
dice was following him ; and he beheld her 
caught back into the infernal regions. His 
grief for the loss of Eurydice led him to treat 
with contempt the Thracian women, who 
in revenge tore him to pieces under the 
excitement of their Bacchanalian orgies. 
After his death, the Muses collected the 
fragments of his body, and buried them at 
Libethra, at the foot of Olympus. His head 
was thrown into the Hebrus, down which it 
rolled to the sea, and was borne across to 
Lesbos. His lyre was also said to have been 
carried to Lesbos ; but both traditions are 
simply poetical expressions of the historical 
fact that Lesbos was the first great seat of 
the music of the lyre. The astronomers 
taught that the lyre of Orpheus was placed 
by Zeus (Jupiter) among the stars, at the 
intercession of Apollo and the Muses. Many 
poems ascribed to Orpheus were current in 
the flourishing period of Greek literature ; 
but the extant poems, bearing the name of 
Orpheus, are the forgeries of Christian 
grammarians and philosophers of the Alex- 
andrian school ; though among the fragments, 
which form a part of the collection, are some 
genuine remains of the Orphic poetry, known 
to the earlier Greek writers. 

ORTHIA (-ae), a surname of Artemis, at 
Sparta, at whose altar the Spartan boys had 
to undergo the flogging, called diamastigosis. 

ORTHRUS (-i), the two-headed dog of 
Geryones. [See p. 199.] 

ORTYGIA (-ae) and ORTYGIE (-es). (1) 
The ancient name of Delos. Since Artemis 
(Diana) and Apollo were born at Delos, the 
poets sometimes call the goddess Ortygia, and 
give the name of Ortygiae boves to the oxen 
of Apollo. The ancients connected the name 
with Ortyx, a quail. — (2) An island near 
Syracuse. [Syracusae.] — (3) A grove near 
Ephesus, in which the Ephesians pretended 
that Apollo and Artemis were born. Hence 
the Cayster, which flowed near Ephesus, is 
called Ortygius Cayster. 

OSCA (-ae : Huesca, in Arragonia), an 
important town of the Ilergetes, and a 
Roman colony in Hispania Tarraconensis, on 
the road from Tarraco to Ilerda, with silver 
mines. 



OSCI. 



20. 



►5 



OVIDIUS NASO. 



OSCI or OPICI (-orum), one of the most 
ancient tribes of Italy, inhabiting the centre of 
the peninsula, especially Campania and Sam- 
niuni. They were subdued by the Sabines 
and Tyrrhenians, and disappeared from 
history at a comparatively early period. 
They are identified by many writers with the 
Ausones or Aurunci. The Oscan language 
was closely connected with the other ancient 
Italian dialects, out of which the Latin lan- 
guage was formed ; and it continued to be 
spoken by the people of Campania long after 
the Oscans had disappeared as a separate 
people. A knowledge of it was preserved at 
Home by the Fabulae Atellanae, which were 
a species of farce or comedy written in 
Oscan. 

OSIRIS (-is and -idis), the great Egyptian 
divinity, and husband of Isis, is said to have 
been originally king of Egypt, and to have 
reclaimed his subjects from a barbarous life 
by teaching them agriculture, and by enacting 
wise laws. He afterwards travelled into 
foreign lands, spreading, wherever he went, 
the blessings of civilisation. On his return 
to Egypt, he was murdered by his brother 
Typhon, who cut his body into pieces, and 
threw them into the Nile. After a long 
search Isis discovered the mangled remains 
of her husband, and with the assistance of 
her son Horus defeated Typhon, and re- 
covered the sovereign power, which Typhon 
had usurped. [Isis.] 

OSROENE (-es), a district in the N. of 
Mesopotamia, separated by the Chaboras 
from Mygdonia on the E., and from the rest 
of Mesopotamia on the S. Its capital was 
Edessa. 

OSSA (-ae), a celebrated mountain in the 
N. of Thessaly, connected with Pelion on the 
S.E., and divided from Olympus on the N.W. 
by the vale of Tempe. It is mentioned in the 
legend of the war of the Giants, respecting 
which see Olympus. 

OSTIA (-ae : Ostia), a town at the mouth 
of the river Tiber, and the harbour of Home, 
from which it was distant 16 miles by land, 
situated on the left bank of the left arm of the 
river. It was founded by Ancus Martius, the 
4th king of Rome, was a Roman colony, and 
became an important and flourishing town. 
The emperor Claudius constructed a new and 
better harbour on the right arm of the Tiber, 
which was enlarged and improved by Trajan. 
This new harbour was called simply Port us 
Romanus or Tortus Augusti, and around it 
there sprang up a flourishing town, also 
called Tortus. The old town of Ostia, whose 
harbour had been already partly filled up by 
sand, now sank into insignificance, and only 
continued to exist through its salt-works 



(salinae), which had been established by 
Ancus Martius. 

OSTORICS SCAPULA. [Scapula.] 
OTHO (-onis), L. ROSCIUS (-i), tribune 
of the plebs b.c 67, when he carried the law 
which gave to the equites a special place at 
the public spectacles, in fourteen rows or 
seats (in quattuordecim gradibus sive ordini- 
bus), next to the place of the senators, which 
was in the orchestra. This law was very 
unpopular ; and in Cicero's consulship (63) 
there was such a riot occasioned by the 
obnoxious measure, that it required all his 
eloquence to allay the agitation. 

OTHO (-onis), M. SALYIUS, Roman em- 
peror from January 15th to April 16th, a.d. 
69, was born in 32. He was one of the 
companions of Nero in his debaucheries ; 
but when the emperor took possession of his 
wife, the beautiful but profligate Poppaea 
Sabina, Otho was sent as governor to Lusi- 
tania, which he administered with credit 
during the last 10 years of Nero's life. Otho 
attached himself to Galba, when he revolted 
against Nero, in the hope of being adopted 
by him, and succeeding to the empire. But 
when Galba adopted L. Piso, on the 10th of 
January, 69, Otho formed a conspiracy 
against Galba, and was proclaimed emperor 
by the soldiers at Rome, who put Galba to 
death. Meantime Vitellius had been pro- 
claimed emperor at Cologne by the German 
troops on the 3rd of January. When this 
news reached Otho, he marched into the N. 
of Italy to oppose the generals of Vitellius. 
His army was defeated in a decisive battle 
near Bedriacum, whereupon he put an end 
to his own life at Brixellum, in the 37 th year 
of his age. 

OTHRYADES and OTHRYADES (-ae). 
(1) A patronymic given to Panthous or Pan- 
thus, the Trojan priest of Apollo, as the son 
of Othrys. — (2) The survivor of the 300 Spar- 
tan champions, who fought with the 300 
Argives for the possession of Thyrea. Being 
ashamed to return to Sparta as the only sur- 
vivor, he slew himself on the field of battle. 

OTHRYS and OTHRY^S (-yos), a lofty 
range of mountains in the S. of Thessaly, 
extending from Mt. Tymphrestus, or the 
most S.-ly part of Pindus, to the E. coast. 
It shut in the great Thessalian plain on the S. 

OTUS (-i), and his brother, EPHIALTES, 
are better known by their name of the 
Aloldae. [Aloeus.] 

OY1DIUS NA60, P., (-onis), the Roman 
poet, was born at Sulmo, in the country of 
the Peligni, on the 20th March, b.c. 43. He 
was descended from an ancient equestrian 
family. He was destined to be a pleader, 
and studied rhetoric under Arellius Fuscus 



oxus. 



296 



PADUS. 



and Porcius Latro. His education was com- 
pleted at Athens, and he afterwards travelled 
with the poet Macer, in Asia and Sicily. His 
love for poetry led him to desert the practice 
of the law ; but he was made one of the 
Gentumviri, or judges who tried testamentary, 
and even criminal causes ; and in due time 
he was promoted to be one of the Decemviri, 
who presided over the court of the Centuni- 
viri. He married twice in early life at the 
desire of his parents, but he speedily divorced 
each of his wives in succession, and lived a 
life of licentious gallantry. He afterwards 
married a third wife, whom he appears to 
have sincerely loved, and by whom he had a 
daughter, Perilla. After living for many 
years at Rome, and enjoying the favour of 
Augustus, he was suddenly banished by the 
emperor to Tomi, a town on the Euxine, 
near the mouths of the Danube. The pretext 
of his banishment was his licentious poem on 
the Art of Love [Ars Amatoria), which had 
been published nearly 10 years previously; 
but the real cause of his exile is unknown. 
It is supposed by some that he had been 
guilty of an intrigue with the younger Julia, 
the granddaughter of the emperor Augustus, 
who was banished in the same year with 
Ovid. Ovid draws an affecting picture of the 
miseries to which he was exposed in his 
place of exile. He sought some relief in the 
exercise of his poetical talents. Not only did 
lie write several of his Latin poems in his 
exile, but he likewise acquired the language 
of the Getae, in which he composed some 
poems in honour of Augustus. He died at 
Tomi, in the 60th year of his age, a.d. 18. 
Besides his amatory poems, the most im- 
portant of his extant works are the Metamor- 
phoses, consisting of such legends or fables as 
involved a transformation, from the Creation 
to the time of Julius Caesar, the last being 
that emperor's change into a star : the 
Fasti, which is a sort of poetical Roman 
calendar ; and the Tristia, and Epistles ex 
Ponto, which are elegies written during his 
banishment. 

OXUS or OXUS (-i : Jilioun or Amoii), 
a great river of Central Asia, forming the 
boundary between Sogdiana on the N. and 
Bactria and Margiana on the S., and falling 
into the Caspian. The Jihoun now flows into 
the S.AY. corner of the Sea of Aral ; but there 
are still distinct traces of a channel in a 
S.W. direction from the Sea of Aral to 
the Caspian, by which at least a portion, and 
probably the whole, of the waters of the 
Oxus found their way into the Caspian. The 
Oxus occupies an important place in history, 
having been in nearly all ages the extreme 
boundary between the great monarchies of 



south-western Asia and the hordes which 
wander over the central steppes. Herodotus 
does not mention the Oxus by name, but it is 
supposed to be the river which he calls 
Araxes. 



pXCHYXUS or PACHYNUM (-i), a pro- 
*~ montory at the S.E. extremitv of Sicilv. 

PACORUS (-i). (1) Son of Or odes I., king of 
Parthia. His history is given under Aesaces 
XIY. — (2) King of Parthia. [Absaces 
XXIV.] 

PACTOLUS (4), a small but celebrated 
river of Lydia, rising on Mt. Tmolus, and 
flowing past Sardis into the Herrnus. The 
golden sands of Pactolus have passed into a 
proverb, and were one of the sources of the 
wealth of ancient Lydia. 

PACTYE (-es), a town in the Thracian 
Chersonesus, on the Propontis, to which 
Alcibiades retired when he was banished by 
the Athenians, b.c. 407. 

PACUVIUS (-i) M., the greatest of the 
Roman tragic poets, was born about b.c. 220, 
at Brundisiurn, and was the son of the sister 
of Ennius. After living many years at 
Rome, where he acquired great reputation as 
a painter, as well as a poet, he returned to 
Brundisiurn, where he died in the 90th year 
of his age, b.c. 130. His tragedies were 
taken from the great Greek writers ; but he 
did not confine himself, like his predecessors, 
to mere translation, but worked up his mate- 
rials with more freedom and independent 
judgment. 

PADUS (-i: Po), the chief river of Italy, 
identified by the Roman poets with the 
fabulous Eridanus, from which amber was 
obtained. This notion appears to have arisen 
from the Phoenician vessels receiving at the 
mouths of the Padus the amber which had 
been transported by land from the coasts of 
the Baltic to those of the Adriatic. The 
Padus rises on Mt. Yesula [Monte Viso), in 
the Alps, and flows in an E.-ly direction 
through the great plain of Cisalpine Gaul, 
which it divides into 2 parts, Gallia Cispa- 
| dana and Gallia Transpadana, It receives 
numerous affluents, which drain the whole 
of this vast plain, descending from the Alps 
on the N.j and the Apennines on the S. 
These affluents, increased in the summer by 
[ the melting of the snow on the mountains, 
| frequently bring down such a large body of 
| water as to cause the Padus to overflow its 
banks. The whole course of the river, in- 
cluding its windings, is about 450 miles. 
About 20 miles from the sea the river divides 
itself into 2 main branches, and falls into 



PAEAX. 



297 



PALLADIUM. 



the Adriatic sea by several mouths, between 
Ravenna and Altinum. 

PAEAN (-anis), that is, " the healing," 
was originally the name of the physician of 
the Olympian gods. Subsequently the name 
was used in the more general sense of 
deliverer from any evil or calamity, and was 
thus applied to Apollo. From Apollo himself 
the name was transferred to the song dedi- 
cated to him, and to the warlike song sung 
before or during a battle. 

PAEOXES (-urn), a powerful Thracian 
people, who in historical times inhabited the 
whole of the X. of Macedonia, from the 
frontiers of Illyria to some little distance E. 
of the river Strymon. Their country was 
called Paeonia. 

PAESTAXUS SIXES. [Paestum.] 

PAESTUM (-i), called POSIDOXIA (-ae) 
by the Greeks, was a city in Lucania, situated 
4 or 5 miles S. of the Silarus, and near the 
bay which derived its name from the town 
(Paestanus Sinus: G. of Salerno). It was 
colonised by the Sybarites about b.c. 524, and 
soon became a powerful and flourishing city. 
Under the Romans it gradually sank in im- 
portance ; and in the time of Augustus it is 
only mentioned on account of the beautiful 
roses grown in its neighbourhood. The ruins 
of two Doric temples at Paestum are some 
of the most remarkable remains of antiquity. 

PAETUS (-i), a cognomen in many Roman 
gentes, signified a person who had a slight 
cast in the eye. 

PAETUS, AELIUS, the name of 2 brothers, 
Publius, consul b.c. 201, and Sextus, consul 
b.c. 198, both of them, and especially the 
latter, jurists of eminence. 

PAETUS THRASEA. [Thrasea.] 

PAGASAE (-arum) or PAG ASA (-ae), a 
town of Thessaly, on the coast of Magnesia, 
and on the bay called after it Sinus Pagasaeus 
or Pagasicl's. It was the port of Iolcos, and 
afterwards of Pherae, and is celebrated in 
mythology as the place where Jason built the 
ship Argo. Hence the adjective Pagasaeus is 
applied to Jason, and is also used in the 
general sense of Thessalian. Apollo is called 
Pagasaeus from having a temple at the place. 

PALAEMOX (-onis), son of Athamas and 
Ino, originally called Melicertes, became 
a marine god, when his mother leapt with 
him into the sea. [Athamas.] The Romans 
identified Palaemon with their own god 
Portunus, or Portumnus. [Portuxes.] 

PALAEOPOLIS. [Xeapolis,] 

PALAESTE (-es), a town on the coast of 
Epirus, and a little S. of the Acroceraunian 
mountains, where Caesar landed when he 
crossed over to Greece to carry on the war 
against Pompey. 



PALAESTIXA (-ae), the Greek and Roman 
form of the Hebrew word which was used to 
denote the country of the Philistines, and 
which was extended to the whole country. 
The Romans called it Judaea, extending to 
the whole country the name of its S. part. 
It was regarded by the Greeks and Romans 
as a part of Syria. It was bounded by the 
Mediterranean on the W. ; by the mountains 
of Lebanon on the N. ; by the Jordan and its 
lakes on the E. ; and by the deserts which 
separated it from Egypt on the S. The 
Romans did not come into contact with the 
country till b.c. 63, when Pompey took Jeru- 
salem. From this time the country was 
really subject to the Romans, At the death 
of Herod, his kingdom was divided between 
his sons as tetrarchs ; but the different 
parts of Palestine were eventually annexed 
to the Roman province of Syria, and were 
governed by a procurator. 

PALAMEDES (-is), son of Xauplius and 
Clymene, and one of the Greek heroes, who 
sailed against Troy. When Ulysses feigned 
madness that he might not be compelled to sail 
with the other chiefs, Palamedes detected his 
stratagem by placing his infant son before him 
while he was ploughing. [Ulysses.] In order 
to revenge himself, Ulysses bribed a servant of 
Palamedes to conceal under his master's bed 
a letter written in the name of Priam. He 
then accused Palamedes of treachery ; upon 
searching his tent they foimd the fatal letter, 
and thereupon Palamedes was stoned to death 
by the Greeks. Later writers describe Pala- 
medes as a sage, and attribute to him the 
invention of lighthouses, measures, scales, 
the discus, dice, &c. He is further said to 
have added the letters 6, |, £, to the 
original alphabet of Cadmus. 

PALATIXUS MOXS. [Roma.] 

PALA.TIUM. [Roma.] 

PALES (-is), a Roman divinity of flocks 
and shepherds, whose festival, the Paiilia, 
was celebrated on the 21st of April, the day 
on which Rome was founded. 

PALICI (-orum) were Sicilian gods, twin 
sons of Zeus (Jupiter) and the nymph Thalia. 
Their mother, from fear of Hera (Juno) , prayed 
to be swallowed up by the earth ; her prayer 
was granted ; but in due time twin boys 
issued from the earth, who were worshipped 
in the neighbourhood of Mt. Aetna, near 
Palice.^ 

PALIXURUM (-i : C. PaJinuro), a promon- 
tory on the W. coast of Lucania, said to have 
derived its name from Palinurus, pilot of the 
ship of Aeneas, who fell into the sea, and was 
murdered on the coast by the natives. 

PALLADIUM (-i), properly any image of 
Pallas Athena (Minerva), but specially applied 



[PALLANTIA. 



293 



PAX. 



to an ancient image of this goddess at Troy, 
on the preservation of which the safety of the 
town depended. It was stolen by Ulysses and 
Dioniedes, and was carried by the latter to 
Greece. According to some accounts, Troy 
contained two Palladia, one of which was 
carried off by Ulysses and Diomedes, while 
the other was conveyed by Aeneas to Italy. 
Others relate that the Palladium taken by 
the Greeks was a mere imitation, while that 
which Aeneas brought to Italy was the genuine 
image. But this twofold Palladium was pro- 
bably a mere invention to account for its 
existence at Ronie. 

PALLANTIA (-ae), the chief town of the 
Yaccaei, in the X. of Hispania Tarraeonensis, 
and on a tributary of the Durius. 

PALLANTIAS (-adis) and PALLAXTIS 
(-idis), patronymics given to Aurora, the 
daughter of the giant Pallas. 

PALLANTIUM (-i), an ancient town of Ar- 
cadia, near Tegea, said to have been founded 
by Pallas, son of Lycaon. Evander is said to 
have come from this place, and to have called 
the town which he founded on the banks of 
the Tiber, Pallanteum (afterwards Palantium 
and Palatium), after the Arcadian town. 
Hence Evander is called Pallantius heros. 

PALLAS (-adis), a surname of Athena. 
[Athena.] 

PALLAS (-antis). (1) One of the giants.— 
(2) The father of Athena, according to some 
traditions. — (3) Son of Lycaon, and grand- 
father of Evander. [Paelaxtium.] — (4) Son 
of Evander, and an ally of Aeneas. — (5) Son 
of the Athenian king Pandion, from whom 
the celebrated family of the Pallantidae at 
Athens traced their origin. — (6) A favourite 
freedman of the emperor Claudius, who ac- 
quired enormous wealth. Hence the line in 
Juvenal, ego possideo plus Pallante et Licinio, 

PALLEXE (-es), the most W.-ly of the 3 
peninsulas running out from Chalcidice in 
Macedonia. 

PALMYRA (-ae: Tadmor), a celebrated 
city of Syria, standing in an oasis of the great 
Syrian Desert, which from its position was a 
halting place for the caravans between Syria 
and Mesopotamia. Here Solomon built a city, 
which was called in Hebrew Tadmor, that is, 
the city of palm trees ; and of this name the 
Greek Palmyra is a translation. Under 
Hadrian and the Antonines it was highly fa- 
voured and reached its greatest splendour. 
The history of its temporary elevation to the 
rank of a capital, in the 3rd century of the 
Christian era, is related under Odenathus 
and Zexobia. Its splendid ruins, which form 
a most striking object in the midst of the 
Desert, are of the Roman period. 

PAMPHYLIA (-ae), a narrow strip of the 



S. coast of Asia Minor, extending in a sort 
of arch along the Sinus Pamphyhus (G. of 
Adalia), between Lycia on the W., and Cilicia 
on the E,, and on the N. bordering on Pisidia. 
The inhabitants were a mixture of races, 
whence their name Pamphyli (TluuVvtei), of 
all races. There were Greek settlements in 
the land, the foundation of which was ascribed 
to Mopsus, from whom the country was in 
early times called Mopsopia. It was succes- 
sively a part of the Persian, Macedonian, 
Greco-Syrian, and Pergamene kingdoms, and 
passed by the will of Attains III. to the Ro- 
mans (b.c. 130), under whom it was made a 
province ; but this province of Pamphylia in- 
cluded also Pisidia and Isauria, and after- 
wards a part of Lycia. Under Constantine 
Pisidia was again separated from Pamphylia. 

PAX (Panos), the great god of flocks and 
shepherds among the Greeks, usually called a 
son of Hermes (Mercury), was originally an 
Arcadian god ; and Arcadia was always the 
principal seat of his worship. From this 
country his name and worship afterwards 
spread over other parts of Greece ; but at 
Athens his worship was not introduced till 
the time of the battle of Marathon. He is 
described as wandering among the mountains 
and valleys of Arcadia, either amusing him- 
self with the chase, or leading the dances of 
the nymphs. He loved music, and invented 
the syrinx or shepherd's flute. Pan, like 
other gods who dwelt in forests, was dreaded 
by travellers, to whom he sometimes appeared, 
and whom he startled with sudden awe or 




Pan. (From a Bronze Relief found at Pompeii.) 



terror. Hence sudden fright, without any 
visible cause, was ascribed to Pan, and was 
called a Panic fear. The Romans identified 



PANAETIUS, 



299 



PANTHEUM. 



their god Faimus with Pan. [Fatjnus.] In 
works of art Pan is represented as a sensual 
being, with horns, puck-nose, and goat's feet, 
sometimes in the act of dancing, and some- 
times playing on the syrinx. 

PANAETIUS (-i), a native of Rhodes, and 
a celebrated Stoic philosopher, lived some 
years at Pome, where he became an intimate 
friend of Laelius and of Scipio Africanus the 
younger. He succeeded Antipater as head 
of the Stoic school, and died at Athens, at all 
events before b.c. 111. The principal work 
of Panaetius was his treatise on the theory of 
moral obligation, from which Cicero took the 
greater part of his work Be Officiis. 

PANDAREOS, son of Merops of Miletus, 
whose daughters are said to have been carried 
off by the Harpies. 

PAN DAP. US (-i). (1) A Lycian, dis- 
tinguished in the Trojan army as an archer. 
— (2) Son of Alcanor, and twin-brother of 
Bitias, one of the companions of Aeneas, slain | 
by Turnus. 

1 P AND AT API A (-ae : Yendutene) a small 
island off the coast of Campania, to which Julia, 
the daughter of Augustus, was banished. 

PANDTON (-onis). (1) King of Athens, 
son of Erichthonius, and father of Procne 
and Philomela. The tragic history of his 
daughters is given under Tehees. — (2) King 
of Athens, son of Cecrops, was expelled from 
Athens by the Metionidae, and fled to Megara, 
of which he became king. 

PANDORA (-ae;, the name of the first 
woman on earth. When Prometheus had 
stolen the fire from heaven, Zeus (Jupiter] 
in revenge caused Hephaestus to make a 
woman out of earth, who by her charms and 
beauty should bring misery upon the human 
race. Aphrodite (Venus) adorned her with 
beauty ; Hermes (Mercury) bestowed upon 
her boldness and cunning ; and the gods 
called her Pandora, or All-gifted, as each of 
the gods had given her some power by which 
she was to work the ruin of man. Hermes 
took her to Epimetheus, who made her his 
wife, forgetting the advice of his brother 
Prometheus not to receive any gifts from the 
gods. Pandora brought with her from heaven 
a box containing every human ill, upon 
opening which they all escaped and spread 
over the earth, Hope alone remaining. At a 
still later period the box is said to have con- 
tained all the blessings of the gods, which 
would have been preserved for the human 
race, had not Pandora opened the vessel, so 
that the winged blessings escaped. 

PAXDOSIA (-ae). Q) A town of Epirus 
in the district Thesprotia, on the river 
Acheron. — (2) A town in Bruttiuni near the 
frontiers of Lucania, situated on the river 



i Acheron. It was here that Alexander of 
; Epirus fell, b.c. 326, in accordance with an 
I oracle. 

PAXDROSOS (-i), i.e. " the all-bedewing,'' 
oar " refreshing," was a daughter of Cecrops 
and a sister of Herse and Aglauros. 

PAXGAEUS [-%) or PAXGAEA (-orum), a 
! range of mountains in Macedonia, between 
the Strymon and the Xestus, and in the 
neighbourhood of Philippi, with gold and 
silver mines, and with splendid roses. 

PAXIOXIUM (-i), a spot on the X. of the 
promontory of Mycale, with a temple to 
Poseidon (Xeptune), which was the place of 
[ meeting for the cities of Ionia. 

PAXXOXIA (-ae), a Eoman province be- 
tween the Danube and the Alps, separated on 
the W. from Xoricum by the Mons Cetius, and 
from Upper Italy by the Alpes Juliae, on the 
S. from Illyria by the Savus, on the E. from 
Dacia by the Danube, and on the X. from 
Germany by the same river. — The Panno- 
nians (Pannonii) were probably of Illyrian 
origin. They were a brave and warlike 
people, and were conquered by the Romans 
in the time of Augustus (about b.c 33). In 
a.d. 7 the Pannonians joined the Dalmatians 
and the other Illyrian tribes in their revolt 
from Rome, but were conquered by Tiberius, 
after a struggle, which lasted 3 years (a.d. 
7 — 9). Pannonia was originally only one 
province, but was afterwards divided into 2 
j provinces, called Pannonia Superior and 
i Pannonia Inferior. 

PAXOMPHAEUS (-i), i.e. the author of 
all signs and omens, a surname of Zeus 
(Jupiter) . 

PAXOPE (-es) or PAXOPAEA (-ae), a 
i nymph of the sea, daughter of Xereus and 
Doris. 

PAXOPErS(-eosor-ei). (1) SonofPhocus, 
accompanied Amphitryon on his expedition 
against the Taphians or Teleboans, and was 
one of the Calydonian hunters. — (2) Or 
I Panope (-es), an ancient town in Phocis an the 
J Cephissus and near the frontiers of Boeotia. 
PAXOPTES. [Akgus.] 
PAXORMI'S (-i : Palermo), an important 
town on the X. coast of Sicily, founded by 
the Phoenicians, and which at a later time re- 
ceived its Greek name from its excellent har- 
bour. Erom the Phoenicians it passed into the 
hands of the Carthaginians, and was taken 
I by the Romans in the 1st Punic war, b.c' 
254. 

PAXSA (-ae), C. VIBIUS, consul withHir- 
tius, b.c. 43. [Hirtius.] 

PAXTAGIAS'or PAXTAGIES ;.ae x , a small 
river on the E. coast of Sicily, flowing into 
the sea between Megara and Syracuse. 

PAXTHEUM (-i), a celebrated temple at 



PAXTHOES. 



300 



PARIS. 



Rome in the Campus Martins, which, is still 
extant and used as a Christian church, re- 
sembles in its general form the Colosseum in 
the Regent's Park, London. It was built by 
M. Agrippa, b.c. 27, and was dedicated to 
Mars and Venus. 

PAXTIIOUS, contr. PAXTHtS (Toe. Tan- 
thu), a priest of Apollo at Troy, and father 
of Euphorbus, who is therefore called Pan- 
thoides. Pythagoras is also called Pant h c 'rides 
because he maintained that his soul had in a 
previous state animated the body of Euphorbus. 
He is called by Virgil Othrgades, or son of 
Othryas. 

PANTICAPAEUM, a town in the Tauric 
Chersonesus, situated on a hill on the 
Cimmerian Bosporus, was founded by the 
Milesians, about b.c. 541, and became the 
residence of the Greek kings of the Bosporus. 

PAXYASIS, a native of Halicarnassus, and 
a relation, probably an uncle, of the historian 
Herodotus, flourished about b.c. 480, and 
was celebrated as an epic poet. 

PAPHLAGOXIA (-ae), a country of Asia 
Minor, bounded by Bithynia on the W., by j 
Pontus on the E., by Phrygia and afterwards 
by Galatia on the S., and by the Euxine on j 
the X. In the Trojan war the Paphlagonians 
are said to have come to the assistance of the 
Trojans, from the land of the Heneti, under 
the command of Pylaemenes. The Paphla- 
gonians were subdued by Croesus, and j 
afterwards formed part of the Persian empire. 
Under the Romans Paphlagonia formed part 
of the province of Galatia ; but it was made 
a separate province by Constantine. 

PAPHTJS (-i). (1) Son of Pygmalion, and 
founder of the city of the same name. — (2 < The 
name of 2 towns on the W. coast of Cyprus, 
called " OldPaphos" [Ha.XaiTa.cos) and " Xew 
Paphos," the former near the promontory 
Zephyrium, 10 stadia from the coast, the 
latter more inland, 60 stadia from the former. 
Old Paphos was the chief seat of the worship 
of Aphrodite (Yenus), who is said to have 
landed at this place after her birth among 
the waves, and who is hence frequently called 
the Paphian goddess (Paphia). Here she 
had a celebrated temple, the high priest of 
which exercised a kind of religious superin- 
tendence over the whole island. 

PAPIXIAXUS (-i), AEMILIUS, a celebrated 
Roman jurist, was praefectus praetorio, under 
the emperor Septimius Severus, and was put 
to death by Caracalla, a.d. 212. 

PAPIXIUS STATIUS. [Statits.] 

PAPIRIUS CARBO. [Carbo.] 

PAPmiUS CURSOR. [Cursor.] 

PARAETACEXE (-es), a mountainous 
region on the borders of Media and Persis. 

PAR AET OX IE M (-i) or AMMONIA (-ae), 



an important city on the X. coast of Africa, 
belonged politically to Egypt : hence this 
city on the W. and Pelusium on the E. are 
called " cornua Aegypti." The adjective 
Paraetonius is used by the poets in the general 
sense of Egyptian. 

PAR CAE. "Moirae.] 

PARIS (-idis). (1) Also called ALEX- 
AXDER (-dri), was the second son of Priam 
and Hecuba. Before his birth Hecuba 
dreamed that she had brought forth a fire- 
brand, the flames of which spread over the 
whole city. Accordingly as soon as the child 
was born, he was exposed on Mt. Ida, but 
was brought up by a shepherd, who gave him 
the name of Paris. When he had grown up, 
he distinguished himself as a valiant defender 
of the flocks and shepherds, and was hence 
called Alexander, or the defender of men. He 
succeeded in discovering his real origin, 
and was received by Priam as his son. He 
married Oenone, the daughter of the river 
god Cebren, but he soon deserted her for 
Helen. The tale runs that when Peleus and 
Thetis solemnised their nuptials, all the gods 
were invited to the marriage with the excep- 
tion of Eris (Discordia), or Strife. Enraged 
at her exclusion, the goddess threw a golden 
apple among the guests, with the inscription, 
" to the fairest." Thereupon Hera (Juno), 
Aphrodite (Yenus), and Athena (Minerva), 
each claimed the apple for herself. Zeus 
(Jupiter) ordered Hermes (Mercury) to take 
the goddesses to Mt. Ida, and to intrust the 
decision of the dispute to the shepherd Paris. 




Paris. (Aegina Marbles.) 



The goddesses accordingly appeared before 
him. Hera promised him the sovereignty of 



PARISH. 



301 



PARNASSUS. 



Asia, Athena renown in war, and Aphro- 
dite the fairest of women for his wife. Paris 
decided in favour of Aphrodite, and gave her 
the golden apple. This judgment called forth 
in Hera and Athena fierce hatred against I 
Troy. Under the protection of Aphrodite, I 
Paris now sailed to Greece, and was hospitably 
received in the palace of Menelaus at Sparta. 
Here he succeeded in carrying off Helen, the 
wife of Menelaus, who was the most beautiful j 
woman in the world. Hence arose the Trojan 
war. Before her marriage with Menelaus, 
she had been wooed by the noblest chiefs of 
all parts of Greece. Her former suitors now 
resolved to revenge her abduction, and sailed j 
against Troy. [Agamemnon.] Paris fought j 



with Menelaus before the walls of Troy, and 
was defeated, but was carried off by Aphro- 
dite. He is said to have killed Achilles, 
either by one of his arrows, or by treachery. 
[Achilles.] On the capture of Troy, Paris 
was wounded by Philoctetes with one of the 
arrows of Hercules, and then returned to his 
long abandoned wife Oenone. But as she 
refused to heal the wound, Paris died. Oenone 
quickly repented, and put an end to her own 
life. Paris is represented in works of art as 
a beautiful youth, without a beard, and with 
a Phrygian cap. — (2) The name of two cele- 
brated pantomimes, of whom the elder lived 
in the reign of the emperor Nero, and the 
younger in that of Domitian. 




Judgment of Paris. (From, a painted Tase.) 



PARISH. [Lxtetla Pabjsioeum.] 
PARIUM (4), a city of Mysia, on the 

Propontis, founded by a colony from Miletus 

and Paros. 

PARMA (-ae : Parma), a town in Gallia 
Cispadana, situated on a river of the same 
name, between Placentia and Mutina, origi- 
nally a town of the Boii, but made a Roman 
colony b.c. 183. It was celebrated for its 
wool. 

PARMEXIDES (-is), a distinguished Greek 
philosopher, was a native of Elea in Italy, 
and the founder of the Eleatic school of phi- 
losophy, in which he was succeeded by Zeno. 
He was born about B.C. 513, and visited 
Athens in 448, when he was 65 years of age. 

PARMENION (-onis), a distinguished Ma- 
cedonian general in the service of Philip and 
Alexander the Great. In Alexander's inva- 
sion of Asia, Parmenion was regarded as 
second in command, and is continually spoken 
of as the most attached of the king's friends. 



I But when Philotas, the son of Parmenion, 
' was accused in Drangiana (b.c. 330) of being 
priwy to a plot against the king's life, he not 
only confessed his own guilt, when put to the 
torture, but involved his father also in the 
plot. Whether the king really believed in 
the guilt of Parmenion or deemed his life a 
necessary sacrifice to policy after the execution 
of his son, he caused his aged friend to be as- 
sassinated in Media before he could receive 
the tidings of his son's death. 

PARNASSUS (-i), a range of mountains 
extending S.E. through Doris and Phocis, and 
terminating at the Corinthian gulf between 
: Cirrha and Anticyra. But the name was more 
' usually restricted to the highest part of the 
! range a few miles N. of Delphi. Its 2 highest 
' summits were called Tithorea and Lycorea ; 
hence Parnassus is frequently described by 
the poets as double-headed. The sides of 
Parnassus were well-wooded ; at its foot grew 
. myrtle, laurel and olive-trees, and higher up 



PARNES. 



302 



PARTHENON. 



firs ; and its summit was covered with snow 
during the greater part of the year. It con- 
tained numerous caves, glens, and romantic 
ravines. It is celebrated as one of the chief 
seats of Apollo and the Muses, and an in- 
spiring source of poetry and song. On Mt. 
Lycorea was the Corycian cave, from which 
the Muses are sometimes called the Corycian 
nymphs. Just above Delphi was the far- 
famed Castalian spring, which issued from 
between 2 cliffs, called Nauplia and JBy amplia. 
These cliffs are frequently called by the poets 
the summits of Parnassus, though they are 
in reality only small peaks at the base of the 
mountain. The mountain also was sacred to 
Dionysus (Bacchus), and on one of its summits 
the Thyades held their Bacchic revels. Be- 
tween Parnassus Proper and Mt. Cirphis was 
the valley of the Plistus, through which the 
sacred road ran from Delphi to Daulis and 
Stiris ; and at the point where the road 
branched off to these 2 places (called (rxitrrrt), 
Oedipus slew his father Laius. 

PARNES (-ethis), a mountain in the N.E. 
of Attica, was a continuation of Mt. Cithaeron, 
and formed part of the boundary between 
Boeotia and Attica. It was well wooded, 
abounded in game, and on its lower slopes 
produced excellent wine. 

PAROPAMISUS (-i), the part of the great 
chain of mountains in Central Asia, lying 
between the Sariphi M. (M. of Kohistan) on 
the W., andM. Imaus {Himalaya) on the E., 
or from about the sources of the river Margus 
on the W. to the point where the Indus breaks 
through the chain on the E. The Greeks 
sometimes called them the Indian Caucasus, 
a name which has come down to our times 
in the native form of Hindoo -Koosh. Its 
inhabitants were called Paromisadae or Pa- 
ropamisii. 

PAROS (-i), an island in the Aegean sea, 
one of the larger of the Cyclades, was situated 
S. of Delos, and W. of Naxos, being separated 
from the latter by a channel 5 or 6 miles 
wide. It is about 36 miles in circumference. 
It was inhabited by Ionians, and became so 
prosperous, even at an early period, as to 
send out colonies to Thasos and to Parium on 
the Propontis. In the first invasion of 
Greece by the generals of Darius, Paros sub- 
mitted to the Persians ; and after the battle of 
Marathon, Miltiades attempted to reduce the 
island, but failed in his attempt, and received 
a wound of which he died. [Miltiades.] 
After the defeat of Xerxes, Paros came under 
the supremacy of Athens, and shared the fate 
of the other Cyclades. The most celebrated 
production of Paros was its marble, which 
was extensively used by the ancient sculptors. 
It was chiefly obtained from a mountain 



called Marpessa. Paros was the birthplace 
of the poet Archilochus. — In Paros was dis- 
covered the celebrated inscription called the 
Parian Chronicle, which is now preserved at 
Oxford. In its perfect state it contained a 
chronological account of the principal events 
in Greek history from Cecrops, b.c. 1582 to 
the archonship of Diognetus, b.c 264. 

PARRHASIA (-ae), a district in the S. of 
Arcadia. The adjective Parrhasius is fre- 
quently used by the poets as equivalent to 
Arcadian. 

PARRHASIUS (4), one of the most cele- 
brated Greek painters, was a native of 
Ephesus, but practised his art chiefly at 
Athens. He flourished about b.c. 400. Re- 
specting the story of his contest with Zeuxis, 
see Zeuxis. 

PARTHENI. [Parthini.] 

PARTHENIUM (-i). (1) A town in Mysia, 
S. of Pergamum.. — (2) A promontory in the 
Chersonesus Taurica, on which stood a temple 
of the Tauric Artemis (Diana) from whom 
it derived its name. It was in this temple 
that human sacrifices were offered to the 
goddess. 

PARTHENIUS (-i). (1) Of Nicaea, a 
celebrated grammarian, who taught Virgil 
Greek. — (2) A mountain on the frontiers of 
Argolis and Arcadia. It was on this moun- 
tain that Telephus, the son of Hercules and 
Auge, was suckled by a hind ; and here also 
the god Pan appeared to Phidippides, the 
Athenian courier, shortly before the battle of 
Marathon. — (3) The chief river of Paphlagonia, 
flowing into the Euxine, and forming in the 
lower part of its course the boundary between 
Bithynia and Paphlagonia. 

PARTHENON (-onis : i. e r the virgin's 
chamber), the usual name of the temple of 
Athena (Minerva) Parthenos on the Acro- 
polis of Athens. It was erected under the 
administration of Pericles, and was dedicated 
b.c 438. Its architects were Ictinus and 
Callicrates, but all the works were under the 
superintendence of Phidias. It was built 
entirely of Pentelic marble : its dimensions 
were, 227 English feet long, 101 broad, and 
65 high : it was 50 feet longer than the 
edifice which preceded it. Its architecture 
was of the Doric order, and of the purest 
kind. It consisted of an oblong central 
building (the cello), surrounded on all sides 
by a peristyle of pillars. The cella was 
divided into 2 chambers of unequal size, the 
prodomus or pronaos and the opisthodomus or 
posticum ; the former, which was the larger, 
contained the statue of the goddess, and was 
the true sanctuary, the latter being probably 
used as a treasury and vestry. It was 
adorned, within and without, with colours 



PARTHENOPAEUS, 



303 



PATAU A. 



and gilding, and with sculptures which are 
regarded as the master-pieces of ancient art. 
(1.) TJie tympana of the pediments were filled 
with groups of detached colossal statues, 
those of the E. or principal front representing 
the birth of Athena, and those of the W. I 
front the contest between Athena and Posei- j 
don (Neptune) for the land of Attica. (2.) In 
the frieze of the entablature, the metopes \ 
were filled with sculptures in high relief, j 
representing subjects from the Attic my- 
thology, among which the battle of the 
Athenians with the Centaurs forms the 
subject of the 15 metopes from the S. side, 
which are now in the British Museum. | 
(3.) Along the top of the external wall of the j 
cella, under the ceiling of the peristyle, ran 
a frieze sculptured with a representation of 
the Panathenaic procession, in very low 
relief. A large number of the slabs of this 
frieze were brought to England by Lord j 
Elgin, with the 15 metopes just mentioned, 
and a considerable number of other fragments, 
including some of the most important, though I 
mutilated, statues from the pediments ; and 
the whole collection was purchased by the 
nation in 1816, and deposited in the British 
Museum. The worst of the injuries which 
the Parthenon has suffered from war and | 
pillage was inflicted in the siege of Athens 
by the Venetians in 16S7, when a bomb 
exploded in the Tery centre of the Parthenon, 
and threw down much of both the side walls. 
Its nuns are still, however, in sufficient pre- 
servation to give a good idea of the construc- 
tion of all its principal parts. 

PARTHENOPAEUS (-i), son of Meleager 
and Atalanta, and one of the 7 heroes who 
marched against Thebes. [Adrastus.] 

PARTHENOPE. "Neapolis.j 

PARTHIA, PARTHYAEA (-ae), PAR- 
THIENE (-es : Khorassan] , a country of Asia, 
to the S,E t of the Caspian, originally bounded 
on the N. by Hyrcania, on the E. by Aria, 
on the S, by Carina ilia, and on the W. by 
Media. The Parthians were a very warlike j 
people, and were especially celebrated as 
horse-archers. Their tactics became so 
celebrated as to pass into a proverb. Their 
mail-clad horsemen spread like a cloud round 
the hostile army, and poured in a shower of 
darts, and then evaded any closer conflict 
by a rapid flight, during which they still 
shot their arrows backwards upon the enemy. 
The Parthians were subject successively to 
the Persians and to the Greek kings of Syria ; 
but about b.c. 2 50 they revolted from the 
Seleucidae, under a chieftain named Arsaces, 
who founded an independent monarchy. Their 
empire extended over Asia from the Euphrates 
to the Indus, and from the Indian Ocean to 



the Paropamisus, or even to the Oxus. The 
history of their empire till its overthrow by 
the Persians in a.d. 226 is given under 
Arsaces. The Latin poets of the Augustan 
age use the names Parthi, Persae, and Medi 
indifferentlv. 

PARTHINI or PARTHENI f-orum), an 
Illyrian people in the neighbourhood of 
Dyrrhachium. 

PARYADRES, a mountain chain of Asia, 
connecting the Taurus and the mountains of 
Armenia, was considered as the boundary 
between Cappadocia and Armenia. 

PARYSATIS (-idis), daughter of Artaxerxes 
I. Longimanus, king of Persia, and wife of 
her own brother Darius Ochus, and mother of 
Artaxerxes Mnemon, and Cyrus. She sup- 
ported the latter in his rebellion against his 
brother Artaxerxes, b.c. 401. [Cyrus." She 
afterwards poisoned Statira, the wife of 
Artaxerxes, and induced the king to put 
Tissaphernes to death, whom she hated as 
having been the first to discover the designs 
of Cyrus to his brother. 

PASARGADA (-ae), or -AE (-arum), the 
older of the 2 capitals of Persis (the other 
and later being Persepolis), is said to have 
been founded by Cyrus the Great, on the 
spot where he gained his great victory over 
Astyages. The tomb of Cyrus stood here in 
the midst of a beautiful park. The exact 
site is doubtful. Most modern geographers 
identify it with Murghab, N.E. of Persepolis, 
where there are the remains of a great sepul- 
chral monument of the ancient Persians. 

PASIPHAE (-es), daughter of Helios (the 
Sun) and Perseis, wife of Minos, and mother 
of Androgeos, Ariadne, and Phaedra. Hence 
Phaedra is called Pdsiphaeia by Ovid. Pasi- 
phae was also the mother of the MInotaurus, 
respecting whom see p. 2 7 3. 

PASITHEA (-ae), or PASITHEE [-es), one 
of the Charites, or Graces, also called. Aglaia. 

PASITIGRIS (-Idis), a river rising on the 
confines of Media and Persis, and flowing 
through Susiana into the head of the Persian 
Gulf, after receiving the Eulaeus on its W. 
side. Some geographers make the Pasitigris 
a tributary of the Tigris. 

PASSARON (-onis), a town of Epirus in 
Molossia, and the ancient capital of the 
Molossian kings. 

PATALA, PATALENE. [Pattala, Pat- 

TALEXE.] 

PATARA (-ae), one of the chief cities of 
Lycia, situated on the coast a few miles E. 
of the mouth of the Xanthus. It was early 
colonised by Dorians from Crete, and became 
a chief seat of the worship of Apollo, who 
had here a very celebrated oracle, which 
uttered responses in the winter only. Hence 



PATAYIUM. 



304 



PAULUS. 



Apollo is called by Horace M Delius et Pata- 
reus ^Apollo." 

PATAYIUM (-i : Padua), an ancient town 
of the Yeneti in the N. of Italy, oh the 
Medoacus Minor, and on the road from 
Mutina to Altinum, said to have been 
founded by the Trojan Antenor. Under 
the Romans it was the most important city 
in the N. of Italy, and, by its commerce and 
manufactures (of which its woollen stuffs were 
the most celebrated), it attained great opu- 
lence. It is celebrated as the birth-place of 
the historian Livy. 

PATERCULUS (-i), C.YELLEIUS, a Roman 
historian, served under Tiberius in his cam- 
paigns in Germany in the reign of Augustus, 
and lived at least as late as a.d. 30, as he 
dedicated his history to M. Yinicius, who 
was consul in that year. This work is a 
brief compendium of Roman history, com- 
mencing with the destruction of Troy, and 
ending with a.d. 30. 

PATMOS (4), one of the islands called 
Sporades, in thelcarian Sea, celebrated as 
the place to which the Apostle John was 



banished, and in which he wrote the Apo- 
calypse. 

PATRAE (-arum : Patras), one of the 12 
cities of Achaia, situated W. of Rhium, near 
the opening of the Corinthian gulf. Augustus 
made it the chief city of Achaia. 

PATROCLUS (-i), sometimes PATROCLES 
(-is), son of Menoetius of Opus and Sthenele, 
and grandson of Actor and Aegina, whence 
he is called Actorides. Having involuntarily, 
committed murder while a boy, his father 
took him to Peleus at Phthia, where he be- 
came the intimate friend of Achilles. He 
accompanied the latter to the Trojan wars, 
but when his friend withdrew from the scene 
of action, Patroclus followed his example. 
But he afterwards obtained permission to 
lead the Myrmidons to the fight, when the 
Greeks were hard pressed by the Trojans. 
Achilles equipped him with his own armour 
and arms ; and Patroclus succeeded in 
driving the Trojans back to their walls, 
where he was slain by Hector. The desire 
of avenging the death of Patroclus led Achilles 
again into the field. [Achilles.] 




Patroclus. (Aegina Marbles.) 



PATTALA. JPattalene.] 

PATTALENE or PATALENE (-es), the 
name of the great delta formed by the 2 prin- 
cipal arms by which the Indus falls into the 
sea. At the apex of the delta stood the city 
Pattala or Patala, the Sanscrit patala, which 
means the W. country, and is applied to the 
W. part of N. India about the Indus, in con- 
tradistinction to the E. part about the Ganges. 

PATULCIUS. [JanxjsJ 

PAULINUS (-i), C. SUETONIUS, governor 
of Britain a.d. 59—62, during which time the 
Britons rose in rebellion under Boadicea. 
[Boadicea.] In 66 he was consul ; and after 
the death of Nero in 68 he was one of Otho's 
generals in the war against Yitellius. 

PAULUS (-i), the name of a celebrated pa- 
trician family in the Aemilia gens. (1) L. 



Aemilitjs Patjltjs, consul b.c. 219, when he 
conquered Demetrius of the island of Pharos, 
in the Adriatic, and compelled him to fly for 
refuge to Philip, king of Macedonia. He was 
consul a 2nd time in b.c 216, with C. Teren- 
tius Yarro. This was the year of the memo- 
rable defeat at Cannae. [Hannibal.] The 
battle was fought against the advice of Paulus, 
and he was one of the many distinguished 
Romans who perished in the engagement, 
refusing to fly from the field when a tribune 
of the soldiers offered him his horse. Hence 
we find in Horace, " animaeque magnae pro- 
digum Paulum superante Poeno." Paulus 
was a staunch adherent of the aristocracy, 
and was raised to the consulship by the latter 
party to counterbalance the influence of the 
plebeian Terentius Yarro. — (2) L. Aemilitjs 



PAULUS, 



PEGASIS. 



Pavlus, surnamed Macedonicus, son of the 
preceding-, consul for the first time b.c. 181, 
and a 2nd time in 168, when he brought the 
war against Perseus to a conclusion by the 
defeat of the Macedonian monarch near ; 
Pydna, on the 22d of June. [Perseus.] Be- 
fore leaving Greece, Paulus marched into ! 
Epirus, where, in accordance with a cruel 
command of the senate, he gave to his soldiers 
70 towns to he pillaged, because they had been 
in alliance with Perseus. He was censor with 
Q. Marcius Philippus, in 164, and died in 160, 
after a long- and tedious illness. The Adelphi 
of Terence was brought out at the funeral 
games exhibited in his honour. Two of his 
sons were adopted into other families, and 
are known in history by the names of Q. Fa- 
bins Maxinius and P. Scipio Africanus the 
younger. 

PAULUS (-i), JULIUS, one of the most 
distinguished of the Roman jurists, was 
praefectus praetorio under the emperor 
Alexander Severus. 

PAUSAXIAS (-ae). (1) Son of Cleoinbro- 
tus and nephew of Leonidas. Several writers 
incorrectly call him king ; but he was only 
agent for his cousin Plistarchns, the infant 
son of Leonidas. He commanded the allied 
forces of the Greeks at the battle of Plataea, 
n.c. 479, and subsequently captured Byzan- 
tium, which had been in the hands of the 
Persians. Dazzled by his success and repu- 
tation, he now aimed at becoming tyrant over 
the whole of Greece, with the assistance of the 
Persian king, who promised him his daughter 
in marriage. His conduct became so arro- 
gant, that all the allies, except the Pelopon- 
nesians and Aeginetans, voluntarily offered 
to transfer to the Athenians that pre-eminence 
of rank which Sparta had hitherto enjoyed. 
In this way the Athenian confederacy first 
took its rise. Reports of the conduct and 
designs of Pausanias having reached Sparta, 
he was recalled ; and the ephors accidentally 
obtained proofs of his treason. A man, who 
was charged with a letter to Persia, having 
his suspicions awakened by noticing that 
none of those sent on similar errands had re- 
turned, counterfeited the seal of Pausanias, 
and opened the letter, in which he found 
directions for his own death. He carried the 
letter to the ephors, who prepared to arrest 
Pausanias ; but he took refuge in the temple 
of Athena [Minerva). The ephors stripped 
off the roof of the temple and built up the ■ 
door ; the aged mother of Pausanias is said 
to have been among the first who laid a stone j 
for this purpose. AYhen he was on the point 
of expiring, the ephors took him out, lest his 
death should pollute the sanctuary. He died 
as soon as he sot outside, b.c. 470. — [2) Son 



of Plistoanax, and grandson of the preceding, 
was king of Sparta from B.c.408 to 394.— 
(3) A Macedonian youth of distinguished 
family. Having been shamefully treated by 
Attalus, he complained of the outrage to 
Philip ; but as Philip took no notice of his 
complaints, he directed his vengeance against 
the king himself, whom he murdered at the 
festival held at Aegae, b.c. 336. — (4) The tra- 
veller and geographer, perhaps a native of 
Lydia, lived under Antoninus Pius and M. 
Aurelius. His work entitled a Periegesis or 
Itinerary of Greece, is in 10 books, and con- 
tains a description of Attica and Megaris i.), 
Corinthia, Sicyonia, Phliasia, and Argolis (ii.), 
Laconica (iii.), Messenia (iv.), Elis (v. vi.), 
Achaea (vii.), Arcadia (viii.), Boeotia (ix.), 
Phocis (x.) . The work shows that Pausanias 
visited most of the places in these divisions 
of Greece, a fact which is clearly demonstrated 
by the minuteness and particularity of his 
descriptions. 

PAUSIAS (-ae), a native of Sicyon, one of 
the most distinguished Greek painters, was 
contemporary with Apelles, and flourished 
about b.c 360 — 330. 

PAUSILYPUM. [Neapous.j 

PAYOR (-oris), i.e., Eear, the attendant of 
Mars. 

PAX (Pacis), the goddess of peace, called 
IRENE by the Greeks. (Irene.; 

PEDASA (-orum) or PEDASUM [-i] . a very 
ancient city of Caria, originally a chief abode 
of the Leleges. 

PEDASUS f-i}, a town of Mysia, on the 
Satnioi's, mentioned several times by Homer. 

PEDIAXUS, ASCOXIUS. (Ascoxrrs.) 

PEDIUS (-i), Q., the great-nephew of the 
dictator C. Julius Caesar, being the grandson 
of Julia, Caesar's eldest sister. He served 
under Caesar in the civil war, and in Caesar's 
will was named one of his heirs. After the 
fall of the consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, at the 
battle of Mutina, in April, b.c 43, Octavius 
marched upon Rome at the head of an army, 
and in the month of August he was elected 
consul along with Pedius, who died towards 
the end of the year, shortly after the news of 
the proscription had reached Rome. 

PEDXELISSUS (-i), a city in the interior 
of Pisidia. 

PEDO ALBIXOYAXUS. [ Aleixovaxes.] 
PEDUM (-i), an ancient town of Latium, 

on the Yia Lavicana, which fell into decay at 

an early period. 

PEGAE. [Pagae.] 

PEGASIS (-ldis), i. e. sprung from Pegasus, 
was applied to the fountain Hippocrene, which 
was called forth by the hoof of Pegasus. The 
Muses are also called Pegasidc-s, because the 
fountain Hippocrene was sacred to them. 



PEGASUS, 



306 



PELEUS. 



Oenone is also called PSgasis, simply as a 
fountain nymph (from smyij). 

PEGASUS (-i), the winged horse, -which I 
sprang from the blood of Medusa, when her j 
head was struck off by Perseus. He was called i 
Pegasus, because he made his appearance near i 
the sources (s-^yati) of Oceanus. While drink- 
ing at the fountain of Pirene, on the Acrocorin- I 
thus, he was caught by Bellerophon with a 
golden bridle, which Athena (Minerva) had 
given the hero. With the assistance of Pe- 
gasus, Bellerophon conquered the Chimaera, , 
but endeavouring to ascend to heaven upon 
his winged horse, he fell down upon the earth, i 
[Bellerophon. J Pegasus, however, con- 
tinned his fight to heaven, where he dwelt 
among the stars. — Pegasus was also regarded I 
as the horse of the Muses, and in this con- 
nexion is more celebrated in modern times j 
than in antiquity ; for with the ancients he 
had no connexion with the Muses, except 
producing with his hoof the inspiring foun- 
tain Hippocrene. Pegasus is often repre- 
sented in ancient works of art along with 
Athena and Bellerophon. [See drawings on 
pp. 76, 110.] 




Pegasus. (Coin of Corinth, in British Museum.) j 

PELAGONIA (-ae). (1) A district and 
city in Macedonia, inhabited by the Pelagones, 
and situated S. of Paeonia upon the Erigon. j 
— (2) A district in Thessaly, situated W 9 of 
Olympus, and belonging to Perrhaebia. 

PELASGI (-orum), the earliest inhabitants 
of Greece who established the worship of 
the Dodonaean Zeus (Jupiter), Hephaestus \ 
(Vulcan), the Cabiri, and other divinities 
belonging to the earliest inhabitants of the j 
country. They claimed descent from a 
mythical hero Pelasgus, of whom we have | 
different accounts in the different parts of 
Greece inhabited by Pelasgians. The nation 
was widely spread over Greece and the 
islands of the Grecian archipelago ; and the j 
name of Pelasgia was given at one time to 
Greece. One of the most ancient traditions 
represented Pelasgus as a descendant of Pho- 
roneus, king of Argus ; and it was generally j 
believed by the Greeks that the Pelasgi spread 
from Argos to the other countries of Greece. 
Arcadia, Attica, Epirus, and Thessaly, were, 
in addition to Argos, some of the principal 



seats of the Pelasgi. They were also found 
on the coasts of Asia Minor, and according 
to some writers in Italy as well. Of the 
language, habits, and civilisation of this 
people we possess no certain knowledge. 
Herodotus says they spoke a barbarous 
language, that is, a language not Greek ; but 
from the facility with which the Greek and 
Pelasgic languages coalesced in all parts of 
Greece, and from the fact that the Athenians 
and Arcadians are said to have been of pure 
Pelasgic origin, it is probable that the 2 
languages had a close affinity. The Pelasgi 
are further said to have been an agricultural 
people, and to have possessed a considerable 
knowledge of the useful arts. The most 
ancient architectural remains of Greece, such 
as the treasury or tomb of Athens at Mycenae, 
are ascribed to the Pelasgians, and are 
cited as specimens of Pelasgian architecture, 
though there is no positive authority for 
these statements. 

PELASGIOTIS, a district in Thessaly, 
between Hestiaeotis and Magnesia. [Thes- 

SALIA, ] 

PELASGUS. [Pelasgi.] 

PELETHKOXIUM (-i), a mountainous 
district in Thessaly, part of Mi. Pelion, 
where the Lapithae dwelt. 

PELEUS {gen. -eos or -el, aec. Pelea, roc, 
Peleu, all. Peleo), son of Aeacus andEndeis, 
and king of the Myrmidons at Phthia in 
Thessaly. Having, in conjunction with his 
brother Telamon, murdered his half-brother 
Phocus, he was expelled by Aeacus from 
Aegina, and went to Phthia in Thessaly. 
Here he was purified from the murder by 
Eurytion, the son of Actor, who gave Peleus 
his daughter Antigone in marriage, and a 
third part of his kingdom. Peleus accom- 
panied Eurytion to the Calydonian hunt ; but 
having involuntarily killed his father-in-law 
with his spear, he became a wanderer .a 
second time. He now took refuge at Iolcus, 
where he was again purified by Acastus, the 
king of the place. Here he was falsely ac- 
cused by Astydamia, the wife of Acastus, and 
in consequence nearly perished on Mt. Pelion. 
[Acastus.] While on Mt. Pelion, Peleus 
married the Nereid Thetis. She was destined 
to marry a mortal ; but having the power, 
like Proteus, of assuming any form she pleased, 
she endeavoured in this way to escape from 
Peleus. The latter, however, previously 
taught by Chiron, held the goddess fast till 
she promised to marry him. The gods took 
part in the marriage solemnity ; and Eris or 
Strife was the only goddess who was not 
invited to the nuptials. By Thetis Peleus 
became the father of Achilles. Peleus was too 
old to accompany Achilles against Troy ; he 



PELIADES. 



307 



PELOPONNESUS. 



remained at home and survived the death of 
his son. 




Peleus and Thetis. (From a painted Vase.) 



PELIADES. [Pelias.] 

PELIAS (-ae), son of Poseidon (Neptune) 
and Tyro, a daughter of Salmoneus, and 
twin-brother of Neleus. The twins were 
exposed by their mother, but they were pre- 
served and reared by some countrymen. 
They subsequently learnt their parentage ; 
and after the death of Cretheus, king of 
Iolcus, who had married their mother, they 
seized the throne of Iolcus, to the exclusion 
of Aeson, the son of Cretheus and Tyro. 
Pelias soon afterwards expelled his own 
brother Neleus, and thus became sole ruler 
of Iolcus. After Pelias had long reigned 
there, Jason, the son of Aeson, came to 
Iolcus and claimed the kingdom as his right. 
In order to get rid of him, Pelias sent him 
to Colchis to fetch the golden fleece. Hence 
arose the celebrated expedition of the Argo- 
nauts, After the return of Jason, Pelias was 
cut to pieces and boiled by his own daughters 
(the Pettades) , who had been told by Medea 
that in this manner they might restore their 
father to vigour and youth. His son Acastus 
held funeral games in his honour at Iolcus, 
and expelled Jason and Medea from the 
country. [Jason ; Medea ; Argonaut ae.] 
Among the daughters of Pelias, was Alcestis, 
the wife of Admetus. 

PELIDES (-ae), the son of Peleus, i.e. 
Achilles. 

PELIGNI (-orum), a brave and warlike 
people of Sabine origin in central Italy, 
bounded by the Marsi, the Marrucini, the 
Samnites, and the Frentani. They took an 
active part in the Social war (90 — 89), and 
their chief town Cornnium was destined by 



the allies to be the new capital of Italy in 
place of Rome. 

PELION, more rarely PELIOS (-ii), a 
lofty range of mountains in Thessaly in the 
district of Magnesia, situated between the 
lake Boebeis and the Pagasaean gulf. Its sides 
were covered with wood, and on its summit 
was a temple of Zeus (Jupiter) Actaeus. Mt. 
Pelion was celebrated in mythology. Near 
its summit was the cave of the Centaur 
Chiron. The giants in their war with the 
gods are said to have attempted to heap Ossa 
and Olympus on Pelion, or Pelion and Ossa on 
Olympus, in order to scale heaven. On Pelion 
the timber was felled with which the ship 
Argo was built. 

PELLA (-ae) . (1) An ancient town of Mace- 
donia in the district Bottiaea, situated upon 
a lake formed by the river Lydias. Philip 
made it his residence and, the capital of the 
Macedonian monarchy. It was the birth- 
place of Alexander the Great. Hence the 
poets give the surname of PeUaea to Alex- 
andria in Egypt, because it was founded by 
Alexander the Great, and also use the word 
in a general sense as equivalent to Egyptian. 
— (2) A city of Palestine, E. of the Jordan, in 
Peraea. It was the place of refuge of the 
Christians who fled from Jerusalem before its 
capture by the Romans. 

PELLENE (-es), the most E.-ly of the 12 
cities of Achaia, near the frontiers of Sicyonia, 
and situated on a hill 60 stadia from the 
city. The inhabitants of the peninsula of 
Pallene in Macedonia professed to be de- 
scended from the Pellenaeans in Achaia, who 
were shipwrecked on the Macedonian coast 
on their re_turn from Troy. 

PELOPEA or PELOPIA (-ae), daughter of 
Thyestes, and mother of Aegisthus. [ Aegis- 
thes.] 

PELOPIDAS (-ae), a celebrated Theban 
general, and an intimate friend of Epaini, 
nondas. He took a leading part in expelling 
the Spartans from Thebes, b.c. 379 ; and 
from this time until his death there was not 
a year in which he was not entrusted with 
some important command, He was slain in 
battle at Cynoscephalae in Thessaly, fighting 
against Alexander of Pherae, b.c. 364. 

PELOPONNESUS (-i : Morea), the S. part 
of Greece or the peninsula, which was con- 
nected with Hellas proper by the isthmus 
of Corinth. It is said to have derived its 
name Peloponnesus or the " island of Pelops," 
from the mythical Pelops. [Pelops.] This 
name does not occur in Homer. In his time 
the peninsula was sometimes called Apia, 
from Apis, son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, 
and sometimes Argos ; which names were 
given to it on account of Argos being the 
x 2 



PELOPS, 



303 



PELOPS, 



chief power in Peloponnesus at that period. 
On the E. and S. there are 3 great gulfs, 
the Argolic, Laconian, and Messenian. The 
ancients compared the shape of the country 
to the leaf of a plane tree ; and its modern 
name, the Jforea, which first occurs in the 
12th century of the Christian era, was given 
it on account of its resemblance to a mul- I 
berry-leaf. Peloponnesus was divided into 
various provinces, all of which were hounded 
on one side by the sea, with the exception of j 
Arcadia, which was in the centre of the 
country. These provinces were Achaia in 
the X., Elis in the \V., Messenia in the \V. : 
and S., Laconia in the S. and E.. and Co- 
ejxthia in the E. and X. An account of the I 
geography of the peninsula is given under ! 
these names. The area of Peloponnesus is 
computed to be 7 7 79 English miles; and 
it probably contained a population of upwards | 
of a million in the flourishing period of Greek 
history. — Peloponnesus was originally in- 
habited by Peiasgians. Subsequently the 
Achaeans, who belonged to the Aeolic race, I 
settled in the E. and S. parts of the penin- 
sula, in Argolis, Laconia, and Messenia ; and j 
the Ionians in the N. part, in Achaia ; while 
the remains of the original inhabitants of the 
country, the Peiasgians, collected chiefly in 
the central part, in Arcadia. Eighty years 
after the Trojan war, according to mythical j 
chronology, the Dorians, under the conduct j 
of the Heraciidae, invaded and conquered j 
Peloponnesus, and established Doric states in 
Argolis, Laconia, and Messenia, from whence 
they extended their power over Corinth, 
Sicyon, and Megara. Part of the Achaean 
population remained in these provinces as 
tributary subjects to the Dorians under the | 
name of Perioeci ; while others of the 
Achaeans passed over to the N. of Pelopon- | 
nesus, expelled the Ionians, and settled in 
this part of the country, which was called 
after them Achaia. The Aetolians, who had 
invaded Peloponnesus along with the Dorians, j 
settled in Elis and became intermingled with 
the original inhabitants. The peninsula re- 
mained under Doric influence during the 
most important period of Greek history, and j 
opposed to the great Ionic city of Athens, i 
After the conquest of Messenia by the Spar- 1 
tans, it was under the supremacy of Sparta, ■ 
till the overthrow of the power of the latter j 
by the Thebans at the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 
371, w 

PELOPS (-opis), grandson of Zeus (Ju- | 
piter), and son of Tantalus, king of Phrygia. j 
Being expelled from Phrygia, he came to 
Elis, where he married Hippodamia, daughter 
of Oenomaus, whom he succeeded on the 
rhrone, By means of the wealth he brought 



with him, his influence became so great in 
the peninsula that it was called after him 
"the island of Pelops." The legends about 
Pelops consist mainly of the story of his 
being cut to pieces and boiled, of his con- 
test with Oenomaus and Hippodamia, and of 
his relation to his sons. I. Pelops cut to 
pieces and boiled. Tantalus, the favourite of 
the gods, once invited them to a repast, and 
on that occasion killed his own son, and 
having boiled him set the flesh before them 
that they might eat it. But the immortal 
gods, knowing what it was, did not touch it ; 
Demeter (Ceres) alone, being absorbed by 
grief for her lost daughter, consumed the 
shoulder. Hereupon the gods ordered Hermes 
(Mercury) to put the limbs of Pelops into a 
cauldron, and thereby "restore him to life. 
^Yhen the process was over, Clotho took him 
out of the cauldron, and as the shoulder con- 
sumed by Demeter was wanting, the goddess 
supplied its place by one made of ivory ; his 
descendants (the Pelopidae), as a mark of their 
origin, were believed to have one shoulder as 
white as ivory. 2. Contest with Oenomaus 
and Hippodamia. An oracle having declared 
to Oenomaus, king of Pisa in Elis, that he 
should be killed by his son-in-law, he de- 
clared that he would bestow the hand of 
his daughter Hippodamia upon the man 
who should conquer him in the chariot-race, 
but that whoever was conquered should suffer 
death. This he did, because his horses were 
swifter than those of any other mortal. He 
had overtaken and slain many a suitor, when 
Pelops came to Pisa. Pelops bribed Myrtilus, 
the charioteer of Oenomaus, by the promise 
of half the kingdom if he would assist him in 
conquering his master. Myrtilus agreed, and 
took out the linen-pins of the chariot of 
Oenomaus. In the race the chariot of Oeno- 
maus broke down, and he was thrown out 
and killed. Thus Hippodamia became the 
wife of Pelops. But as Pelops had now gained 
his object, he was unwilling to keep faith 
with Myrtilus ; and accordingly as they were 
driving along a cliff he threw Myrtilus into 
the sea. As Myrtilus sank, he cursed Pelops 
and his whole race. Pelops returned with Hip- 
podamia to Pisa in Elis, and soon made him- 
self master of Olympia, where he restored the 
Olympian games with greater splendour than 
ever. 3. The sons of Pelops. Chrysippus was the 
favourite of his father, and was in consequence 
envied by his brothers. The two eldest among 
them, Atreus and Thyestes, with the con- 
nivance of Hippodamia, accordingly murdered 
Chrysippus, and threw his body into a well. 
Pelops, who suspected his sons of the murder, 
expelled them from the country. Pelops, 
after his death, was honoured at Olympia 



PELORIS, 



309 



PENELOPE. 



above all other heroes. The name of Pelops I 
was so celebrated that it was constantly used 
by the poets in connexion with his descend- 
ants and the cities they inhabited. Hence we 
find Atreus, the son of Pelops, called Pelopetus 
At reus, and Agamemnon, the grandson, or 
great-grandson of Atreus, called Pelopetus 
Agamemnon. In the same way Iphigenla, 
the daughter of Agamemnon, and Hermione, 
the wife of Menelaus, are each called by 
Ovid Pelopeia virgo. Virgil uses the phrase 
Pelopea moenia to signify the cities in Pelo- 
ponnesus, which Pelops and his descendants 
ruled over ; and in like manner Mycenae is 
called by Ovid Pelope'iades Mycenae. 

PELOKIS (-idis), PELORIAS (-adis), or 
PELORUS (-i : C. Faro), the N.E. point of 
Sicily, and one of the 3 promontories which 
formed the triangular figure of the island. 
According to the usual story it derived its 
name from Pelorus, the pilot of Hannibal's 
ship ; but the name was more ancient than 
Hannibal's time, being mentioned by Thucy- 
dides. 

PELTAE (-arum), an ancient and flourish- 
ing city in the N. of Phrygia. 

PELUSIUM (-i ; O.T. Sin. : both names are 
derived from nouns meaning m ud) , a celebrated 
city of Lower Egypt, standing on the E. side 
of the E.-most mouth of the Nile, which was 
called after it the Pelusiac mouth, 20 stadia 
(2 geog. miles) from the sea, in the midst of 
morasses, from which it obtained its name. 
As the key of Egypt on the N.E., and the 
frontier city towards Syria and Arabia, it 
was strongly fortified, and was the scene of 
many battles and sieges. It was the birth- 
place of_the geographer Ptolemaeus. 

PENATES (-um), the household gods of 
the Romans, both those of a private family 
and of the state, as the great family of citi- 
zens. Hence we have to distinguish between 
private and public Penates. The name is 
connected with perms; and the images of 
these gods were kept in the penetralia, or the 
central part of the house. The Lares were 
included among the Penates, and both names 
are often used synonymously. The Lares, 
however, though included in the Penates, 
were not the only Penates ; for each family 
had usually no more than one Lar, whereas 
the Penates are always spoken of in the 
plural. Most ancient writers believed that 
the Penates of the state were brought by 
Aeneas from Troy into Italy, and were pre- 
served first at Lavinium, afterwards at Alba 
Longa, and finally at Rome. The private 
Penates had their place at the hearth of every 
house, and the table also was sacred to them. 
On the hearth a perpetual fire was kept up 
in their honour, and the table always con- | 



tained the salt-cellar and the firstlings of 
fruit for these divinities. 




Penates. (From the Vatican TirgiL) 



PENEIS (-idis), that is, Daphne, daughter 
of the river-god Peneus. 

PENELOPE (-es), daughter of Icarius and 
Periboea of Sparta, married Ulysses, king of 
Ithaca. [Respecting her marriage, see Ica- 
itrus, No. 2.] By Ulysses she had an only 
child, Telemachus, who was an infant when 
her husband sailed against Troy. During 
the long absence of' Ulysses she was be- 
leaguered by numerous and importunate 
suitors, whom she deceived by declaring that 
she must finish a large robe which she was 
making for Laertes, her aged father-in-law, 
before she could make up her mind. During 
the daytime she accordingly worked at the 
robe, and in the night she undid the work of 
the day. , By this means she succeeded in 
putting off the suitors. But at length her 
stratagem was betrayed by her servants ; 
and when, in consequence, the faithful Pene- 
lope was pressed more and more by the 
impatient suitors, Ulysses at length arrived 
in Ithaca, after an absence of 20 years. 
Having recognised her husband by several 
signs, she heartily welcomed him, and the 
days of her grief and sorrow were at an end. 
[Ulysses.] "While Homer describes Pene- 
lope as a chaste and faithful wife, some 
writers charge her with being the reverse, 
and relate that she became the mother of 
Pan by Hermes or by all the suitors. They 
add that Ulysses repudiated her when he re- 
turned ; whereupon she went to Sparta, and 
thence to Mantinea. According to another 



PENItJS, 



310 



PERAEA. 



tradition, she married Telegonus, after he PENEUS (4). (1) The chief river of 
had killed his father Ulysses. 1 Thessaly, rising in Mt. Pindus, and after 




receiving many affluents, forcing its way 
through the vale of Terape "between Mt& 
Ossa and Olympus into the sea. [Texpe.] 
As a god Peneus was a son of Oceanus and 
Tethys, and father of Daphne and Cyrene. — 
(2) A river of Elis, rising on the frontiers of 
Arcadia, and flowing into the Ionian sea. 

PENITJS (-i), a little river of Pontus, 
falling into the Euxine. 

PENNINAE ALPES. [Alpes." 

PENTAPOLIS (-is), the name for any 
association of 5 cities, was applied specifically 
to the 5 chief cities of Cyrenai'ca, in X. 
Africa, Cyrene, Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolemai's, 
and Apollonia. 

PEXTELICUS (4), a mountain in Attica, 
celebrated for its marble, is a branch of Mt. 
Parnes, from which it runs in a S.E.4y 
direction between Athens and Marathon to 
the coast. 

PEXTHESILEA (-ae), daughter of Ares 
(Mars) and Otrera, and queen of the Ama- 
zons. After the death of Hector, she came 
to the assistance of the Trojans, but was 
slain by Achilles, who mourned over the 
dying queen on account of her beauty, youth, 
and valour. Thersites ridiculed the grief of 
Achilles, and was in consequence killed by 
the hero. Thereupon Diomedes, a relative 
of Thersites, threw the body of Penthesilea 
into the river Scamander ; but, according 



to others, Achilles himself buried it on the 
banks of the Xanthus. 

PEXTHEUS (-eos or -ei ; acc. -eaor -eum), 
son of Echion and Agave, the daughter of 
Cadmus. He succeeded Cadmus as king of 
Thebes ; and having resisted the introduction 
of the worship of Dionysus (Bacchus) into his 
kingdom, he was driven mad by the god, his 
palace was hurled to the ground, and he him- 
self was torn to pieces by his own mother and 
her two sisters, Ino and Autonoe, who in 
their Bacchic frenzy believed him to be a 
wild beast. The place where Pentheus 
suffered death is said to have been Mt. Ci- 
thaeron or Mt. Parnassus. It is related that 
Pentheus got upon a tree, for the purpose of 
witnessing in secret the revelry of the Bacchic 
women, but on being discovered by them 
J was torn to pieces. 

| PEXTEI (-oruni), one of the most impor- 
1 taut of the tribes in Samnium. Their chief 
town was Boviakcm. 

PEPABETHUS (4), a small island in the 
! Aegaean sea, off the coast of Thessaly, and E. 
| of ^Halonesus. It produced a considerable 
! quantity of_wine. 

PEPHBEDO. [Geaeae.] 
PERAEA (-ae), i.e., the country on the 
opposite side, a general name for any district 
belonging to or closely connected with a 
country, from the main part of which it was 



PERCOTE. 



311 



PERICLES. 



separated by a sea or river. (1) The part of 
Palestine E. of the Jordan. — (2) Peraea 
Rhodiorum, a district in the S. of Caria, 
opposite to the island of Rhodes, and subject 
to the Rhodians, extending from Mt. Phoenix 
on the W. to the frontier of Lycia on the E. 
■ — (3) A city on the W. coast of Mysia, near 
Adramyttium, one of the colonies of the 
Mytilenaeans. 

PERCOTE (-es), a very ancient city of 
Mysia, between Abydos and Lampsacns, near 
the Hellespont. 

PERDICCAS (-ae). (1) The founder of 
the Macedonian monarchy, according to 
Herodotus, though later writers represent 
Caranus as the 1st king of Macedonia, and 
make Perdiccas only the 4th. [Ca&antjs.] 
Perdiccas and his two brothers, Gauanes and 
Aeropus, are said to have come from Argos, 
and settled near Mt. Bermius, from whence 
they subdued the rest of Macedonia. — (2) 
King of Macedonia, from about b.c. 454 to 
413, son and successor of Alexander I. In 
the Peloponnesian war we find him at one 
time in alliance with the Spartans, and at 
another time with the Athenians ; and it is 
evident that he joined one or other of the 
belligerent parties, according to the dictates 
of his own interest at the moment. — (3) King 
of Macedonia, b.c. 364 — 359, second son of 
Amyntas II., obtained the throne by the 
assassination of the usurper Ptolemy of 
Alorus. He fell in battle against the Illy- 
rians, — (4) One of the most distinguished of 
the generals of Alexander the Great. The 
king on his death-bed is said to have taken the 
royal signet ring from his finger and to have 
given it to Perdiccas. After the death of the 
king (323), Perdiccas had the chief authority 
entrusted to him under the command of the 
new king Arrhidaeus. His ambitious schemes 
induced Antipater, Craterus, and Ptolemy, to 
unite in a league, and declare open war against 
Perdiccas. Thereupon Perdiccas marched 
into Egypt against Ptolemy, but having been 
defeated in battle, he was slain by his own 
troops, b.c. 321. 

PERDIX (-Tcis), the nephew of Daedalus, 
and the inventor of the saw, the chisel, the 
compasses, &c. His skill excited the jealousy 
of Daedalus, who threw him headlong from 
the temple of Athena (Minerva), on the 
Acropolis, but the goddess caught him in his 
fall, and changed him into the bird which 
was named after him, perdix, the partridge. 

PERENNA, ANNA. [Anna.] 

PERGA (-ae), an ancient and important 
city of Pamphylia, lay a little inland, X.E. 
of Attalia, between the rivers Catarrhactes 
and Oestrus, 60 stadia (6 geog. miles) from 
the mouth of the former. It was a celebrated 



seat of the worship of Artemis (Diana). It 
was the first place in Asia Minor visited by 
the apostle Paul on his first missionary 
journey. 

PERGAMA and PERGAMIA. [Perga- 

MOX, Xo. 1.] 

PERGAMUM or PERGAMUS (-i). The 
former by far the most usual form in the 
classical writers, though the latter is more 
common in English, probably on account of 
its use in our version of the Bible, Rev. ii. 
13. The word is significant, connected with 
rrvoyo?^ a tower. (1) The citadel of Troy, and 
used poetically for Troy itself : the poets also 
use the forms Perga3ia f-orum) and Per- 
gamia (-ae). — (2) A celebrated city of Asia 
Minor, the capital of the kingdom of Per- 
gamus, and afterwards of the Roman pro- 
vince of Asia, was situated in the district of 
S. Mysia called Teuthrania, on the X. bank 
of the river Cai'cus, about twenty miles from 
the sea. The kingdom of Pergamus was 
founded about b.c. 2 SO by Philetaerus, who 
had been entrusted by Lysimachus with the 
command of the city. The successive kings 
of Pergamus were : Philetaerus, b.c. 280 
— 263 ; Ei-menes L, 263—241 ; Attaeus I., 
241—197; Ecmexes II., 197—159; Atta- 
lcs II. Philadelphxs, 159 — 138 ; Attalus 
III. Philojmetor, 138 — 133. The kingdom 
| reached its greatest extent after the defeat of 
j Antiochus the Great by the Romans, in b.c. 

190, when the Romans bestowed upon 
I Eumenes II. the whole of Mysia, Lydia, both 
I Phrygias, Lycaonia, Pisidia and Pamphylia. 
I It was under the same king that the cele- 
j brated library was founded at Pergamus, 
which for a long time rivalled that of Alex- 
| andria, and the formation of which occasioned 
the invention of parchment, Oharta Perga- 
I mena. On the death of Attalus III. in b.c. 

133, the kingdom, by a bequest in his will, 
; passed to the Romans. The city was an 
j early seat of Christianity, and is one of the 
' Seven Churches of Asia, to which the Apoca- 
! lyptic epistles are addressed. Among the 
I celebrated natives of the city were the rheto- 
rician Apollodorus and the physician Galen. 
PERGE. [Perga.] 

PERIAXDER (-dri), son of Cypselus, 
) whom he succeeded as tyrant of Corinth, b.c. 
625, and reigned 40 years, to b.c. 585. His 
rule was mild and beneficent at first, but 
afterwards became oppressive. He was a 
j patron of literature and philosophy ; and 
Arion and Anacharsis were in favour at his 
court. He was very commonly reckoned 
', among the Seven Sages. 

PERICLES (-is or -i), the greatest of 
| Athenian statesmen, was the son of Xanthip- 
I pus, and Agariste, both of whom belonged to 



PERICLES. 



312 



PEKSAE. 



the noblest families of Athens, The fortune 
of his parents procured for him a careful 
education, and he received instruction from 
Damon, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. In 
b.c. 469, Pericles began to take part in public 
affairs, 40 rears before his death, and was 
soon regarded as the head of the more demo- 
cratic al part in the state, in opposition to 
Cinion. It was at his instigation that his 
friend Ephialtes proposed in 461 the measure 
by which the Areopagus was deprived of 
those functions which rendered it formidable 
to the democratical party. This success was 
followed by the ostracism of Cinion. Pericles 
was distinguished as a general as well as a 
statesman, and frequently commanded the 
Athenian armies in their wars with the 
neighbouring states. In 44S he led the army 
which assisted the Phocians in the Sacred 
War ; and in 445 he rendered the most signal 
service to the state by recovering the island 
of Euboea, which had revolted from Athens. 
After the death of Cinion in 449, the aristo- 
cratical party was headed by Thucydides, the 
son of Melesias ; but on the ostracism of the 
latter in 444, Pericles was left without a rival, 
and throughout the remainder of his political 
course no one appeared to contest his supre- 
macy. The next important event in which 
Pericles was engaged was the war against 
Samos, which had revolted from Athens, and 
which he subdued after an arduous cam- 
paign. 440. The poet Sophocles was one of 
the generals who fought with Pericles against 
Samos. For the next 10 years till the out- 
break of the Peloponnesian war, the Athenians 
were not engaged in any considerable military 
operations. Pericles employed this time of 
peace in adorning Athens with public buildings, 
which made this city the wonder and admi- 
ration of Greece. [Phidias.] The enemies 
of Pericles made many attempts to ruin his 
reputation, but failing in these, they attacked 
him through his friends. His friends Phidias 
and Anaxagoras, and his mistress Aspasia 
were all accused before the people. Phidias 
was condemned and cast into prison [Phi- 
bias] ; Anaxagoras was also sentenced to pay 
a fine and quit Athens [Asaxagobas] ; and 
Aspasia was only acquitted through the en- 
treaties and tears of Pericles. — The Pelopon- : 
nesian war has been falsely ascribed to the 
ambitious schemes of Pericles. It is true 
that he counselled the Athenians not to yield 
to the demands of the Lacedaemonians ; but 
he did this because he saw that war was j 
inevitable ; and that as long as Athens 
retained the great power which she then 
possessed, Sparta would never rest contented. 
On the outbreak of the war in 431 a Pelo- 
ponnesian army under Archidamus invaded , 



Attica , and upon the advice of Pericles, the 
Athenians conveyed their property into the 
city, and allowed the Peloponnesians to deso- 
late Attica without opposition. >~ext year 
(430) when the Peloponnesians again invaded 
Attica, Pericles pursued the same policy as 
before. In this summer the plague made its 
appearance in Athens. It carried off his two 
sons Xanthippus and Paralus, and most of 
his intimate friends. In the autumn of 
429 Pericles himself died of a lingering sick- 
j ness. He left no legitimate children. His 
son Pericles, by Aspasia, was one of the 
generals at the battle of Arginusae, and was 
j put to death by the Athenians with the other 
generals, b.c. 406. 

PEEICLYMEXUS (-i), one of the Argo- 
nauts, son of Xeleus, and brother of Xestor. 
PEEILLES. [Phalabis.1 
PEEIXTHES [-i] . an important town of 
; Thrace on the Propontis, and founded by the 
Samians about b.c, 559, situated 22 miles W. 
of Selymbria on a small peninsula. At a later 
. time, it was called Heraclea, and sometimes 
! Heraclea Thraciae or Heraclea Perudhus. 
PERIPHAS (-antis). (1) A king of Attica. 
— 2 One of the Lapithae. — '3) A companion 
■ of Pyrrhus at the siege of Troy. 

PEBMESSUS (-i), a river in Boeotia, 
descending froniMt. Helicon, and faHing into 
j'the lake_Copais near Haliartus. 

PERO (-onis), daughter of Xeleus and 
Chloris, and wife of Bias. 

PEBPEREXA (-ae), a small town of Mysia, 
S. of Adramyttium, 

PEBPEBX A or PEBPEXXA [-ae : the 
' former is the preferable form). 1) M., 
consul b.c, 130, when he defeated Aristonicus 
in Asia, and took him prisoner. — 2) M. 
Perpebxa Vexto, son of the last, joined the 
Marian party in the civil war, and was raised 
to the praetor ship. He afterwards crossed 
over into Spain and fought under Sertorius 
for some years; but .being jealous of the 
latter, Perperna and his friends assassinated 
Sertorius at a banquet in 72. His death soon 
brought the war to a close. Perperna was 
defeated by Pompey, was taken prisoner, and 
was put to death. 

PEEEHAEBI (-5rum), a powerful and 
warlike Pelasgic people in the X. of Thessaly. 
Homer places the Perrhaebi in the neigh- 
bourhood of the Thessalian Dodona and the 
river Titarosius ; and at a later time the name 
of Perrhaebia was applied to the district 
bounded by Macedonia and the Cambunian 
mountains on the N., by Pindus on the W., 
by the Peneus on the S. and S,E., and by the 
Peneus and Ossa on the E. The Perrhaebi 
were members of the Amphictyonic league. 
PEESAE. [Pbbses.] 



PERSE. 



313 



PERSEPOLLS. 



PERSE (-es), or PERSA (-ae), daughter of 
Oceanus, and wife of Helios (the Sun), hy 
whom she became the mother of Aeetes, 
Circe, Pasiphae and Perses. 

PERSEIS (-idis), a name given to Hecate, 
as the daughter of Perses by Asteria. 

^PERSEPHONE (-es), called PROSER- 
PINA (-ae) by the Romans, a goddess, 
daughter of Zeus (Jupiter), and Demeter | 
(Ceres). In Attica she was worshipped j 
under the name of C6re (Ke«-/j) } that is, the 
Daughter, namely, of Demeter ; and the two 
were frequently called The Mother and the 
Daughter. Homer describes her as the wife 
of Hades (Pluto), and the formidable, vene- 
rable, and majestic queen of the Shades, who | 
rules over the souls of the dead, along with j 
her husband. Hence she is called by later | 
writers Juno Inferna, Avema, and Stygia ; 
and the Erinnyes (Furies), are said to have j 
been her daughters by Pluto. The story of 
her being carried off by Hades, the wander- 
ings of her mother in search of her, and the 
worship of the 2 goddesses in Attica at the 
festival of the Eleusinia, are related under 
Demeter. Persephone is usually represented I 
in works of art with the grave and severe 
character of the Juno of the lower world. 



PERSEPOLIS (-is), the capital of Persia 
and of the Persian empire. It appears how- 
ever to have been seldom used as the royal 
residence. Neither Herodotus, Xenophon, 
Ctesias, nor the sacred writers during the 
Persian period, mention it at all ; though 
they often speak of Babylon, Susa, and Ecba- 
tana, as the capitals of the empire. It is 
only from the Greek writers after the Mace- 
donian conquest that we learn its rank in the 
empire, which appears to have consisted 
chiefly in its being one of the 2 burial places 
of the kings (the other being Pasargada), 
and also a royal treasury ; for Alexander 
found in the palace immense riches, which 
were said to have accumulated from the time 
of Cyrus. It preserved its splendour till 
after the Macedonian conquest, when it was 
burnt ; Alexander, as the story goes, setting 
fire to the palace with his own hand, at the 
end of a revel, by the instigation of the 
courtesan Thai's, b.c. 331. It was not, how- 
ever, so entirely destroyed as some historians 
represent. It appears frequently in subse- 
quent history, both ancient and medieval. 
It is now deserted, but its ruins are con- 
siderable. It was situated in the heart of 
Persis, in the part called Hollow Persis, not 




Persephone (Proserpine) enthroned. (Gerhard, Archaolog. Zeit. tav. 11.) 



far from the border of the Carmanian De- I Araxes, and its tributaries the Medus and 
sert, in a valley, watered by the river I the Cyras. 



PERSES, 



314 



PERSIS. 



PERSES (-ae), son of Helios (the Sun) and 
Perse, brother of Aeetes and Circe, and father 
of Hecate. 

PERSEUS (-eos or -el). (1) The famous 
Argive hero, son of Zeus (Jupiter), and 
Danae, and grandson of Acrisius. An oracle 
had told Acrisius that he was doomed to 
perish by the hands of Danae's son ; and he 
therefore shut up his daughter in an apart- 
ment made of brass or stone. But Zeus 
having metamorphosed himself into a shower 
of gold, came down through the roof of the 
prison, and became by her the father of Perseus. 
From this circumstance Perseus is sometimes 
called aurigena. As soon as Acrisius dis- 
covered that Danae had given birth to a son, 
he put both mother and son into a chest, and 
threw them into the sea ; but Zeus caused the 
chest to come ashore at Seriphos, one of the 
Cyclades, when Dictys, a fisherman, found 
Danae and her son, and carried them to Poly- 
dectes, the king of the country, who treated 
them with kindness. In course of time Poly- 
dectes fell in love with Danae, and wishing 
to get rid of Perseus, who had meantime 
grown up to manhood, he sent the young 
hero to fetch the head of Medusa, one of the 
Gorgons. Guided by Hermes 'Mercury) and 
Athena (Minerva), Perseus first went to the 
Graeae, the sisters of the Gorgons, took from 
them their one tooth and their one eye, and 
would not restore them until they showed 
him the way to the nymphs, who possessed 
the winged sandals, the magic wallet, and 
the helmet of Hades (Pluto), which rendered 
the wearer invisible. Having received from 




Perseus and Medusa. (From a terra-cotta, in the 
British Museum.) 

the nymphs these invaluable presents, from 
Hermes a sickle, and from Athena a mirror, he 



mounted into the air, and arrived at the abode 
of the Gorgons, who dwelt near Tartessus, on 
the coast of the Ocean. He found them asleep, 
and cut off the head of Medusa, looking at 
her figure through the mirror, for a sight of 
the monster herself would have changed him 
into stone. Perseus put her head into the 
wallet which he carried on his back, and as 
he went away he was pursued by the two 
other Gorgons ; but his helmet, which ren- 
dered him invisible, enabled him to escape in 
safety. Perseus then proceeded to Aethiopia, 
where he saved and married Andromeda. 
[Andromeda.] Perseus is also said to have 
changed Atlas into the mountain of the same 
name by means of the Gorgon's head. On his 
return to Seriphos, he found that his mother 
had taken refuge in a temple to escape the vio- 
lence of Polydectes. He then went to the palace 
of Polydectes, and metamorphosed him and 
all his guests, into stone. He then gave the 
head of Gorgon to Athena, who placed it in 
the middle of her shield or breastplate. 
Perseus subsequently went to Argos, accom- 
panied by Danae and Andromeda. Acrisius, 
remembering the oracle, escaped to Larissa, 
in the country of the Pelasgians ; but Perseus 
followed him in disguise in order to persuade 
him to return. On his arrival at Larissa, he 
took part in the public games, and acci- 
dentally killed Acrisius with the discus. 
Perseus, leaving the kingdom of Argos to 
Megapenthes, the son of Proetus, received 
from him in exchange the government of 
Tiryns. Perseus is said to have founded 
Mycenae. — (2) Or Perses (-ae), the last king 
of Macedonia, was the eldest son of Philip V., 
and reigned 11 years, from e.c 178 to 168. 
His war with the Romans lasted 4 years 
(b.c 171 — 168), and was brought to a close 
by his decisive defeat by L. Aemilius Paulus 
at the battle of Pydna in 168. Perseus 
adorned the triumph of his conqueror, and 
was permitted to end his days in an honour- 
able captivity at Alba. 
PERSIA. ' [Peesis.] 

PERSICUS SINUS, PERSICUM MARE, 
the name given by the later geographers to 
the great gulf of the Mare Erythraeum 
[Indian Ocean), extending between the coast 
of Arabia and the opposite coast of Susiana, 
Persis, and Carmania, now called the Persian 
Gulf. 

PERSIS (-idis) very rarely PERSIA (-ae), 
originally a small district of Asia, bounded on 
the S.W. by the Persian Gulf, on the N.W. 
and X. by Susiana, Media, and Parthia, and on 
the E. towards Carmania, by no definite boun- 
daries in the Desert. The only level part of 
the country was the strip of sea-coast : the 
rest was intersected with mountains. The 



PERSIS. 



315 



PETELIA. 



inhabitants were divided into 3 classes or 
castes : 1st, the nobles or warriors, containing 
the 3 tribes of the Pasargadae, who were the 
most noble, and to whom the royal family of 
the Achaemenidae belonged. 2ndly, the 
agricultural and other settled tribes. 3rdly, 
the tribes which remained nomadic. The 
Persians had a close ethnical affinity to the 
Medes, and followed the same customs and 
religion [Magi ; Zoroaster.] On their first 
appearance in history they are represented 
as a nation of hardy shepherds, who under 
their leader Cyrus overthrew the empire 
of the Medes, and became the masters of 
Western Asia, b.c. 559. [Cyrus.] In the 
reign of Darius, the 3rd king of Persia, the 
empire extended from Thrace and Cyrenai'ca 
on the W. to the Indus on the E., and from 
the Euxine, the Caucasus, the Caspian, and 
the Oxus and Jaxartes on the N. to Aethiopia, 
Arabia, and the Erythraean Sea on the S. It 
embraced, in Europe, Thrace and some of the 
Greek cities N . of the Euxine ; in Africa, 
Egypt and Cyrenai'ca ; in Asia, on the W., 
Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, the several dis- 
tricts of Asia Minor, Armenia, Mesopotamia, 
Assyria, Babylonia, Susiana, Atropatene, 
Great Media; ontheN.,Hyrcania, Margiana, 
Bactriana, and Sogdiana ; on the E., the Pa- 
ropamisus, Arachosia, and India (i.e. part of 
the Punjab and Scinde) ; on the S. Persis, 
Carmania, and Gedrosia ; and in the centre of 
the E. part, Parthia, Aria, and Drangiana. 
The capital cities of the empire were Babylon, 
Susa, Ecbatana in Media, and, though these 
were seldom, if ever, used as residences, Pa- 
sargada and Persepolis in Persis. (See the 
several articles.) Of this vast empire Darius 
undertook the organisation, and divided it 
into 20 satrapies. Of the ancient Persian 
history, an abstract is given under the names 
of the several kings, a list of whom is sub- 
joined : (1) Cyrus, b.c. 559 — 529 ; (2) Cam- 
byses,529 — 522 ; (3) Usurpation of the pseudo- 
Smerdis, 7 months, 522 — 521 (4) Darius 
I., son of Hystaspes, 521 — 485 ; (5) Xerxes I. 
485 — 465 ; (6) Usurpation of Art ab an us, 7 
months, 465 — 464 ; (7) Artaxerxes I. Lox- 
gimaxus, 464—425 ; (8) Xerxes II., 2 
months ; (9) Sogdianus, 7 months, 425 — 
424 ; (10) Ochus, or Darius II. Xothus, 424 
— 405 ; (11) Artaxerxes II. Mxemon, 405 
— 359 ; (12) Ochus, or Artaxerxes III., 
359—338 ; (13) Arses, 338—336 ; (14) 
Darius III. Codomaxnus, 336 — 331 [Alex- 
ander] . Here the ancient history of Persia 
ends, as a kingdom ; but, as a people, the 
Persians proper, under the influence espe- 
cially of their religion, preserved their ex- 
istence, and at length regained their inde- 
pendence on the downfall of the Parthian 



Empire [Sassanidae]. — In reading the Pvoman 
poets it must be remembered that they con- 
stantly use Persae, as well as Medi, as a 
general term for the peoples E. of the 
Euphrates and Tigris, and especially for the 
Parthians. 

PERSIUS FLACCUS (4), A., the Roman 
poet, was a knight connected by blood and 
marriage with persons of the highest rank, 
and was born at Volaterrae in Etruria, a.d. 
34. He was the pupil of Cornutus the Stoic, 
and while yet a youth was on familiar terms 
with Lucan, with Caesius Bassus, the lyric 
poet, and with several other persons of lite- 
rary eminence. He was tenderly beloved by 
the high-minded Paetus Thrasea, and seems 
to have been well worthy of such affection ; 
for he is described as a virtuous and pleasing 
youth. He died in a.d. 62, before he had 
completed his 28th year. The extant works 
of Persius consist of 6 short satires, and were 
left in an unfinished state. They are written 
in an obscure style, and are difficult to under- 
stand. 

PERTIXAX (-acis), HELVIUS (-i), Roman 
emperor from January 1st to March 28th, 
a.d. 193, was reluctantly persuaded to accept 
the empire, on the death of Commoclus. Eut 
having attempted to check the license of the 
praetorian troops, he was slain by the latter, 
whojhen put up the empire to sale. 

PERUSiA (-ae : Perugia), an ancient city 
in the E. part of Etruria between the lake 
Trasimenus and the Tiber, and one of the 12 
cities of the Etruscan confederacy. It was 
situated on a hill, and- was strongly fortified 
by nature and by art. It is memorable in 
the civil wars as the place in which L. 
Antonius, the brother of the triumvir, took 
refuge, when he was no longer able to oppose 
Octavianus (Augustus) in the field, and where 
he was kept closely blockaded by Octavianus 
from the end of b.c 41 to the spring of 40. 
Famine compelled it to surrender ; but one 
of its citizens having set fire to his own house, 
the flames spread, and the whole city was 
burnt to the ground. It was rebuilt by 
Augustus. 

PESSINUS or PESIXUS (-untis), a city in 
the S.W. corner of Galatia, on the S. slope 
of Mt. Dindymus or Agdistis, was celebrated 
as a chief seat of the worship of Cybele, under 
the surname of Agdistis, whose temple, 
crowded with riches, stood on a hill outside 
the city. In this temple was an image of the 
goddess, which was removed to Rome, to 
satisfy an oracle in the Sibylline books. 

PETELIA or PETILIA (-ae : Stroitgoli), 
an ancient Greek town on the E. coast of 
Bruttium, founded, according to tradition, 
by Philoctetes. 



PETILIES. 



316 



PHAETHON. 



PETILIUS, CAPITOLINUS. Tafito- 
uxrs.] 

PETRA [-ae), the name of several cities 
built on rocks, or in rocky places, of which 
the most celebrated was in Arabia Petraea, 
the capital, first of the Idnmaeans, and after- 
wards of the Xabathaeans. It lies in the 
midst of the mountains of Seir, just half-way 
between the Dead Sea and the head of the 
Aelanitic Gulf of the Red Sea, in a valley, or 
rather ravine, surrounded by almost inacces- 
sible precipices, which is entered by a narrow 
gorge on the E., the rocky wails of which 
approach so closely as in some places hardly to 
permit 2 horsemen to ride abreast. On the 
banks of the river which runs through this 
ravine stood the city itself, and some fine 
ruins of its public biddings still remain. 
These ruins are chiefly of the Roman period, 
when Petra had become an important city as 
a centre of the caravan traffic of the Naba- 
thaeans. It maintained its independence 
under the Romans, till the time of Trajan, 
by whom it was taken. It was the chief 
city of Arabia Petraea ; and under the later 
empire the capital of Palaestina Tertia. 

PETRETUS [-i;, M., a man of military expe- 
rience, is first mentioned in b.c. 62, when he 
served as legatusto C. Antonius, and defeated 
the army of Catiline. He belonged to the 
aristocratical party : and in 5 5 he was sent 
into Spain along with E. Afranius as legatus 
of Pompey. He subsequently fought against 
Caesar in Africa, and after the loss of the 
battle of Thapsus, he and Juba fell by each 
other's hands. 

PETRINUM (-i), a mountain near Sinu- 
essa on the confines of Latium and Campania, 
on which goodjvine was grown. 

PETROCORII (-oruin), a people in Gallia 
Aquitaniea, in the modern Perigord. 

PETROXIUS (-i), C, or T., one of the 
chosen companions of Xero, and regarded as 
director-in-chief of the imperial pleasures 
{Elegantiae arbiter). The influence which 
Petronius thus acquired excited the jealousy 
of Tigellinus : and being accused of treason 
he put an end to his life by opening his veins. 
He is said to have despatched in his last 
moments a letter to the prince, taunting him 
with his brutal excesses. It is uncertain 
whether he is the author of the work, which 
has come down to us, bearing the title Petronii 
Arbitri Satyricon. It is a sort of comic ro- 
mance, filled with disgusting licentiousness. 

PEUCE (-es), an island in Moesia Inferior 
formed by the 2 southern mouths of the 
Danube, inhabited by the Peuclni, who were 
a tribe of the Bastarnae, and took their name 
from the island. 

PEUCESTAS (-ae), an officer of Alexander 



the Great, on whose death (b.c. 323), he 
| obtained the government of Persia. He fought 
: on the side of Eunienes against Antigonus 
317 — 316', and was finally deprived of his 
I satrapy by Antigonus. 

PEUCETIA. " "Apulia.] 
PEUCIXI. :Peuce.~_ 
PHACUSSA [-ae] , an island in the Aegaean 
sea, one of the Sporades. 

PHAEACES [-urn] , a fabulous people im- 
mortalised by the Odyssey, who inhabited the 
island Scheria [S^/as), situated at the ex- 
treme western part of the earth, and who 
were governed by king Alcinous. [Aicraons.] 
; They are described as a people of luxurious 
I habits ; whence a glutton is called Phaeax 
by Horace. — The ancients identified the Ho- 
! meric Scheria with Corcyra ; but it is better 

to regard Scheria as altogether fabulous, 
i PHAEDOX -onis* , a native of Elis. was 
I taken prisoner, and sold as a slave at Athens. 
I He afterwards obtained his freedom, and be- 
i came a follower of Socrates, at whose death 
he was present. He afterwards returned to 
' Elis, where he became the founder of a school 
of philosophy. The dialogue of Plato, con- 
i taming an account of the death of Socrates, 
bears the name of Phaedon. 
| PHAEDRA (-ae), daughter of Minos, and 
; wife of Theseus, who falsely accused her step- 
son Hippolytus. After the death of Hippo- 
lytus, Ms innocence became known to his 
j father, and Phaedra made away with her- 
self. 

PHAEDRTJS (-i), the Latin Fabulist, was 
originally a slave, and was brought from 
Thrace or Macedonia to Rome, where he 

j learned the Latin language. He received his 

I freedom from Augustus. His fables are 97 
in number, written in iambic verse : most of 
them are borrowed from Aesop. 

PHAESTTJS (-i), a town in the S. of Crete, 

I near Gortyna, the birth-place of Epimenides. 
PHAETHON -ontis\ that is, "the shin- 
ing," used as an epithet or surname of Helios 
(the Sun), but more commonly known as the 

j name of a son of Helios by Clymene. He re- 
ceived the name of Phaethonfrom his father, 
and was afterwards so presumptuous as to 
request his father to allow him to drive the 
chariot of the sun across the heavens for one 
day. Helios was induced by the entreaties 
of his son and of Clymene to yield, but the 
youth being too weak to check the horses, 
they rushed out of their usual track, and 

I came so near the earth, as almost to set it on 
fire. Thereupon Zeus killed him with a flash 
of lightning, and hurled him down into the 
river Eridanus. His sisters, iheHefiadae or 
Phaethontiadcs, who had yoked the horses 
to the chariot, were metamorphosed into 



PIIALABIS. 



317 



PHAESALUS. 




Lacedaemonians, who founded Tarentuni in 
Italy, about b.c. 708. 

PHALABIS (-idis), ruler of Agrigentuni 
in Sicily, has obtained a proverbial celebrity 
as a cruel and inhuman tyrant. He reigned 
from about b.c. 570 to 564. He perished by 
a sudden outbreak of the popular fury. Xo 
circumstance connected with him is more 
celebrated than the brazen bull in "which he 
is said to have burnt alive the victims of his 
cruelty, and of which we are told that he 
made the first experiment upon its inventor 
Perilius. The Epistles bearing- the name of 
Phalaris, have been proved by Bentley to be 
the composition of some sophist. 

PHALEBUM (-i), the most E.-ly of the 
harbours of Athens, and the one chiefly used 
by the Athenians before the time of the 
Persian wars. After the establishment by 
Themistocles of the harbours in the peninsula 
of Piraeus, Phalerum was not much used. 

PHANAE {-arum}, the S. point of the 
island of Chios, celebrated for its temple of 
Apollo, and for its excellent wine. 

PHAXAGOBIA '-ae), a Greek city on the 
Asiatic coast of the Cimmerian Bosporus, was 
chosen by the kings of Bosporus as their 
capital in Asia. 

PHAOX (-5nis), a boatman at Mytilene, is 
said to have been originally an ugly old man ; 
but having carried Aphrodite (Venus) across 
the sea without accepting payment, the god- 
dess gave him youth and beauty. After this 
Sappho is said to have fallen in love with 
him, and, when he slighted her, to have 
leapt from the Leucadian rock. [Sappho.] 

PHABAE ;.arum). (1) A town in the W. 
part of Achaia, and one of the 12 Achaean 
cities, situated on the river Pierus. — .2 A 



town in Messenia on the river Xedon, near 
the frontiers of Laconia. 

PHABMACUSA (-ae), an island off the 
coast of Miletus, where Julius Caesar was 
taken prisoner by pirates. 

PHABXABAZES (-i), satrap of the Persian 
provinces near the Hellespont, towards the 
end of the Peloponnesian war, and for many 
years subsequently. His character is dis- 
tinguished by generosity and openness. He 
has been charged, it is true, with the murder 
of Alcibiades ; but the latter probably fell by 
the hands of others. [Alcibiades.] 

PHABXACES (-is).' (1) King of Pontus, 
and grandfather of Mithridates the Great, 
reigned from about b.c 190 to 156. — 
(2) King of Pontus, or more properly of the 
Bosporus, was the son of Mithridates the 
Great, whom he compelled to put an end to 
his life in 63. [Mithbidates YL] After the 
death of his father, Pompey granted him the 
kingdom of the Bosporus. In the civil war 
between Caesar and Pompey, Pharnaces 
seized the opportunity to reinstate himself 
in his father's dominions ; but he was de- 
feated by Caesar in a decisive action near 
Zela (47). The battle was gained with such 
ease by Caesar, that he informed the senate 
of his victory by the words, Veni, vidi, vici. 
In the course of the same year, Pharnaces 
was slain by Asander, one of his generals. 

[ASANDER.] 

PHABNACIA. a flourishing city of Asia 
Minor, on the coast of Pontus, built near 
(some think on) the site of Cerasu*, probably 
by Pharnaces, the grandfather of Mithridates 
the Great. 

PHABSALI'S (-i), a town in Thessaly in 
the district Thessaliotis, W. of the river 



PHARUS. 



318 



PHIDOX. 



Enipeus. Near Pharsalus was fought the 
decisive battle between Caesar and Ponipey, 
B.c. 48, -which made Caesar master cf the 
Eomau world. It is frequently called the 
battle of Pharsalia, which was the name of 
the territory of the town. 

PHARUS or PHAROS (-i). (1) A 
small island off the coast of Egypt. AYhen 
Alexander the Great planned the city of 
Alexandria, on the coast opposite to Pharos, 
he caused the island to be united to the coast 
by a mole 7 stadia in length, thus forming 
the 2 harbours of the city. [Alexandria.] 
The island was chiefly famous for the lofty 
tower built upon it by Ptolemy II., for a 
light -house, whence the name of pharus was 
applied to all similar structures. — (2) An 
island of the Adriatic, off the coasts of Dal- 
matia, E. of Issa. 

PHASELIS (-idis), a town on the coast of 
Lyeia, near the borders of Pamphylia, founded 
by Dorian colonists. It became afterwards 
the head-quarters of the pirates who infested 
the S. coasts of Asia Minor, and was therefore 
destroyed by P. Servilius Isauricus. Phaselis 
is said to have been the place at which the 
light quick vessels called Phaseli were first 
built. _ 

\ PHASIS (-is, or -idis). (I) A celebrated 
river of Colchis, flowing into the E. end of 
the Pontus Euxinus [Black Sea). It was 
famous in connexion with the story of the 
Argonautic expedition. Hence Medea is 
called Phcislas, and the adjective Phasiacus 
is used in the sense of Colchian. [Argo- 
natjtae.] It has given name to the pheasant 
(phasianus), which is said to have been first 
brought to Greece from its banks. — (2) Near 
the mouth of the river, on its S. side, was a 
town of the same name, founded by the 
Milesians. 

PHEGEUS (-eos or -el), king of Psophis 
in Arcadia, purified Alcmaeon after he had 
killed his mother, and gave him his daughter 
Alphesiboea in marriage. [Alcmaeon.] 

PHEMIUS (-i), a celebrated minstrel, who 
sung to the suitors in the palace of Ulysses 
in Ithaca.^ 

PHEXEUS (-i), an ancient town in the 
N.E. of Arcadia, at the foot of Mt. Cyllene. 

PHERAE (-arum), an ancient town of 
Thessaly in the Pelasgian plain, 90 stadia 
from its port-town Pagasae on the Pagasaean 
gulf. It is celebrated in mythology as the 
residence of Admetus, and in history on ac- 
count of its tyrants, who extended their 
power over nearly the whole of Thessaly. 
Of these the most powerful was Jason, who 
was made Tagus or generalissimo of Thessaly 
about b.c 374. 

PHERAE. [Pharae.] 



PHERECRATES (-is), of Athens, one cf 
the best poets of the Old Comedy, contem- 
porary with Aristophanes. He invented a 
new metre, which was named, after him, the 
Pherecratean. 

PHERECYDES (-is). (1) Of Syros, an 
early Greek philosopher, flourished about 
b.c 544. He is said to have been the teacher 
of Pythagoras, and to have taught the doc- 
trine of the Metempsychosis. — (2) Of Athens, 
one of the early Greek logographers, was a 
contemporary of Herodotus. 

PHERES (-etis), son of Cretheus and Tyro, 
father of Admetus and Lycurgus, and founder 
of Pherae in Thessaly. Admetus, as the son 
of Pheres, is called PlieretiMes. 

PHIDIAS (-ae), the greatest sculptor and 
statuary of Greece, was born at Athens about 
b.c 490. He was entrusted by Pericles with 
the superintendence of all the works of art 
which were erected at Athens during his ad- 
ministration. Of these works the chief were 
the Propylaea of the Acropolis, and, above all, 
the temple of Athena on the Acropolis, called 
the Parthenon, on which the highest efforts 
of the best artists were employed. The 
sculptured ornaments of this temple, the 
remains of which form the glory of the 
British Museum, were executed under the 
immediate superintendence of Phidias ; but 
the colossal statue of the divinity made of 
ivory and gold, which was enclosed within 
that magnificent shrine, was the work of the 
artist's own hand. The statue was dedicated 
in 438. Having finished his great work at 
Athens, he went to Elis and Olympia, where 
he finished his statue of the Olympian Zeus, 
the greatest of all his works. On his return 
to Athens he fell a victim to the jealousy 
against his great patron, Pericles. [Pericles.] 
Phidias was first accused of peculation, but 
this charge was at once refuted, as, by the 
advice of Pericles, the gold had been affixed 
to the statue of Athena, in such a manner 
that it could be removed, and the weight of 
it examined. The accusers then charged 
Phidias with impiety, in having introduced 
into the battle of the Amazons, on the shield 
of the goddess, his own likeness and that of 
Pericles. On this latter charge Phidias was 
thrown into prison, where he died from 
disease, in 432. 

PHIDIPPIDES or PHILIPPIDES (-is), a 
celebrated courier, who was sent by the 
Athenians to Sparta in b.c 490, to ask for aid 
against the Persians, and arrived there on 
the second day from his leaving Athens. 

PHIDOX (-onis), a king of Argos, who 
extended his sovereignty over the greater 
part of Peloponnesus. In b.c 748, he de- 
prived the Eleans of their presidency at the 



PHIGALIA. 



319 



PHILIPPUS. 



Olympic games, and celebrated them jointly 
with the Pisans ; but the Eleans not long 
^ after defeated him, with the aid of Sparta, 
and recovered their privilege. The most 
memorable act of Phidon was his intro- 
duction of copper and silver coinage, and a 
new scale of weights and measures, which, 
through his influence, became prevalent in 
the Peloponnesus, and ultimately throughout 
the greater portion of Greece. The scale in 
question was known by the name of the 
Aeginetan, and it is usually supposed that 
the coinage of Phidon was struck in Aegina ; 
but this name was perhaps given to it only 
in consequence of the commercial activity of 
the Aeginetans. 

PHIGALIA (-ae), a town in the S.W. corner 
of Arcadia on the frontiers of Messenia and 
Elis, which owes its celebrity in modern 
times to the remains of a splendid temple in 
its territory, built in the time of Pericles. 
The sculptures in alto-relievo, which orna- 
mented the frieze in the interior, are now 
preserved in the British Museum. They 
represent the combat of the Centaurs and 
the Lapithae, and of the Greeks and the 
Amazons. 

PHILADELPHIA (-ae). (1) A city of 
Lydia, at the foot of Mt. Tmolus, built by 
Attalus Philadelphus, king of Pergamus. It 
was an early seat of Christianity, and its 
church is one of the 7 to which the Apoca- 
lypse is addressed. — (2) A cits' of Cilicia 
Aspera, on the Calycadnus, above Aphrodisias. 

PHILADELPHUS (-i), a surname of Pto- 
lemaeus II., king of Egypt [Ptoleiniaeus], and 
of Attalus II., king of Pergamum. ^Attaixs.] 

PHILAE '-arum), an island in the Nile, 
just "below the first cataract, on the S. boun- 
dary of the country towards Aethiopia. It 
was inhabited by Egyptians and Ethiopians 
jointly, and was covered with magnificent 
temples, whose splendid ruins still remain. 

PHILAENI (-orum), 2 brothers, citizens 
of Carthage, of whom the following story is 
told. A dispute having arisen between the 
Carthaginians and Cyrenaeans about their 
boundaries, it was agreed that deputies should 
start at a fixed time from each of the cities, 
and that the place of their meeting should 
thenceforth form the limit of the 2 territo- 
ries. The Philaeni departed from Carthage, 
and advanced much farther than the Cyre- 
naean party. The Cyrenaeans accused them 
of having set forth before the time agreed 
upon, but at length consented to accept the 
spot which they had reached as a boundary- 
line, if the Philaeni would submit to be 
buried alive there in the sand. The Philaeni 
accordingly devoted themselves for their 
country in the way proposed. The Cartha- 



ginians paid high honours to their memory, 
and erected altars to them where they had 
died ; and from these the place was called 
" The Altars of the Philaeni." 

PHILAMMOX (-onis), a mythical poet and 
musician, said to have been the son of Apollo, 
and the father of Thamyris and Eumolpus. 

PHILEMON (-onis). * (1) An aged Phry- 
gian, and husband of Baucis, who hospitably 
entertained Zeus (Jupiter) and Hermes (Mer- 
cury). — (2) A celebrated Athenian poet of 
the New Comedy, was a native of Soli in 
Cilicia, but at an early age went to Athens, 
and there received the citizenship. He 
nourished in the reign of Alexander, a little 
earlier than Menander, whom, however, he 
long survived. He began to exhibit about 
b.c. 330, and lived nearly 100 years. Al- 
though Philemon was inferior to Menander 
as a poet, yet he was a greater favourite 
with the Athenians, and often conquered his 
rival in the dramatic contests. [Mexaxder.] 
— (3) The younger Philemon, also a poet of 
the New Comedy, was a son of the former. 
PHILETAERTJS. [Pkrgamum.] 
PHILETAS (-ae), of Cos, a distinguished 
Alexandrian poet and grammarian, and the 
I tutor of Ptolemy II. Philadelphus. 

PHILIPPI (-orum), a celebrated city in 
I Macedonia adjecta, situated on a steep height 
of Mt. Pangaeus, and founded by Philip of 
Macedon, on the site of an ancient town, 
Crexides, a colony of the Thasians. Philippi 
is celebrated in history in consequence of 
the victory gained here by Octavianus and 
Antony over Brutus and Cassius, b.c. 42, and 
as the place where the Apostle Paul first 
preached the gospel in Europe, a.d. 53. One 
of St. Paul's Epistles is addressed to the 
church at Philippi. 

PHILIPPOPOLIS (-is, Philijypopoli), an im- 
portant town in Thrace, founded by Philip of 
Macedon, was situated in a large plain, S.E. 
of the Hebrus, on a hill with 3 summits, 
whence it was sometimes called Trimontium. 
Under the Roman empire it was the capital 
of thej)rovince of Thracia. 

PHILIPPUS (-i). — I. Kings of Macedonia. 
(1) Son of Argaeus, was the 3rd king, accord- 
ing to Herodotus and Thucydides, who, not 
reckoning Caraxts and his two immediate 
successors, look upon Perdiccas I. as the 
founder of the monarchy. — (2) Youngest son 
of Amyntas II. and Eurydice, reigned b.c. 
359 — 336. He was born in 382, and was 
brought up at Thebes, whither he had been 
I carried as a hostage by Pelopidas, and where 
I he received a most careful education. Upon 
the death of his bi other, Perdiccas III., 
i Philip obtained the- government of Macedonia, 
| at first merely as guardian to his infant 



PHILIPPUS. 



320 



PHILO. 



nephew Amyntas ; but at the end of a few 
months he set aside the claims of the young 
prince, and assumed for himself the title of 
king. As soon as he was firmly established 
on the throne, he introduced among the 
Macedonians a stricter military discipline, 
and organised their army on the plan of the 
phalanx. He then directed his views to the 
aggrandisement of his kingdom. He resolved 
first to obtain possession of the various 
Greek cities upon the Macedonian coast. 
Amphipolis, Pydna, Potidaea, Methone, and, 
finally, Olynthus, successively fell into his 
hands. Demosthenes, in his Philippic and 
Olynthiae orations, endeavoured to rouse the 
Athenians to the danger of Athens and 
Greece from the ambitious schemes of Philip ; 
but the Athenians did not adopt any rigorous 
efforts to check the progress of the Mace- 
donian king. On the invitation of the 
Amphictyons he subdued the Phocians, and 
was rewarded with the place of the latter in 
the Amphictyonic council (b.c 346). The 
Athenians at length became thoroughly 
alarmed at his aggrandisement ; and accord- 
ingly, when he marched through Thermo- 
pylae, at the invitation of the Amphictyons, 
to punish the Locrians of Amphissa, they 
resolved to oppose him. Through the influ- 
ence of Demosthenes, they succeeded in 
forming an alliance with the Thebans ; but 
their united army was defeated by Philip in 
the month of August, 338, in the decisive 
battle of Chaeronea, which put an end to the 
independence of Greece. A congress was 
now held at Corinth of the Grecian states, 
in which war with Persia was determined 
on, and the king of Macedonia was appointed 
to command the forces of the national con- 
federacy. But in the midst of his prepara- 
tions for his Asiatic expedition, he was 
murdered during the celebration of the 
nuptials of his daughter with Alexander, of 
Epirus, by a youth of noble blood, named Pau- 
sanias. His motive for the deed is stated by 
Aristotle to have been private resentment 
against Philip, to whom he had complained 
in vain of a gross outrage offered to him by 
Attalus. His wife, Olympias, however, was 
suspected of being implicated in the plot. 
[Olympias.] Philip died in the 47th year 
of his age, and the 24th of his reign, and 
was succeeded by Alexander the Great. — (3) 
The name of Philip was bestowed by the 
Macedonian army upon Arrhidaeus, the 
bastard son of Philip II., when he was raised 
to the throne after the death of Alexander 
the Great. He accordingly appears in the 
list of Macedonian kings as Philip III. 
[Arrhidaeus.] — (4) Eldest son of Cassander, 
whom he succeeded on the throne, b.c. 296, 



but he reigned only a few months. — (5) Son 

1 of Demetrius II., reigned b.c. 220 — 17 8. He 
succeeded his uncle, Antigonus Doson, at 17 , 
years of age. During the first 3 years of his 
reign he conducted the war against the 
Aetolians at the request of the Achaeans and 
Aratus. But soon after bringing this war to 
a conclusion, he became jealous of Aratus, 
whom he caused to be removed by a slow 
and secret poison. Philip was engaged in 
two wars with the Romans. The first lasted 
from b.c 215, when he concluded an alliance 

I with Hannibal, to 205. The second com- 
menced in 200, and was brought to an end 

' by the defeat of Philip, by the consul Fla- 
mininus, at the battle of Cynoscephalae, in 
197. [Flamixixus.1 Through the false accu- 
sations of his son Perseus, he put to death his 
other son Demetrius ; but discovering after- 

| wards the innocence of the latter, he 
died (b.c. 179) a prey to remorse. He was 

! succeeded by Perseus. — II. Family of the 
Marcii PTiiUpjn, — (1) L. Marcitjs Philippic, 

! consul b.c 91, opposed with vigour the 
measures of the tribune Drusus- He was 
one of the most distinguished orators of his 
time. — (2) L. and Marcius-Philippus, son of 
the preceding, consul b.c. 56, and step-father 
of Augustus, having married his mother, 
Atia. — III. Emperors of Rome. — M. Julius 

I Philippus, the name of two Roman empe- 

j rors, father and son, of whom the former 

I reigned a.b, 244 — 249, He was an Arabian 
by birth, and rose to high rank in the Roman 

| army. He obtained the empire by the 
assassination of Gordian. He was slain near 

j Yerona, either in battle against Decius, or 
by his own soldiers. His son, whom he had 

\ proclaimed Augustus two years before, 
perished at the same time, 

PHILISTUS (-i), a Syracusan, and a friend 
of the younger Dionysius, commanded the 

| fleet of the latter in a battle with Dion, and 
being defeated put an end to his life. He 
was the author of a celebrated history of 
Sicily, in which he closely imitated Thu- 
cydides. 

PHILO (-onis). (1) An academic philo- 
! sopher, was a native of Larissa and a disciple 
| of Clitomachus. After the conquest of Athens 
by Mithridates he removed to Rome, where 
! he had Cicero as one of his hearers — (2) Of 
Byzantium, a celebrated mechanician, and a 
I contemporary of Ctesibius, flourished about 
| b.c. 146. — (3) Judaeus, or surnamed the Jew, 
; was born at Alexandria, and was sent to 
! Pvome in a.d. 40 on an embassy to the em- 
peror Caligula. He wrote several works 
| which have come down to us, in which he 
! attempts to reconcile the Sacred Scriptures 
with the doctrines of the Greek philosophy. 



PHILO. 



321 



PHINEUS. 



PHILO, Q. PUBLILIUS, a distinguished 
general in the Samnite wars, proposed, in his 
dictatorship, b.c. 339, the celebrated PubWiae 
Leges, which abolished the power of the 
patrician assembly of the curiae, and elevated 
the plebeians to an equality with the patri- 
cians for all practical purposes. 

PHILOCTETES (-is), a son of Poeas 
(whence he is called PoeantXades), was the 
most celebrated archer in the Trojan war. 
He was the friend and armour-bearer of Her- 
cules, who bequeathed to him his bow and 
the poisoned arrows, for having set fire to 
the pile on Mt. Oeta, on which Hercules 
perished. Philoctetes was also one of the 
suitors of Helen, and thus took part in the 
Trojan war. On his voyage to Troy, while 
staying in the island of Chryse, he was bitten 
in the foot by a snake, or wounded by one of 
his arrows. The wound produced such an in- 
tolerable stench that the Greeks, on the advice 
of Ulysses, left Philoctetes on the solitary 
coast of Lemnos. He remained in this island 
till the 10th year of the Trojan war, when 
Ulysses and Diomedes came to fetch him to 
Troy, as an oracle had declared that the city 
could not be taken without the arrows of 
Hercules. He accompanied these heroes to 
Troy, and on his arrival Aesculapius or his 
sons cured his wound. He slew Paris and 
many other Trojans. On his return from Troy 
he is said to_have settled in Italy. 

PHILODEMUS (-i), of Gadara, in Palestine, 
an Epicurean philosopher, and epigrammatic 
poet, contemporary with Cicero. He is also 
mentioned by Horace {Sat. i. 2. 121). 

PHILOLAUS (-i), a distinguished Pytha- 
gorean philosopher, was a native of Croton or 
Tarentum, and a contemporary of Socrates. 

PHILOMELA (-ae), daughter of Pandion, 
king of Athens, and sister of Procne, who 
had married Tereus, king of Thrace. Being 
dishonoured by the latter, Philomela was 
metamorphosed into a nightingale. The story 
is given under Teeeus. 

PHILOMELIUM or PHILOMELUM (-i), a 
city of Phrygia, on the borders of Lycaonia and 
Pisidia, said to have been named from the 
numbers of nightingales in its neighbourhood. 

PHILOPOEMEN (-enis), of Megalopolis in 
Arcadia, one of the few great men that Greece 
produced in the decline of her political in- 
dependence. The great object of his life was 
to infuse into the Achacans a military 
spirit, and thereby to establish their inde- 
pendence on a firm and lasting basis. He 
distinguished himself at the battle of Sellasia 
(b.c. 221), in which Cleomenes was defeated. 
Soon afterwards he sailed to Crete, and served 
for some years in the wars between the cities 
of that island. In b.c 20S he was elected 



strategus, or general of the Achaean league, and 
in this year slew in battle with his own hand 
Machanidas, tyrant of Lacedaemon. He was 
8 times general of the Achaean league, and 
discharged the duties of his office with honour 
to himself and advantage to his country. In 
b.c 183, when he was marching against the 
Messenians who had revolted from the 
Achaean league, he fell in with a large body 
of Messenian troops, by whom he was taken 
prisoner, and carried to Messene, where he 
was compelled to drink poison. 

PHILOSTRATUS, FLAYIUS (-i). (1) A 
native of Lemnos, flourished in the 1st half 
of the 3rd century of the Christian era, and 
taught rhetoric first at Athens and afterwards 
at Rome. He wrote several works, of which 
the most important is the Life of Apollonius 
of Tyana in 8 books. — (2) The younger, and 
a grandson of the preceding. He wrote a 
work entitled Lmagines. 

PHILOTAS (-ae), son of Parmenion, en- 
joyed a high place in the friendship of Alex- 
ander, but was accused in b.c. 330 of being 
privy to a plot against the king's life. There 
was no proof of his guilt ; but a confession 
was wrung from him by torture, and he 
was stoned to death by the troops. [Par- 

MENION.] 

PHILOXENUS (-i), of Cythera, one of the 
most distinguished dithyrambic poets of 
Greece, was born b,c. 435 and died 380. He 
spent part of his life at Syracuse, where he 
was cast into prison by Dionysius, because he 
had told the tyrant, when asked to revise one 
of his poems, that the' best way of correcting 
it would be to draw a black line through the 
whole paper. Only a few fragments of his 
poems have come down to us. 

PHILUS, L. FURIUS (-i), consul b.c 136, 
was fond of Greek literature and refinement, 
and is introduced by Cicero as one of the 
speakers in his dialogue Be Republic a. 

PHILYRA (-ae), a nymph, daughter of 
Oceanus, and mother of the centaur Chiron, 
was changed into a linden-tree. Hence 
Chiron was called PMlyrldes, and his abode 
Plillfjrjia tecta. 

PHINEUS (-eos, -ei, or -el). (1) Son of 
Belus and Anchinoe, and brother of Cepheus, 
slain by Perseus. [Andromeda and Perseus.] 
— (2) Son of Agenor, and king of Salmydessus, 
in Thrace, and a celebrated soothsayer. He 
deprived his sons of sight, in consequence of 
a false accusation made against them by Idaea, 
their step-mother. The gods, in consequence, 
punished him with the loss of his sight, and 
sent the Harpies to torment him. [Harpyiae.] 
When the Argonauts visited Thrace he was 
delivered from these monsters by Zetes and 
Calais, the sons of Boreas. Phineus in re- 

Y 



PHINTIAS. 



322 



PHOENICE. 



turn explained to the Argonauts the further 
course they had to take. According to other 
accounts he was slain by Hercules. 

PHINTIAS. [Damon.] 

PHLEGETHOX (-ontis), i. e. the flaming, 
a river in the lower world, in whose channel 
flowed flames instead of water. 

PHLEGRA. [Pallene.' 

PHLEGRAEI CAMPI (-brum), the name 
of the volcanic plain extending along the coast I 
of Campania from Cumae to Capua, so called 
because it was believed to have been once on 
fire. 

PHLEGYAS (-ae), son of Ares (Mars) and 
Chryse, and king of Orchomenos, in Boeotia. 
He was the father of Ixion and Coronis, the 
latter of whom became by Apollo the mother 
of Aesculapius. Enraged at this, Phlegyas I 
set fire to the temple of the god, who killed j 
him with his arrows, and condemned him to j 
severe punishment in the lower world. His de- | 
scendants, Phlegyae, are represented as a my. 
thical race, who destroyed the temple at Delphi. 

PHLIUS (-untis), the chief town of a small 
province in the X.E. of Peloponnesus, whose 
territory, Pht.tasia, was bounded by Sicyonia, 
Arcadia, and Argos. 

PHOCAEA ,-ae' , the X.-inost of the Ionian 
cities on the ~VT, coast of Asia Minor, cele- 
brated as a great maritime state, and espe- 
cially as the founder of the Greek colony of 
Massilia, in Gaul. The name of Phocaean 
is often used with reference to Massilia. 

PHOCION (-onis), an Athenian general and 
statesman, born about b.c. 402. He fre- 
quently opposed the measures of Demosthenes, 
and recommended peace with Philip ; but he 
was not one of the mercenary supporters of the 
Macedonian monarch. On the contrary, his 
virtue is above suspicion, and his public con- 
duct was always influenced by upright mo- 
tives. When the Piraeus was seized by Alex- 
ander, the son of Polysperchon, in 3 18, Phocion 
was suspected of having advised Alexander to 
take this step ; whereupon he fled to Alex- 
ander, but was basely surrendered by Poly- 
sperchon to the Athenians. He was con- 
demned to drink the hemlock, and thus 
perished in 317, at the age of So. The 
Athenians are said to have repented of their 
conduct. 

PHOCI5 (-idis), a country in Northern 
Greece, bounded on the N. by the Locri Epi- 
cnemiclii andOpuntii, on the E. by Boeotia, on 
the W. by the Locri Ozolae and Doris, and on 
the S. by the Corinthian gulf. It was a moun- 
tainous and unproductive country, and owes 
its chief importance in history to the fact of 
its possessing the Delphic oracle. Its chief 
mountain was Parnassus, and its chief river 
the Cli hissus. The Phocians played no con- 



spicuous part in Greek history till the time 
of Philip of Macedon ; but at this period they 
became involved in a war, called the Phocian 
or Sacred War, in which the principal states 
of Greece took part. At the instigation of 
the Thebans, the inveterate enemies of the 
Phocians, the Amphictyons imposed a fine 
upon the Phocians, and, upon their refusal to 
pay it, declared the Phocian land forfeited to 
the god at Delphi. Thereupon the Phocians 
seized the treasures of the temple at Delphi 
for the purpose of carrying on the war. This 
war lasted 10 years (b.c. 357 — 346), and was 
brought to a close by the conquest of the- 
Phocians by Philip of Macedon. All their 
towns were razed to the ground with the ex- 
ception of Abae ; and the 2 votes which they 
had in the Amphictyonic council were taken 
away and given to Philip. 

PHOCES (-i), son of Aeaeus and the Xereid 
Psamathe, was murdered by his half-brothers 
Telamon and Peleus. [Pelees.] 

PHOCYLIDES (-is), of Miletus, a gnomic 
poet, contemporary with Theognes, was born 
b.c. 560. 

PHOEBE (-es). (1) A surname of Artemis 
(Diana) as the goddess of the moon (Luna), 
the moon being regarded as the female 
Phoebus or sun. — (2) Daughter of Tyndarecs 
and Leda, and a sister of Clytaemnestra.- — (3) 
Daughter of Leucippus. 

PHOEBE S (-i), the Bright or Pure, an 
epithet of Apollo. 

PHOENICE (-es), a country of Asia, on 
the coast of Syria, extending from the river 
Eleutherus on the X. to below Mt. Carmel on 
the S., and bounded on the E. by Coele-Syria 
and Palestine. It was a mountainous strip 
of coast land, not more than 10 or 12 miles 
broad, hemmed in between the Mediterranean 
and the chain of Lebanon, whose lateral 
branches run out into the sea in bold pro- 
montories, upon which were situated some of 
the greatest maritime states of the ancient 
world. Eor the history of those great cities, 
see Sedox, Tvbes, See. The people were of 
the Semitic race, and their language was a 
dialect of the Aramaic, closely related to the 
Hebrew and Syriac. Their written characters 
were the same as the Samaritan or Old 
Hebrew ; and from them the Greek alphabet, 
and through it most of the alphabets of 
Europe, were undoubtedly derived; hence 
they were regarded by the Greeks as the in- 
ventors of letters. Other inventions in the 
sciences and arts are ascribed to them ; such 
as arithmetic, astronomy, navigation, the 
manufacture of glass, and the coining of 
j money. That, at a very early time, they ex- 
celled in the fine arts, is clear from the aid 
[ which Solomon received from Hiram, king of 



PHOENIX. 



323 



PIIRYGIA. 



Tyre, in the building and the sculptured de- 
corations of the temple at Jerusalem, and from 
the references in Homer to Sidonian artists. 
In the sacred history of the Israelitish con- 
quest of Canaan, in that of the Hebrew 
monarchy, and in the earliest Greek poetry, 
we find the Phoenicians already a great 
maritime people. Their voyages and their 
settlements extended beyond the pillars of 
Hercules, to the W. coasts of Africa and 
Spain, and even as far as our own islands. 
[Britaxxia.] Within the Mediterranean 
they planted numerous colonies, on its 
islands, on the coast of Spain, and especially 
on the N. coast of Africa, the chief of which 
was Carthago. They were successively 
subdued by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Per- 
sians, Macedonians, and Bomans ; but these 
conquests did not entirely ruin their com- 
merce, which was still considerable at the 
Christian era. Under the Bomans Phoenice 
formed a part of the province of Svria. 

PHOENIX (-Icis). (1) Son of Agenor and 
brother of Europa. Being sent by his father 
in search of his sister, who was carried off 
by Zeus (Jupiter), he settled in the country, 
which was called after him Phoenicia. — 
(2) Son of Amyntor by Cleobule or Hippo- 
damia. His father having neglected his wife, 
and attached himself to a mistress, Cleobule 
persuaded her son to gain the affections of 
the latter. Phoenix succeeded in the attempt, 
but was in consequence cursed by his father. 
Thereupon he fled to Phthia in Thessaly, where 
he was hospitably received by Peleus, who 
made him ruler of the Dolopes, and entrusted 
to him the education of his son Achilles, 
He afterwards accompanied Achilles to the 
Trojan war. According to another tradition, 
Amyntor put out the eyes of his son, who 
fled in this condition to Peleus ; but Chiron 
restored his sight. 

PHOLOE (-es), a mountain forming the 
boundary between Arcadia and Elis ; 
mentioned as one of the seats of the Centaurs. 
[Pholus.] 

PHOLUS (-i), a Centaur, accidentally slain 
by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules, 
and buried in the mountain called Pholoe 
after him. For the details of his story see 
p. 197. 

PHOBCUS (4), PHOBCYS (-yos), or 
PHOBCYN (-5-nos), a sea deity, son of Pontus 
and Ge, and father of the Graeae and 
Gorgones, who are hence called Phorcides, 
Phorcydes, o_r Phorcynides (-urn.) 

PHOBMION (-oiiis), a celebrated Athe- 
nian general in the Peloponnesian war. 

PHOBONEUS (-eos or -ei), son of Inachus 
and Melia, one of the fabulous kings of Argos, 
and father of Niobe, and Apis. Hence 



Phoroneus and Phoronis are used in the 
general sense of Argive. 

PHBAATES (-ae), the name of 4 kings of 
Parthia. [Arsaces, V. VII. XII. XV.] 

PHBAOBTES, 2nd king of Media, son and 
successor of Deioces, reigned b.c. 656 — 634. 
He was killed while laying siege to Ninus 
(Nineveh). 

PHBIXUS (-i), son of Athamas and 
Nephele, and brother of Helle. In conse- 
quence of the intrigues of his stepmother, 
Ino, he was to be sacrificed to Zeus (Jupiter) ; 
but Nephele rescued her 2 children, who 
rode away through the air upon the ram with 
the golden fleece, the gift of Hermes (Mer- 
cury). Between Sigeum and the Chersonesus, 
Helle fell into the sea which was called after 
her the Hellespont ; but Phrixus arrived in 
safety in Colchis, the kingdom of Aeetes, who 
gave him his daughter Chaiciope in marriage. 
Phrixus sacrificed to Zeus the ram which had 
carried him, and gave its fleece to Aeetes, 
who fastened it to an oak tree in the grove 
of Ares (Mars). This fleece was afterwards 
carried away by Jason and the Argonauts. 
[Jasox.] 

PHBYGIA MATEB. [Phrygia.] 
PHBYGIA (-ae), a country of Asia Minor, 
which was of different extent at different 
periods. Under the Boman empire, Phrygia 
was bounded on the W. by Mysia, Lydia, and 
Caria, on the S. by Lycia and Pisidia, on the 
E. by Lycaonia (which is often reckoned as a 
part of Phrygia) and Galatia (which formerly 
belonged to Phrygia), and on the N. by 
Bithynia. The Phrygians are mentioned by 
Homer as settled on the banks of the 
Sangaiius, where later writers tell us of the 
powerful Phrygian kingdom of Gordius and 
Midas. It would seem that they were a 
branch of the great Thracian family, originally 
settled in the N.W. of Asia Minor, as far as 
the shores of the Hellespont and Propontis, 
and that the successive migrations of other 
Thracian peoples, as the Thyni, Bithyni, 
Mysians, and Teucrians, drove them farther 
inland. They were not, however, entirely 
displaced by the Mysians and Teucrians from 
the country between the shores of the Helles- 
pont and Propontis andMts. Ida and Olympus, 
where they continued side by side with the 
Greek colonies, and where their name was 
preserved in that of the district under all 
subsequent changes, namely Phrygia Mixor 
or Phrygia Hellespoxtus. The kingdom 
of Phrygia was conquered by Croesus, and 
formed part of the Persian, Macedonian, and 
Syro-Grecian empires ; but, under the last, 
the N.E. part, adjacent to Paphlagonia and 
| the Halys, was conquered by the Gauls, and 
[ formed the W, part of Galatia ; and under 

y 2 



PHRYNICHUS. 



324 



PIERIA. 



the Romans was included in the province of 
Asia. In connexion with the early intel- 
lectual culture of Greece, Phrygia is highly 
important. The earliest Greek music, espe- 
cially that of the flute, was "borrowed in part, 
through the Asiatic colonies, from Phrygia. 
"With this country also were closely associated 
the orgies of Dionysus (Bacchus), and of 
Cybele, the Mother of the Gods, the Phrygia 
Mater of the Roman poets. After the Persian 
conquest, however, the Phrygians seem to 
have lost all intellectual activity, and they 
became proyerbial among the Greeks and 
Romans for submissiveness and stupidity. 
The Roman poets constantly use the epithet 
Phrygian as equivalent to Trojan. 

PHRYNICHUS (-i), an Athenian, and one 
of the early tragic poets, gained his first 
tragic victory in b.c. 511, 12 years before 
Aeschylus (499). 

PHTHIA. [Phthiotis.] 

PHTHIOTIS (-idis), a district in the S.E. 
of Thessaly, bounded on the S. by the Maliac 
gulf, and on the E. by the Pagasaean gulf, 
and inhabited by Achaeans. [Thessalia.] 
Homer calls it Phthia, and mentions a 
city of the same name, which was celebrated 
as the residence of Achilles. Hence the 
poets call Achilles Phthius hero, and his 
father Peleus Phthius rex. 

PHYCUS (-untis), a promontory on the 
coast of Cyrenaica, a little W. of Apollonia. 

PHY LACE (-es), a small town of Thessaly 
in Phthiotis, the birthplace of Protesilaus, 
hence called Phylacides : his wife Laodamia 
is also called Phylaceis. 

PHYLE (-es), a strongly fortified place in 
Attica, on the confines of Boeotia, and me- 
morable as the place which Thrasybulus and 
the Athenian patriots seized soon after the 
end of the Peloponnesian war, b.c. 404, and 
from which they directed their operations 
against the 30 Tyrants at Athens. 

PHYLLIS. [Demophon.] 

PHYLLUS (-i), a town of Thessaly in the 
district Thessaliotis. The poets use Phylleis 
and Phylleius in the sense of Thessalian. 

PHYSCON. [Ptolematjs.] 

PICENI. [Picentjm.] 

PICENTIA (-ae : Vicenza), a town in the 
S. of Campania at the head of the Sinus 
Paestanus. The name of Picentini was not 
confined to the inhabitants of Picentia, but 
was given to the inhabitants of the whole 
coast of the Sinus Paestanus, from the pro- 
montory of Minerva to the river Silarus. 
They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, 
•who were transplanted by the Romans to this 
part of Campania after the conquest of Pice- 
num, e.c 268, at which time they founded 
the town of Picentia. 



PICENTINI. [Picentia.] 

PICENUM (-i), a country in central Italy, 
was a narrow strip of land along the coast 
of the Adriatic, and was bounded on the N, 
by Umbria, on the "W. by Lnibria and the 
territory of the Sabines, and on the S. by the 
territory of the Marsi and Yestini. It is said 
to have derived its name from the bird jiicus, 
which directed the Sabine immigrants into 
the land. They were conquered by the 
Romans in b.c 268, when a portion of them 
was transplanted to the coast of the Sinus 
Paestanus, where they founded the town 
Picentia. [Picentia.] 

PICTI (-orum), a people inhabiting the 
northern part of Britain, appear to have 
been either a tribe of the Caledonians, or the 
same people as the Caledonians, though under 
another name. They were called Picti by 
the Romans, from their practice of painting 
their bodies. They are first mentioned in 
a.d. 296 ; and after this time their name 
frequently occurs in the Roman writers, and 
often in connexion with that of the Scoti. 

PICTONES (-urn), subsequently PICT AVI 
(-orum), a powerful people on the coast of 
Gallia Aquitanica. Their chief town was 
Limonum, subsequently Pictavi (Poitiers). 

PICUMNUS and PILUMNUS (-i), two gods 
of matrimony in the rustic religion of the 
ancient Romans. Pilunmus was considered 
the ancestor of Turnus. 

PICUS (-i), a Latin prophetic divinity, son 
of Saturnus, husband of Canens, and father 
of Faunus. The legend of Picus is founded 
on the notion that the woodpecker is a pro- 
phetic bird, sacred to Mars. Pomona was 
beloved by him ; and when Circe's love for 
him was not requited, she changed him into 
a woodpecker, who retained the prophetic 
powers which he had formerly possessed as a 
man. ^ 

PIERIA (-ae) . (I) A narrow slip of country 
on the S.E. coast of Macedonia, extending 
from the mouth of the Peneus in Thessaly to 
the Haliacmon, and bounded on the "SY. by 
Mt. Olympus and its offshoots. A portion of 
these mountains was called by the ancient 
writers Piertjs, or the Pierian mountain. 
The inhabitants of this country were a Thra- 
cian people, and are celebrated in the early 
history of Greek poetry and music, since 
their country was one of the earliest seats of 
the worship of the Muses, who are hence 
called Plerides. After the establishment of 
the Macedonian kingdom in Emathia in the 
7th century, b.c, Pieria was conquered by 
the Macedonians, and the inhabitants were 
driven out of the country. — (2) A district in 
Macedonia, E. of the Strymon, near Mt. Pan- 
gaeum, where the Pierians settled, who had 



PIERIDES. 



3 



25 



PIIUTHOUS. 



been driven out of their original abodes by 
the Macedonians, as already related. — (3) A 
district on the N. coast of Syria, so called 
from the mountain Pieria, a branch of the 
Amanus, a name given to it by the Macedo- 
nians after their conquest of the East. 

PIERIDES (-urn). (1) A surname of the 
Muses. [Pieria, No. 1.] — (2) The nine 
daughters of Pierus, king of Emathia (Ma- 
cedonia), to whom he gave the names of the 
9 Muses. They afterwards entered into a 
contest with the Muses, and, being conquered, 
were metamorphosed into birds. 

PIERUS. (1) Mythological. [Pierides.] 
— (2) A mountain. [Pieria, No. 1.] 

PILUMNUS. [PlCTJMNTTS.] 

PIMPLE A (-ae), a town in the Macedonian 
province of Pieria, sacred to the Muses, who 
were hence called Pimpleldes, Horace uses 
the form Pimplea in the singular, and not 
Pimple is. 

PIN ABA (-oram), an inland city of Lycia. 

PINARII and POTITII (-5mm), " the 
name of two ancient Roman families, who 
presided over the worship of Hercules at 
Rome. 

PINARUS (-i), a river of Cilicia, rising in 
Ml. Amanus, and falling into the gulf of 
Issus. 

PINDARUS (-i), the greatest lyric poet of 
Greece, was born at Cynoscephalae, a village 
in the territory of Thebes, about b.c. 522. 
He commenced his career as a poet at an 
early age, and was soon employed by dif- 
ferent states and princes in all parts of the 
Hellenic world to compose for them choral 
songs for special occasions. He received 
money and presents for his works ; but he 
never degenerated into a common mercenary 
poet, and he continued to preserve to his 
latest days the respect of all parts of Greece. 
The praises which he bestowed upon Alexan- 
der, king of Macedonia, are said to have been 
the chief reason which led Alexander the 
Great to spare the . house of the poet, when 
he destroyed the rest of Thebes. He died in 
his 80th year, b.c. 442. Pindar wrote poems 
of various kinds, most of which are men- 
tioned in the well-known lines of Horace : 

" Sen per audaces nova dithyramb os 
Verba devolvit, numerisque fertur 

Lege solutis : 
Sen deos (hymns and paeans) regesve (encomia) 

canit, deoram 
Sanguinem : . . . 
Sive quos Elea domum reducit 
Palma caelestes [the Epinicia) : . . . 
Flebili sponsae juvenernve raptum 
Plorat" (the dirges). 

But his only poems which have come down j 
to us entire are his Epinicia, which were 
composed in commemoration of victories in 
the public games. They are divided into 



4 books, celebrating the victories gained in 
the Olympian, Pythian, Nemean, and Isth- 
mian games. 

PINDENTSSUS (-i), a fortified town of 
Cilicia, which was taken by Cicero when he 
was proconsul of Cilicia. 

PINDUS (-i). (1) A lofty range of moun- 
tains in northern Greece, a portion of the 
great back bone, which runs through the 
centre of Greece from N. to S. The name of 
Pindu3 was confined to that part of the chain 
which separates Thessaly and Epirus ; and 
its most N.-ly and also highest part was called 
Lacmon. — (2) One of the 4 towns in Doris. 

PINNA (-ae), the chief town of the Yestini 
at the foot of the Apennines. 

PIRAEEUS (-eos) or PIRAEUS (-i : Porto 
Leone or Porto Dracone), the most important 
of the harbours of x-Uhens, was situated in 
the peninsula about 5 miles S.W. of Athens. 
This peninsula, which is sometimes called by 
the general name of Piraeeus, contained 3 
harbours, Piraeeus proper on the TV. side, 
by far the largest of the 3 ;. Zea on the E. 
side, separated from Piraeeus by a narrow 
isthmus, and Muxychia (Pharnari) still 
further to the E. It was through the sug- 
gestion of Themistocles that the Athenians 
were induced to make use of the harbour of 
Piraeeus. Before the Persian wars their 
principal harbour was Phalerum, which was 
not situated in the Piraean peninsula at all, 
but lay to the E. of Munychia. [Phaleru:j:.] 
The town or demus of Piraeeus was sur- 
rounded with strong fortifications by The- 
mistocles, and was connected with Athens by 
means of the celebrated Long Walls under 
the administration of Pericles. (See p. 66.) 
The town possessed a considerable population, 
and many public and private buildings. 

PIRENE (-es), a celebrated fountain at 
Corinth, at which Bellerophon is said to have 
caught the horse Pegasus. It gushed forth 
from the rock in the Acrocorinthus, was 
conveyed down the hill by subterraneous con- 
duits, and fell into a marble basin, from which 
the greater part of the town was supplied 
with water. The poets frequently used 
Pirenis in the general sense of Corinthian. 

PIRITHOUS (-i), son of Ixion and Dia, 
and king of the Lapithae in Thessaly. Piri- 
thoiis once invaded Attica, but when Theseus 
came forth to oppose him, he conceived a 
warm admiration for the Athenian king ; and 
from this time a most intimate friendship 
sprang up between the two heroes. When 
Pirithous was celebrating his marriage with 
Hippodamia, the intoxicated Centaur Eurytion 
or Eurytus carried her off, and this act oc- 
casioned the celebrated right between the 
Centaurs and Lapithae, in which the Centaurs 



PISA. 



326 



PISISTRATUS. 



were defeated. Theseus, who was present at 
the wedding of Pirithous, assisted him in his 
battle against the Centaurs. Hippodamia 
afterwards died, and each of the two friends 
resolved to wed a daughter of Zeus (Jupiter). 
With the assistance of Pirithotis, Theseus 
carried off Helen from Sparta. Pirithous 
was still more ambitious, and resolved to 
carry off Persephone (Proserpina', the wife 
of the king of the lower world. Theseus 
would not desert his friend in the enterprise, 
though he knew the risk which they ran. 
The two friends accordingly descended to the 
lower world, but they were seized by Pluto 
and fastened to a rock, where they both re- 
mained till Hercules visited the lower world. 
Hercules delivered Theseus, who had made 
the daring attempt only to please his friend; 
but Pirithous remained for ever in torment. 

PISA (-ae;, the capital of PISATIS (-idis), 
the middle portion of the province of Elis, in 
Peloponnesus. [Elis.] Pisa itself was situated 
X. of the Alphaeus, at a very short distance 
E. of Olympia, and, in consequence of its 
proximity to the latter place, was frequently 
identified by the poets with it. The history 
of the Pisatae consists of their struggle with 
the Eleans, with whom they contended for 
the presidency of the Olympic games. The 
Pisatae obtained this honour in the 8th 
Olympiad (b.c. 74S) with the assistance of 
Phidon, tyrant of Argos, and also a 2nd time 
in the 34th Olympiad (644' by means of their 
own king Pantaleon. In the 5 2nd Olympiad 
(572) the struggle between the 2 peoples was 
brought to a close by the conquest and destruc- 
tion_of Pisa by the Eleans. 

PISAE (-arum: Pisa), an ancient city of 
Etraria, and one of 12 cities of the confedera- 
tion, was situated at the confluence of the 
Arnos and Ausar [Serchio^, about 6 miles 
from the sea. According to some traditions. 
Pisae was founded by the companions of 
Nestor, the inhabitants of Pisa in Elis, who 
were driven upon the coast of Italy on their 
return from Troy ; whence the Eoman poets 
give the Etruscan town the surname of Alphea. I 
In b.c. 180 it was made a Latin colony. Its • 
harbour, called Poetus Pisanus, at the mouth ; 
of the Arnus, was much used by the Romans. 

PISAXDER (-dri;, an Athenian, the chief 
agent in effecting the revolution of the Four j 
Hundred, b.c. 412. 

PISATIS. [Pisa.] 

PISAURUM [-1: Pesara), an ancient town j 
of Lnibria, near the mouth of the river J 
PISALRES (Foglia), on the roadtoAriminum. j 

PISIDIA (-ae), an inland district of Asia I 
Minor, lying N. of Lycia and Pamphylia, was > 
a mountainous region, inhabited by a war- 
like people, who maintained their indepen- j 



dence against all the successive rulers of Asia 
Minor. 

PISISTRATIDAE (-arum), a name given 
to Hippias and Hipparchus, as the sons of 
Pisistratus. 

PlSISTRATUS (-i), an Athenian, son of Hip- 
pocrates, belonged to a noble family at Athens. 
His mother was cousin-german to the mother 
of Solon. When Solon had retired from 
Athens, after the establishment of his con- 
stitution, the old rivalry between the par- 
ties of the Plain, the Coast, and the High- 
lands, broke out into open feud. The first 
was headed by Lycurgus, the second by 
Megacles, the son of Alcmaeon, and the third 
by Pisistratus, who had formed the design of 
making himself tyrant or despot of Athens. 
Solon, on his return, quickly saw through 
his designs, and attempted in vain to dissuade 
I him from overthrowing the constitution. 
! When Pisistratus found his plans sufficiently 
' ripe for execution, he one day made his ap- 
| pearance in the agora, his mules and his own 
! person exhibiting recent wounds, and pre- 
1 tended that he had been nearly assassinated 
by his enemies as he was riding into the 
country. An assembly of the people was 
forthwith called, in which one of his partisans 
! proposed that a body-guard of 50 citizens, 
I armed with clubs, should be granted to him. 
' Pisistratus took the opportunity of raising 
a much larger force, with which he seized 
the citadel, b.c. 560, thus becoming tyrant 
of Athens. His first usurpation lasted but a 
short time. Before his power was firmly 
: rooted, the factions headed by Megacles and 
| Lycurgus combined, and Pisistratus was com- 
pelled to evacuate Athens. But Megacles and 
i Lycurgus soon quarrelled ; whereupon the 
' former offered to reinstate Pisistratus in the 
tyranny if he would marry his daughter. 
The proposal was accepted by Pisistratus, 
who thus became a second time tyrant of 
' Athens. Pisistratus now married the daugh- 
! ter of Megacles ; but in consequence of the 
insulting manner in which he treated his 
! wife, Megacles again made common cause 
: with Lycurgus, and Pisistratus was a second 
time compelled to evacuate Athens. He re- 
tired to Eretria, in Euboea ; and after spend- 
ing 10 years in making preparations to re- 
gain his power, he invaded Attica, and made 
himself master of Athens for the third time. 
He was not expelled again, but continued to 
hold his power till his death. His rule was 
not oppressive. He maintained the form of 
Solon's institutions, and not only exacted 
obedience to the laws from his subjects and 
friends, but himself set the example of sub- 
mitting to them. He was a warm patron of 
literature : and it is to him that we owe the 



PISO. 



327 



PISTOR. 



first written text of the whole of the poems 
of Homer, which, without his care, would 
most likely now exist only in a few disjointed 
fragments. [Homerus.] He died in b.c. 527, 
and was succeeded in the tyranny by his two 
sons Hippias and Hipparchus. They con- 
tinued the government on the same principles 
as their father. Hipparchus inherited his 
father's literary tastes. Several distinguished 
poets lived at Athens under the patronage of 
Hipparchus, as, for example, Simonides of 
Ceos and Anacreon of Teos. After the mur- 
der of Hipparchus, in b.c. 514, an account of 
which is given under Harmodius, a great 
change ensued in the character of the govern- 
ment. Under the influence of revengeful 
feelings and fears for his own safety, Hippias 
now became a morose and suspicious tyrant. 
His old enemies the Alcmaeonidae, to whom 
Megacles belonged, availed themselves of the 
growing discontent of the citizens ; and after 
one or two unsuccessful attempts they at 
length succeeded, supported by a large force 
under Cleomenes,in expelling Hippias from At- 
tica. Hippias first retired to Sigeum, b.c. 510. 
He afterwards repaired to the court of Darius, 
and looked forward to a restoration to his 
country by the aid of the Persians. He ac- 
companied the expedition sent under Datis 
and Artaphernes, and pointed out to the Per- 
sians the plain of Marathon as the most suit- 
able place for their landing. He was now 
(490) of great age. According to some ac- 
counts he fell in the battle of Marathon ; 
according to others he died at Lemnos, on his 
return. 

PISO (-puis), the name of a distinguished 
family of the Calpurnia gens. The name is 
connected with agriculture, the most honour- 
able pursuit of the ancient Romans : it comes 
from the verb pisere or jnnsere, and refers to 
the pounding or grinding of corn. The chief 
members of the family are : — (1) L. Calpur- 
nius Piso Caesoninus, consul b.c. 112, served 
as legatus under L. Cassius Longinus, b.c. 
107, and fell in battle against the Tigurini, 
in the territory of the Allobroges. This Piso 
was the grandfather of Caesar's father-in-law, 
a circumstance to which Caesar alludes in 
recording his own victory over the Tigurini 
at a later time. — (2) L. Calpurnius Piso 
Frugi, consul b.c. 133, received, from his in- 
tegrity and conscientiousness, the surname of 
Frugi, which is nearly equivalent to our 
!' man of honour." He was a staunch sup- 
porter of the aristocratical party, and offered 
a strong opposition to the measures of C. 
Gracchus. He wrote Annals, which con- 
tained the history of Rome from the earliest 
period to the age in which Piso himself lived. 
— (3) C. Calpurnius Piso, consul b.c 67, 



belonged to the aristocratical party. He 
afterwards administered the province of Nar- 
bonese Gaul as pro-consul. In 63 he was 
accused of plundering the province, and was 
defended by Cicero. The latter charge was 
brought against Piso at the instigation of 
Caesar ; and Piso, in revenge, implored 
Cicero, but without success, to accuse Caesar 
as one of the conspirators of Catiline. — 
(4) M. Calpurnius Piso, usually called M. 
Pupius Piso, because he was adopted by M. 
Pupius. He was elected consul b.c 61, 
through the influence of Pompey. — (5) Cn. 
Calpurnius Piso, a young noble who had dis- 
sipated his fortune by his extravagance and 
profligacy, and therefore joined Catiline in 
what is usually called his first conspiracy (66). 
The senate, anxious to get rid of Piso, sent 
him into Nearer Spain as quaestor, but with the 
rank and title of propraetor. His exactions in 
the province soon made him so hateful to the 
inhabitants, that he was murdered by them. — 
(6) L. Calpurnius Piso, consul b.c. 58, was 
an unprincipled debauchee and a cruel and 
corrupt magistrate. Piso and his colleague, 
Gabinius, supported Clodius in his measures 
against Cicero, which resulted in the banish- 
ment of the orator. Piso afterwards governed 
Macedonia, and plundered the province in the 
most shameless manner. On his return to 
Rome (55), Cicero attacked him in a speech 
which is extant (In Pisonem). Calpurnia, 
the daughter of Piso, was the last wife of the 
dictator Caesar. — (7) C. Calpurnius Piso 
Frugi, the son-in-law of Cicero, married his 
daughter Tullia, in b.c 63. He died in 57. — 

(8) Cx. Calpurnius Piso was appointed by 
Tiberius to the command of Syria in a.d. 18, 
in order that he might thwart and oppose 
Germanicus, who had received from the em- 
peror the government of all the eastern pro- 
vinces. Plancina, the wife of Piso, was also 
urged on by Livia, the mother of the emperor, 
to vie with' and annoy Agrippina. German- 
icus and Agrippina were thus exposed to 
every species of insult and opposition from 
Piso and Plancina ; and when Germanicus 
fell ill in the autumn of 19, he believed that 
he had been poisoned by them. Piso, on his 
return to Rome (20), was accused of murder- 
ing Germanicus ; the matter was investigated 
by the senate ; but before the investigation 
came to an end, Piso was found one morning 
in his room with his throat cut, and his svrord 
lying by his side. The powerful influence of 
Livia secured the acquittal of Plancina. — 

(9) C. Calpurnius Piso, the leader of the 
well-known conspiracy against Nero in a.d. 
65. On the discovery of the plot he put an 
end to his life by opening his veins 

PISTOR (-oris), the Baker, a surname of 



PISTORIA. 



328 



PLATO. 



Jupiter at Some, because when the Gauls 
were besieging Rome, he suggested to the 
besieged the idea of throwing loaves of bread 
among the enemies, to make them believe 
that the Romans had plenty of provisions. 

PISTORIA (-ae), or PISTORIUM (-i : 
Pistoia), a small place in Etruria, on the 
road from Luea to Florentia, rendered 
memorable by the defeat of Catiline in its 
neighbourhood. 

PIT AXE (-es), a seaport town of Mysia, on 
the coast of the Elaitic gulf ; the birthplace 
of the Academic philosopher Arcesilaus. 

PITHECUSA. [Aenaeia.] 

PITHO (-us), the Greek goddess of persua- 
sion, called Sua da or Suadela by the Romans. 
Her worship was closely connected with that 
of Aphrodite (Yenus.) 

PITTACUS (-i), one of "the Seven Wise 
Men " of Greece, was a native of Mytilene 
in Lesbos, and was highly celebrated as a 
warrior, a statesman, a philosopher, and a 
poet. In b.c. 606, he commanded the Myti- 
lenaeans, in their war with the Athenians 
for the possession of Sigeuni, and signalised 
himself by killing in single combat Phrynon, 
the commander of the Athenians. The 
supreme power at Mytilene was fiercely dis- 
puted between a succession of tyrants, and 
the aristocratic party, headed by Alcaeus, 
and the latter was driven into exile. As the 
exiles tried to effect their return by force 
of arms, the popular party chose Pittacus as 
their ruler, with absolute power, under the 
title of Aesymnetes. He held this office for 
10 years (589 — 579) and then voluntarily 
resigned it, having restored order to the 
state. He died in 569, at an advanced age. 

PITTHEUS (-eosand-el), king of Troezene, 
was son of Pelops, father of Aethra, and 
grandfather and instructor of Theseus. Aethra 
as his daughter is called Pittheis. 

PLACEXTIA (-ae : Piacenza), a Roman 
colony in Cisalpine Gaul, founded at the same 
time as Cremona, e.g. 219, and situated on 
the right bank of the Po, not far from the 
mouth of the Trebia. It was taken and 
destroyed by the Gauls in b.c 200, but was 
soon rebuilt by the Romans, and became an 
important place. 

PLAN ASIA (-ae : Pianosa), an island 
between Corsica and the coast of Etruria, to 
which Augustus banished his grandson 
Agrippa Postumus. 

PLAXCIXA. [Piso, No. 9.] 

PLAXCIUS, CX. (-i), whom Cicero defended 
b.c. 54, in an oration still extant, when he 
was accused of having practised bribery in 
order to gain his election as curule aedile. 

PLAXCUS (-i), the name of a distinguished 
family of the Munatia gens. The surname 



Plancus signified a person, having flat splay 
feet without any bend in them. (1) L. MrxA- 
tius Plaxcus, a friend of Julius Caesar, who 
nominated him to the government of Trans- 
alpine Gaul for b.c. 44. Here he joined 
Antony and Lepidus. He was consul in 42, 
and governed in succession the provinces of 
Asia and Syria. He deserted Antony and 
Augustus shortly before the breaking out of 
the civil war between the two in 31. Both 
the public and private life of Plancus was 
stained by numerous vices. One of Horace's 
odes [Carm. i. 7) is addressed to him. — (2) T. 
Muxatius Plaxcus Buesa, brother of the 
former, was tribune of the plebs b.c 52, and 
was condemned to banishment on account of 
his proceedings in this year. He fought on 
Antony's side in the campaign of Mutina. — 
(3) Cx. Muxatius Plaxcus, brother of the 
two preceding, was praetor in 43. — (4) L. 
Plautius Plaxcus, brother of the 3 preceding-, 
was adopted by a L. Plautius. He was 
included in the proscription of the triumvirs, 
43, with the consent of his brother Lucius, 
and was put to death. 

PLATAEA (-ae), more commonly PLA- 
TAEAE (-arum), an ancient city of Boeotia, 
on the N. slope of Mt. Cithaeron, not far from 
the sources of the Asopus, and on the fron- 
tiers of Attica. It was said to have derived 
its name from Plataea, a daughter of Asopus. 
At an early period the Plataeans deserted the 
Boeotian confederacy and placed themselves 
under the protection of Athens ; and when 
the Persians invaded Attica, b.c 490, they 
sent 1000 men to the assistance of the Athe- 
nians, and fought on their side at the battle 
of Marathon. Ten years afterwards (480) 
their city was destroyed by the Persian army 
under Xerxes at the instigation of the The- 
bans ; and the place was still in ruins in the 
following year (479), when the memorable 
battle was fought in their territory, in which 
Mardonius was defeated, and the independence 
of Greece secured. In consequence of this 
victory, the territory of Plataea was declared 
inviolable. It now enjoyed a prosperity of 
50 years ; but in the 3rd. year of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war (429) the Thebans persuaded 
the Spartans to attack the town, and after a 
siege of 2 years at length succeeded in obtain- 
ing possession of the place (427). Plataea 
was now razed to the ground, but was again 
rebuilt after the peace of Antalcidas (387). 
It was destroyed the 3rd time by its inveterate 
enemies the Thebans in 374. It was once 
more restored under the Macedonian supre- 
macy, and continued in existence till a very 
late period, 

PLATO (-onis). (1) The Athenian comic 
poet, was a contemporary with Aristophanes, 



PLAUTUS. 



329 



PLINIUS. 



and flourished from b.c. 428 to 389. He | 
ranked among 1 the very hest poets of the Old 
Comedy. — (2) The philosopher, was the son 
of Ariston and Perictione or Potone, and was | 
born at Athens either in b.c. 429 or 428. | 
According to others, he was horn in the 
neighbouring island of Aegina. His paternal 
family boasted of being descended from 
Codrus ; his maternal ancestors of a relation- 
ship with Solon. He was instructed in 
grammar, music, and gymnastics by the most 
distinguished teachers of that time ; and in 
his 20th year he became a follower of Socrates, 
and one of his most ardent admirers. After 
the death of Socrates (399) he withdrew to 
Megara, and subsequently visited Egypt, 
Sicily, and the Greek cities in Lower Italy, 
through his eagerness for knowledge. During 
his residence in Sicily he became acquainted 
with the elder Dionysius, but soon fell out with 
the tyrant. According to a common story 
he was sold as a slave by the tyrant, but was 
set at liberty by Anniceris of Cyrene. After 
his return he began to teach in the gymnasium 
of the Academy and its shady avenues, whence 
his school was subsequently called the 
Academic. Over the vestibule of his house 
he set up the inscription, " Let no one enter 
who is unacquainted with geometry." Plato's 
occupation as an instructor was twice inter- 
rupted by his voyages to Sicily ; first when 
Dion persuaded him to try to win the younger 
Dionysius to philosophy ; the second time, a 
few years later (about 360), when the invi- 
tation of Dionysius to reconcile the disputes 
which had broken out between him and Dion, 
brought him back to Syracuse. His efforts 
were both times unsuccessful and he owed 
his . own safety to nothing but the earnest 
intercession of Archytas. He died in the 
82nd year of his age, b.c. 347. Plato wrote 
a great number of works on different phi- 
losophical subjects, which are still extant. 
They are in the form of dialogue, and are 
distinguished by purity of language and 
elegance of style. 

PLAUTUS (-i), T. MACCIUS (not ACCIUS), 
the most celebrated comic poet of Rome, was 
a native of Sarsina, a small village in Umbria, 
and was born abcut b.c. 254. In early life 
he was in needy circumstances. He was first 
employed in the service of the actors, and 
having saved a little money, he left Rome 
and set up in business. But his speculations 
having failed, he returned to Rome, and en- 
tered the service of a baker, who employed 
him in turning a hand-mill. While thus 
engaged he wrote 3 plays, the sale of which 
to the managers of the public games enabled 
him to quit his drudgery, and begin his lite- 
rary career. He was then probably about 30 



years of age (224). He continued his literary 
occupation for about 40 years, and died in 
184, when he was 70 years of age. 20 of his 
comedies have come down to us. They 
enjoyed unrivalled popularity among the 
Romans, and continued to be represented 
down to the time of Diocletian. They appear 
to be all founded upon Greek models ; but 
he takes greater liberties with the originals 
than Terence. 

PLEIADES or PLEIADES (-urn), were 
the daughters of Atlas and Pleione, whence 
they bear the name of the Atlantidez. 
They were called Vergiliae by the Romans. 
They were the sisters of the Hyades, and 
7 in number, 6 of whom are described as 
visible and the 7th as invisible. Some 
call the 7 th Sterope, and relate that she be- 
came invisible from shame, because she alone 
had loved a mortal man. The Pleiades were 
virgin companions of Artemis (Diana), and, 
together with their mother Pleione, were 
pursued by the hunter Orion in Boeotia ; 
their prayer to be rescued from him was 
heard by the gods, and they were metamor- 
phosed into doves {TiXuccZis), and placed 
among the stars, The rising of the Pleiades 
in Italy is about the beginning of May, and 
their setting about the beginning of Novem- 
ber. Their names are Electra, Maia, Taygete, 
Alcyone, Celaeno, Sterope, and Merope. 

PLEMMYRIUM (-i), a promontory on the 
S. coast of Sicily, immediately S. of Syracuse. 

PLEIONE (-es) a daughter of Oceanus, 
and mother of the Pleiades by Atlas. [Atlas ; 
Pleiades.] 

PLEUMOXil (-drum), a small tribe in 
Gallia Belgica, subject to the Nervii. 

PLEURON (-onis), an ancient city in 
Aetolia, situated at a little distance from the 
coast. It was abandoned by its inhabitants 
when Demetrius II., king of Macedonia, laid 
waste the surrounding country, and a new 
city was built under the same name near the 
ancient one. The 2 cities are distinguished 
by geographers under the names of Old 
Pleuron and New Pleuron respectively. 

PLINIUS (-i). (1) C. Plinius Secundum, 
frequently called Pliny the Elder, was born 
a.d. 23, either at Yerona or Novum Comum 
(Como) in the N. of Italy. In his youth he 
served in the army in Germany, and after- 
wards practised for a time as a pleader at 
Rome. But he spent the greater part of his 
time in study, and was one of the most labo- 
rious students that ever»lived. He perished 
in the celebrated eruption of Yesuvius, which 
overwhelmed Herculaneum and Pompeii, in 
a.d. 79, being 56 years of age. He was at 
the time stationed at Misenum in the com- 
mand of the Roman fleet ; and it was his 



PLISTHENES, 



330 



POLA. 



anxiety to examine more closely the extra- 
ordinary phenomenon, which led him to sail 
to Stabiae, where he landed and perished, 
riiny wrote a great number of works, but 
the only one which has come down to us is 
his Historia Xaturalis. It is divided into 37 
books, and is dedicated to Titus, the son of 
Vespasian, with whom Pliny lived on very 
intimate terms, — (2) C. Plinies Caecilies 
Secendes, frequently called Pliny the younger, 
was the son of C. Caecilius, and of Plinia, the 
sister of the elder Pliny. He was born at 
Comum in a.d. 61 ; and having lost his father 
at an early age, he was adopted by his uncle. 
From his youth he was devoted to letters. In 
his 14th year he wrote a Greek tragedy, and 
in his 19th year he began to speak in the 
forum, and became distinguished as an orator. 
He was a friend of the historian Tacitus. In 
a,d. 100 he was consul, and in 103 he was 
appointed propraetor of the province Pontica, 
where he did not stay quite 2 years. His 
extant works are his Panegyricus, which is 
a fulsome eulogium on Trajan, and the 10 
books_of his Ppistolae. 

PLISTHENES (-is), son of Atreus, and 
husband of Aerope or Eriphyle, by whom he 
became the father of Agamemnon, Menelaus, 
and Anaxibia ; but Homer makes the latter 
the children of Atreus. [Aga^iemxox ; 
Ate EEs.] 

PLISTOAXAX or PLISTOXAX (-actis), 
king of Sparta b.c. 458 — 408, was the eldest 
son of the Pausanias who conquered at 
Plataea, e.g. 479. During 19 years of his 
reign (445 — 426), he lived in exile, but was 
afterwards recalled, in obedience to the 
Delphic oracle. 

PLISTUS (-i), a small river in Phocis, 
rising in Mt. Parnassus, and falling into the 
Crissaean gulf. 

PLOTIXA, POMPEIA (-ae), the wife of 
the emperor Trajan, who persuaded her hus- 
band to adopt Hadrian. 

PLOTIXUS (-i), the founder of the Xeo-Pla- 
tonic system, was born in Egypt, about a.d. 
203. He taught during the latter part of his 
life at Rome, where he had among his dis- 
ciples the celebrated Porphyry. His works, 
which have come down to us, were put into 
their present form by Porphyry. Plotinus 
died at Puteoli, in Campania, a.d. 262. 

PLUT ARCHES (-i), the biographer and 
philosopher, was born at Chaeronea, in 
Bceotia, probably in the reign of Claudius. 
He lived for some time at Rome, and in other 
parts of Italy ; and he was lecturing at Rome 
during the reign of Domitian. He spent the 
later years of his life at Chaeronea, where 
he discharged various magisterial offices, and 
held a priesthood. The time of his death is 



unknown. The work which has immortalised 
Plutarch's name is his Parallel Lives of 
Greeks and Romans. Perhaps no work of 
antiquity has been so extensively read in 
modern times as these Lives. The reason of 
their popularity is that Plutarch has rightly 
conceived the business of a biographer : his 
biography is true portraiture. His other 
writings, above 60 in number, are placed 
under the general title of Jloralia, or Ethical 
works. The best of them are practical ; and 
their merits consist in the soundness of his 
views on the ordinary events of human life, 
and in the benevolence of his temper. 

PLUTO or PLtTOX (-onis), the giver of 
wealth, at first a surname of Hades, the god 
of the lower world, and afterwards used as 
the real name of the god. An account of the 
god is_ given under Hades. 

PLUTUS (-i), the god of wealth, is de- 
scribed as a son of Iasion and Demeter 
(Ceres). [Iasion.] Zeus (Jupiter) is said 
to have deprived him of sight, that he might 
distribute his gifts blindly, and without any 
regard to merit. 

PLL'YIUS (-i), i.e., "the sender of rain," a 
surname of Jupiter among the Romans, to 
whom sacrifices were offered during long- 
protracted_droughts. 

PODALIRIUS (-i), son of Aesculapius, 
and brother of Machaon, along with whom 
he led the Thessalians of Tricca against Troy. 
He was, like his brother, skilled in the 
medical art. On his return from Troy he 
was cast by a storm on the coast of Syros, in 
Caria, where he is said to have settled. 

PODARCES (-is). (1) The original name 
of Priam. [Priames.]— (2) Son of Iphicius, 
and grandson of Phylacus, was a younger 
brother of Protesilaus, and led the Thessa- 
lians of Phylace against Troy. 

PODARGE. [Harpyiae.] 

POEAS (-antis), father of Philoctetes, who 
is hence called Poeantiades, Poeantius heros, 
Poeantia proles, and Poeante satus. Poeas 
is mentioned among the Argonauts. [Hek- 
celes ; Philoctetes.] 

POEXI (-orum), a common name of the 
Carthaginians, because they were a colony of 
Phoenicians. 

POGOX (-onis), the harbour of Troezen, 
in Argolis. 

POLA (-ae), an ancient town in Istria, 
situated on the W. coast, and near the pro- 
montory Poeaticem, said to have been 
founded by the Colchians, who had been sent 
in pursuit of Medea. It was subsequently 
a Roman colony, and an important c©m- 

| mercial town, being united by good roads 
with Aquileia and the principal towns of 

\ Illyria. Its importance is attested by its 



POLEMON. 



331 



rOLLIO. 



magnificent ruins, of which the principal are 
those of an amphitheatre, of a triumphal 
arch, and of several temples. 

POLEMON ^-onis). (1) I. King- of Pontus 
and the Bosporus, was the son of Zenon, the 
orator, of Laodicea. He was appointed by 
Antony in b.c. 39 to the government of a 
part of Cilicia ; and he subsequently obtained 
in exchange the kingdom of Pontus. After 
the battle of Actium he was able to make his 
peace with Augustus, who confirmed him in 
his kingdom. About b.c. 16 he was intrusted 
by Agrippa with the charge of reducing the 
kingdom of Bosporus, of which he was made 
king after conquering the country. He 
afterwards fell in an expedition against the 
barbarian tribe of the Aspurgians. He was 
succeeded by his wife, Pythodoris. — (2} II. 
Son of the preceding and of Pythodoris, was 
raised to the sovereignty of Pontus and Bos- 
porus by Caligula, in a.d. 39. He was 
induced by Nero to abdicate the throne in 
a.d. 62, and Pontus was reduced to the con- 
dition of a Roman province. — (3) Of Athens, 
an eminent Platonic philosopher. In his 
youth he was extremely profligate ; but one 
day, when he was about 30, on his bursting 
into the school of Xenocrates. at the head of 
a band of revellers, his attention was so 
arrested by the discourse, which chanced to 
be upon temperance, that he tore off his 
garland, and remained an attentive listener. 
From that day he adopted an abstemious 
course of life, and continued to frequent the 
school, of which, on the death of Xenocrates, 
he became the head, b.c. 315. He died in 
273, at a great age. — (4) A Stoic philosopher 
and an eminent geographer, gtiraamed Perie-i 
ffetes; lived in the time of Ptolemy Epiphanes, 
at the beginning of the 2nd century b.c — 
(5) Axxoxirs, a celebrated sophist and rheto- 
rician, flourished under Trajan, Hadrian, and 
the first Antoninus. He was born of a con- 
sular family, at Laodicea, but spent the 
greater part of his life at Smyrna. His most 
celebrated disciple was Aristides. During 
the latter part of his life he was so tortured 
by the gout, that he resolved to put an end 
to his existence ; he caused himself to be 
shut up in the tomb of his ancestors at Laodi- 
cea, where he died of hunger, at the age of 
65. — (6) The author of a short Greek work 
on Physiognomy, which is still extant. He 
probably lived in the 2nd or 3rd century after 
Christ. _ 

IPOLEMONIUM (-i), a city on the coast of 
Pontus in Asia Minor, built by King Polemon 
(probably the 2nd), on the site of the older 
city of Side, and at the bottom of a deep gulf. 

POLIAS (-adis), i.e. " the goddess protect- 
ing the city," a surname of Athena at Athens, 



: where she was worshipped as the protecting 
j divinity of the acropolis. 

POLIORCETES, DEMETRIUS. [Deme- 
trius.] 

POLITES (-ae), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
and father of Priam the younger, was slain 
by Pyrrhus. 
*POLITORIUM (-i), a town in the interior 
; of Latium, destroyed by Ancus Martius. 

POLL A, ARGEXTARIA (-ae), the wife of 
j the poet Lucan. 

POLLEXTIA (-ae : Polenza), a town of 
| the Statielli in Liguria at the confluence of 
the Sturia and the Tanarus. It was cele- 
! brated for its wool. In its neighbourhood 
Stilicho gained a victory over the Goths under 
i Alaric. 

POLLIO (-onis), ASIXIUS (-i), a dis- 
! tinguished orator, poet, and historian of the 
! Augustan age. He was born at Rome in b.c. 
76, and became distinguished as an orator 
at an early age. In the civil war he fought 
on Caesar's side, and at the death of the dic- 
tator held the command of the Further Spain. 
: He subsequently united his forces to those of 
| Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. He was 
! afterwards appointed by Antony to settle the 
i veterans in the lands which had been assigned 
to them in the Transpadane Gaul. It was 
i upon this occasion that he saved the pro- 
| perty of the poet Virgil at Mantua from 
: confiscation. In b.c 40 Pollio took an active 
i part in effecting the reconciliation between 
j Octavian and Antony at Brundusium, In the 
j same year he was consul ; and it was during 
his consulship that Virgil addressed to him 
his 4th Eclogue. In b.c. 39 Antony went to 
j Greece, and Pollio, as the legate of Antony, 
defeated the Parthini and took the Dalmatian 
| town of Salonae. It was during his Illyrian 
campaign that Virgil addressed to him the 
! 8th Eclogue. From this time Pollio with- 
drew from political life, and devoted himself 
to the study of literature. He died a.d. 4, 
; in the 80th year of his age. Pollio was not 
I only a patron of Virgil, Horace, and other 
' great poets and writers, but he was also the 
| first person to establish a public library at 
Rome. Xone of Pollio's own works have 
! come down to us, but they possessed sufficient 
merit to lead his contemporaries to class his 
name with those of Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust, 
: as an orator, a poet, and an historian. It 
j was as an orator that he possessed the greatest 
reputation ; and Horace speaks of him as 
" Insigne maesfis praesidium reis et con- 
sulenti, Pollio, curiae." Pollio wrote the 
history of the civil wars in 17 books, com- 
mencing with the consulship of Metellus and 
Afranius, b.c 60. As a poet Pollio was best 
known by his tragedies, which are spoken of 



POLLIO. 



332 



POLYDORUS. 



in high terms by Yirgil and Horace, but 
which probably did not possess any great 
merit, as they are hardly mentioned by sub- 
sequent writers. 

POLLIO (-onis), YEDIUS, a friend of 
Augustus, who used to feed his lampreys with 
human flesh. Whenever a slave displeased 
him, the unfortunate wretch was forthwith 
thrown into the pond as food for the fish. 
He died b.c. 15, leaving a large part of his 
property to Augustus. It was this Pollio, 
who built the celebrated villa of Pausilypum 
near Naples. 

POLLUX or POLYDEUCES. [Dioscuri.] 

POLLUX (-Qcis), JULIUS (-i), of Naucratis 
in Egypt, a Greek sophist and grammarian, 
who lived in the reign of Commodus. He is 
the author of an extant work, entitled Ono- 
masticon, in 10 books, containing explanations 
of the meanings of Greek words. 

POLYAEXUS (-i). (1) Of Lampsacus, a ma- 
thematician and a friend. of Epicurus. — (2) A 
Macedonian, the author of the work on Stra- 
tagems in war, which is still extant, lived 
about the middle of the 2nd century of the 
Christian era. 

POLYBIUS (-i), the historian, the son of 
Lycortas, and a native of Megalopolis, in 
Arcadia, was born about b.c. 204. His father 
Lycortas was one of the most distinguished 
men of the Achaean league ; and Polybius at 
an early age took part in public affairs. After 
the conquest of Macedonia by the Romans, 
in b.c. 168, Polybius was one of the 1000 
distinguished Achaeans who were carried as 
prisoners to Rome. On his arrival in Italy 
he acquired the friendship of the younger 
Scipio Africanus. After remaining in Italy 
1 7 years, Polybius returned to Peloponnesus 
in b.c. 151, with the surviving Achaean 
exiles, who were at length allowed by the 
senate to revisit their native land. Soon 
afterwards he joined Scipio in his campaign 
against Carthage, and was present at the 
destruction of that city in 146. Immediately 
afterwards he hurried to Greece, where he 
arrived soon after the capture of Corinth ; 
and he exerted all his influence to alleviate 
the misfortunes of his countrymen, and to 
procure favourable terms for them. He un- 
dertook journeys into foreign countries for 
the purpose of visiting the places which he 
had to describe in his history. He died at 
the age of 82, in consequence of a fall from 
his horse, about b.c 122. His history con- 
sisted of 40 books. It began b.c 220, where 
the history of Aratus left off, and ended at 
146, in which year Corinth was destroyed. 
It consisted of 2 distinct parts. The first 
part comprised a period of 35 years, begin- 
ning with the 2nd Punic war, and the Social 



war in Greece, and ending with the conquest 
of Perseus and the downfal of the Mace- 
donian kingdom, in 168. This was in fact 
the main portion of his work, and its great 
object was to show how the Romans had in 
this brief period of 53 years conquered the 
greater part of the world ; but since the 
Greeks were ignorant, for the most part, of 
the early history of Rome, he gives a survey 
of Roman history from the taking of the city 
by the Gauls to the commencement of the 
2nd Punic war, in the first 2 books, which 
thus form an introduction to the body of the 
work, The second part of the work, which 
formed a kind of supplement to the former 
part, comprised the period from the conquest 
of Perseus in 168, to the fall of Corinth in 
146. This history of Polybius is one of the 
most valuable works that has come down to 
us from antiquity ; but unfortunately the 
greater part of it has perished. We possess 
the first 5 books entire, but of the rest we 
have only fragments and extracts. 

POLYBUS (-i), king of Corinth, by whom 
Oedipus wa_s brought up. [Oedipus.] 

POLYCLETUS (-i), of Argos, probably by 
citizenship, and of Sicyon, probably by birth, 
was one of the most celebrated statuaries of 
the ancient world. He was also a sculptor, 
an architect, and an artist in toreutic. He 
was somewhat younger than Phidias, and 
flourished about b.c. 452 — 412. Phidias was 
unsurpassed in making the images of the 
gods, Polycletus_in those of men. 

POLYCRATES (-is), tyrant of Samos, and 
one of the most powerful of all the Greek 
tyrants. He possessed a large navy and ex- 
tended his sway over several of the neigh- 
bouring islands. The most eminent artists 
and poets found a welcome at his court ; and 
his friendship for Anacreon is particularly 
celebrated. But in the midst of his prospe- 
rity Oroetes, the satrap of Sardis, allured him 
to the mainland, where he was arrested soon 
after his arrival, and crucified, b.c 522. 

POLYDAMAS (-antis), son of Panthous and 
Phrontis, was a Trojan hero, a friend of 
Hector, and brother of Euphorbus. 

POLYDECTES (-ae), king of the island of 
Seriphos, received kindly Danae and Perseus. 
[Perseus.] 

POLYDEUCES, called by the Romans 
Pollux. [Dioscuri.] 

POLYDORUS (-i). (1) King of Thebes, 
son of Cadmus and Harmonia, husband of 
Nyctei's, and father of Labdacus ,— (2) The 
youngest among the sons of Priam and Laotoe, 
was slain by Achilles. This is the Homeric 
account ; but later traditions make him a 
son of Priam and Hecuba, and give a different 
account of his death. When Ilium was on 



POLYGNOTUS. 



333 



POLYXENA. 



the point of falling into the hands of the 
Greeks, Priam entrusted Polydorns and a ' 
large sum of money to Polymestor or Polym- I 
nestor, king of the Thracian Chersonesus. 
After the destruction of Troy, Polymestor 
killed Polydorus for the purpose of getting 
possession of his treasures, and cast his body 
into the sea. His body was afterwards 
washed upon the coast, where it was found 
and recognised by his mother Hecuba, who 
took vengeance upon Polymestor by killing 
his two children, and putting out his eyes. 
Another tradition stated that Polydorus was 
entrusted to his sister Iliona, who was 
married to Polymestor. She brought him I 
up as her own son. while she made every | 
one else believe that her own son Dei'philus j 
or De'ipylus was Polydorus. Polymestor, at 
the instigation of the Greeks, slew his own 
son, supposing him to be Polydorus ; where- 
upon the latter persuaded his sister Iliona to 
put Polymestor to death. 

POLYGXOTUS (f-i), one of the most 
celebrated Greek painters, was the son of 
Aglaophon, and a native of the island of 
Thasos, but he received the citizenship of 
Athens, on which account he is sometimes 
called an Athenian. He lived on intimate terms ! 



with Cimon and his sister Elpinice ; and he 
probably came to Athens in B.C. 4G3 : after the 
subjugation of Thasos by Cimon he con- 
tinued to exercise his art almost down to 
the beginning of the Peloponnesian war (431). 

POLYHYMNIA. [Musae.] 

POLYMESTOR or POLYMXESTOR. [Po- 
lydorus.] 

POLYMXIA. [Musae.] 

POLYXICES (-is), son of Oedipus and 
Jocasta, and brother of Eteocles and An- 
tigone. [Eteocles ; Adrastus.] 

POLYPHEMUS (-i), son of Poseidon 
(Xeptune), and the Xymph Thoosa, was one 
of the Cyclopes in Sicily. [Cyclopes.] He 
is represented as a gigantic monster, having 
only one eye in the centre of his forehead, 
caring nought for the gods, and devouring 
human flesh. He dwelt in a cave near Mt. 
Aetna, and fled his flocks upon the mountain. 
He fell in love with the nymph Galatea, but 
as she rejected him for Acis, he destroy ed the 
latter by crushing him under a huge rock. 
When Ulysses was driven upon Sicily, Poly- 
phemus devoured some of his companions ; 
and Ulysses would have shared the same fate, 
had he not put out the eye of the monster, 
while he was asleep. [Ulysses. 1 




The Cyclops Polyphemus. (Zcega, Bassirilievi, tav. 5".) 



POLYSPERCHON (-ontis), a Macedonian, [ 
and a distinguished officer of Alexander the 
Great. Antipater on his death-bed (b.c. 319) 
appointed Polysperchon to succeed him as 
regent in Macedonia, while he assigned to his I 



own son Cassandcr the subordinate station of 
Chiliarch. Polysperchon soon became in- 
volved in war with Cassander, and finally 
submitted to the latter. 

POLYXEXA (-ae), daughter of Priam and 



POLYXO. 



334 



POMPEIUS. 



Hecuba, was beloved by Achilles. [Seep. 5, 
b.] "When the Greeks, on their voyage home, 
were still lingering on the coast of Thrace, 
the shade of Achilles appeared to them, de- 
manding that Polyxena should be sacrificed j 
to him. Xeoptolemus accordingly slevr her 
on the tomb of his father. 

POLYXO (-us). (1) The nurse of queen 
Hypsipyle in Lenrnos, celebrated as a pro- 
phetess. — [2) An Argive woman, married to 
Tlepolemus, son of Hercules, followed her 
husband to Rhodes, where, according to some j 
traditions, she put to death the celebrated 
Helen. [Helena.] 

POMONA (-ae), the Eoman divinity of the 
fruit of trees, hence called Pomorum Patrona. 
Her name is derived from Pomum. She is 
represented by the poets as beloved by several 
of the rustic divinities, such as Silvanus, 
Picus, Yertumnus, and others. 

POMPEIA (-ae). (1) Daughter of Q. 
Pompeius Rufus, son of the consul of b.c. 88, 
and of Cornelia, the daughter of the dictator J 
Sulla. She married C. Caesar, subsequently \ 
the dictator, in b.c 6 7, but was divorced by j 
him in 61, because she was suspected of in- 
triguing with Clodius, who stealthily intro- 
duced himself into her husband's house while j 
she was celebrating the mysteries of the Bona j 
Dea. — (2) Daughter of Pompey, the triumvir, 
by his third wife Mucia. She married Faustus 
Sulla, the son of the dictator, who perished | 
in the African war, 46. — (3) Daughter of 
Sex. Pompey, the son of the triumvir and of 
Scribonia, At the peace of Misenum in 39 
she was betrothed to M. Marcellus, the son 
of Octavia, the sister of Octavian, but was 
never married to him. 

POMPEII (-orum), a city of Campania, 
was situated on the coast, at the foot of Mt. 
Yesuvius ; but in consequence of the physical j 
changes which the surrounding country has 
undergone, the ruins of Pompeii are found at j 
present about 2 miles from the sea. It was over- j 
whelmed in a.d. 79, along with Herculaneum 
and Stabiae, by the great eruption of Mt. : 
Yesuvius. The lava did not reach Pompeii, j 
but the town was covered with successive | 
layers of ashes and other volcanic matter, on 
which a soil was gradually formed. Thus a 
great part of the city has been preserved ; 
and the excavation of it in modern times has i 
thrown great light upon many points of 
antiquity, such as the construction of Roman : 
houses, and in general all subjects connected 
with the private life of the ancients. About j 
half the city is now exposed to view. 

POMPEIOPOLIS. [Soloe.] 

POMPEIUS (-i). (1) Q. Pompeius, said 
to have been the son of a flute-player, was : 
t; e first of the familv who rose to dignity in j 



the state. He was consul in 141, when he 
carried on war unsuccessfully against the 
Xumantines in Spain. — (2) Q. Pompeius 
Rufus, a zealous supporter of the aristo- 
cratical party, was consul b.c. 88, with 
L. Sulla. When Sulla set out for the East 
to conduct the war against Mithridates, he 
left Italy in charge of Pompeius Rufus, and 
assigned to him the army of Cn. Pompeius 
Strabo, who was still engaged in carrying on 
war against the Marsi. Strabo, however, 
who was unwilling to be deprived of the 
command, caused Pompeius Rufus to be 
murdered by the soldiers. — (3) Cx. Pom- 
peius Strabo, consul b.c. 89, when he 
carried on war with success against the 
allies, subduing the greater number of the 
Italian people who were still in arms. He 
continued in the S. of Italy as proconsul in 
the following year (88), when he caused 
Pompeius Rufus to be assassinated. Shortly 
afterwards, he was killed by lightning. His 
avarice and cruelty had made him hated by 
the soldiers to such a degree, that they tore 
his corpse from the bier, and dragged it 
through the streets. — (4) Cx. Pompeius 
Magnus, the Triumvir, son of the last, was 
born on the 30th of September, b.c 106, 
and was consequently a few months younger 
than Cicero, who was born on the 3rd 
of January in this year, and 6 years 
older than Caesar. He fought under his 
father in 89 against the Italians, when he 
was only 17 years of age. When Sulla re- 
turned to Italy (84), Pompey marched to his 
assistance ; and in the war which followed 
against the Marian party, he distinguished 
himself as one of Sulla's most successful 
generals. In consequence of his victories in 
Africa over the Marian party, he was greeted 
by SuRa with the surname of Magxus, a 
name which he bore ever afterwards. He 
was allowed to enter Rome in triumph (81), 
although he was still a simple eques, and had 
not held any public office. Pompey con- 
tinued faithful to the aristocracy after Sulla's 
death (78), and supported the consul Catulus 
in resisting the attempts of his colleague 
Lepidus to repeal the laws of Sulla. He was 
afterwards sent into Spain as proconsul, to 
assist Metellus against Sertorius, and re- 
mained in that country for five years (76 — 
71). [Sertorius.] On his return to Rome 
he was consul with M. Crassus, b.c. 7 0. In 
his consulship he openly broke with the 
aristocracy, and became the great popular 
hero. He carried a law, restoring to the 
tribunes the power of which they had been 
deprived by Sulla. In 6 7 the tribune 
A. Gabinius brought forward a bill, pro- 
posing to confer upon Pompey the command 



POMPEII'S. 



335 



POMPTINAE. 



of the war against the pirates with extra- 
ordinary powers. This hill was carried, and j 
in the course of three months he cleared the 
Mediterranean of the pirates, who had long 
been the terror of the Romans. Next year 
(66^ he was appointed to succeed Lucullus 
in the command of the war against Mith- 
ridates. The hill, conferring upon him 
this command, was proposed by the tribune ' 
C. Manillas, and was supported by Cicero in j 
an oration which has come down to us. He 
easily defeated Mithridates, who fied to the j 
Cimmerian Bosporus. He received the sub- 
mission of Tigranes, king of Armenia ; made 
Syria a Roman province ; took Jerusalem ; i 
and, after settling the affairs of Asia, re- 
turned to Italy in 62. He disbanded his 
army after landing at Brundisium, and 
thus calmed the apprehensions of many, 
who- feared that he would seize upon the 
supreme power. He entered Rome in tri- 
umph on the 30th of September, b.c. 60. 
The senate, however, refused to ratify Ms 
acts in Asia ; whereupon Pompey entered i 
into a close alliance with Caesar. To be more I 
sure of carrying their plans into execution, 
they took the wealthy Crassus into their 
counsels. The three agreed to assist one 
another against their mutual enemies ; and 
thus was formed the first triumvirate. 
This union of the three most powerful men 
at Rome crushed the aristocracy for the time. 
To cement their union more closely, Caesar 
gave to Pompey his daughter Julia in mar- 
riage. Xext year (58) Caesar went to his 
province in Gaul, but Pompey remained in 
Rome. While Caesar was gaining glory and 
influence in Gaul, Pompey was gradually i 
losing influence at Rome. In 55 Pompey 
was consul a second time with Crassus. 
Pompey received as his provinces the two 
Spain s, which were governed by his legates, j 
L. Afranius and AT. Petreius, while he him- 
self remained in the neighbourhood of the 
city. Caesar's increasing power and infill- | 
ence at length made it clear to Pompey 
that a struggle must take place between 
them, sooner or later. The death of his wife 
Julia, in 54, to whom he was tenderly 
attached, broke the last link which still 
connected him with Caesar. In order to 
obtain supreme power, Pompey secretly 
encouraged the civil discord with which the 
state was torn asunder ; and such frightful 
scenes of anarchy followed the death of 
Clodius at the beginning of 52, that the i 
senate had no alternative but calling in the I 
assistance of Pompey, who was accordingly 
made sole consul in 52, and succeeded in 
restoring order to the state. Soon after- 
wards Pompey became reconciled to the 



aristocracy, and was now regarded as their 
acknowledged head. The history of the civil 
war which followed is related in the life of 
Caesar. After the battle of Pharsalia (48) 
Pompey sailed to Egypt, where he was put 
to death by order of the ministers of the 
young king Ptolemy. Pompey got into a 
boat, which the Egyptians sent to bring him 
to land ; but just as the boat reached the 
shore, and he was stepping on land, he was 
stabbed in the back in sight of his wife, who 
was anxiously watching him from the ship. 
He was slain on the 29th of September, b.c. 
48, and had just completed his 58th year. 
His head was cut off, and was brought to 
Caesar when he arrived in Egypt soon after- 
wards, but he turned away from the sight, 
shed tears at the melancholy death of his 
rival, and put his murderers to death. 
Pompey was married 5 times. The names 
of his wives were — 1. Antistia. 2. Aemilia. 
3. Mucia. 4. Julia. 5. Cornelia. — (5) Cx. 
Pompetus Magstus, elder son of the triumvir, 
by his third wife Mucia, carried on war 
against Caesar in Spain, and was defeated at 
the battle of Munda, b.c. 45. He was shortly 
afterwards taken prisoner, and put to death. 
— (6) Sex. Pompetus Magxts, younger son 
of the triumvir by his third wife Mucia, 
fought, along with his brother, against 
Caesar at Munda, but escaped with his life. 
After Caesar's death (44) he obtained a large 
fleet, became master of the sea, and took 
possession of Sicily. He was eventually 
defeated by the fleet of Augustus, and fled 
from Sicily to Asia, where he was taken 
prisoner, and put to death (35). 
POMPEII'S EESTUS. [Eestes.] 
POMPEIUS TROGI7S. [JrsTixrs.] 
POMPELOX (-onis : Pamplona), equiva- 
lent to Pompeiopolis, so called by the sons of 
Pompey, was the chief town of the Yascones 
in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

POMPILIUS, NTJMA. [Ntjma.] 
POMPOXtA (-ae). (1) Sister of T. Pom- 
ponius Atticus, was married to Q. Cicero, 
the brother of the orator, b.c. 68. The mar- 
riage proved an unhappy one. Q. Cicero, 
after leading a miserable life with his wife 
for almost 24 years, at length divorced her 
b.c 45 or 44*. — (2) Daughter of T. Pom- 
ponius Atticus, married to M. Yipsanius 
Agrippa, Her daughter, Yipsania Agrippina, 
married Tiberius, the successor of Augustus. 

POMPOXIUS, SEXTUS (-i), a distin- 
guished Roman jurist, who lived under 
Antoninus Pius and M. Aurelius. 

POMPOXIUS ATTICUS. [Atticus.] 
POMPOXIUS MELA. [Mela.] 
POMPTIXAE or POXTIXAE (-arum), PA- 
LUDES (-urn), the Pontine Marshes, the name 



PONTIA. 



336 



PORPHYRIES, 



of a low marshy plain on the coast of Latiuni, 
between Circeii and Terracina, said to have 
been so called after an ancient town Pontia, 
which, disappeared at an early period. The 
marshes are formed chiefly "by a number of 
small streams, which, instead of finding 
their way into the sea, spread over this 
plain. The miasmas arising from these 
marshes are exceedingly unhealthy in the 
summer. At an early period they either 
did not exist at ail, or were confined to a 
narrow district. We are told that originally 
there were 23 towns in this plain ; and 
in b.c. 312, the greater part of it must 
have been free from the marshes, since the 
censor Appius Claudius conducted the cele- 
brated Yia Appia in that year through the 
plain, which must then have been sufficiently 
strong to bear the weight of this road. In 
the time of Augustus there was a navigable 
canal running along side of the Yia Appia 
from Forum Appii to the grove of Feronia, 
which was intended to carry off a portion of 
the waters of the marshes. Horace embarked 
upon this canal on his celebrated journey 
from Roine to Brundisium in 3 7. 

PONTIA (-ae : Ponza), a rocky island off 
the coast of Latiuni, opposite Formiae, taken 
by the Romans from the Yolscians, and colo- 
nised b.c. 313. Under the empire it was 
used as a place of banishment for state 
ciiminals. 

PONTIUS (-i), C, general of the Sani- 
nites in b.c 321, defeated the Roman army 
in one of the mountain passes near Caudium, 
and compelled them to pass under the yoke. 
Nearly 30 years afterwards, Pontius was 
defeated by Q. Fabius Gurges (292), was 
taken prisoner, and put to death after the 
triumph of the consul. 

PONTUS [-1), the N.E.-most district of 
Asia Minor, along the coast of the Euxine, 
E. of the river Halys, having originally no 
specific name, was spoken of as the country 
on the Pontus (Puxinus), and hence acquired 
the name of Pontus, which is first found in 
Xenophon r s Anabasis. The name first ac- 
quired a political importance, through the 
foundation of a new kingdom in it, about the 
beginning of the 4 th century b.c. by Ariobar- 
zaxes I. This kingdom reached its greatest 
height under Mithridates YI., who for many 
years carried on war with the Romans. [Mith- 
mdates YI.] In a.d. 62 the country was consti- 
tuted by Nero a Roman province. It was 
divided into the 3 districts of Pontus Gat.a- 
ticus, in the \Y.. bordering on Galatia, 
P. PoLEMOxiAcus in the centre, so called 
from its capital Polemonittm, and P. Cappa- 
doctus in the E., bordering on Cappadccia 
(Armenia Minor). Pontus was a mountain- 



ous country ; wild and barren in the E., 
where the great chains approach the Euxine ; 
but in the W. watered by the great rivers 
Halts and Iris, and their tributaries, the 
valleys of which, as well as the land along 
the coast, are extremely fertile. The E. part 
was rich in minerals, and contained the cele- 
brated iron mines_of the Chalybes. 

PONTUS ETJXIMTJS, or simply PONIES 
f-i : the Black Sea), the ?reat inland sea 



enciosec 
the E.. 
Thracia 



3y As: 
armat 



Mine 
i on 



c on the S., 
:he N.. and 



m 
miles 
160. 

Greel 



on the W., and having 
let than the narrow Bosporus 
its S.W. corner. Its length is 



Jolehis on 
Dacia and 
no other 
Tepacius 
about 7 00 



The 

5 ha< 



It is 



at first called it 
the savage character 
coast, and from the s 
navigation, and that 
favourite principle of e 
ins: from words of evi 



na 



tO K« 



I: 



The Greeks of Asia Minor, especially 
people of Miletus, founded many colonie 
commercial emporiums on its shores. 
P PILLIF S * LAENAS . [Laenas. ] 
POPLICULA. [PrsLicoLA.] 
POPPAEA SAB IN A. "Sabixa," 
POPPAETJS SABINE'S." [Sabtnus.] 
POPULONIA '-ae', or POPULOIS 
(-i), an ancient town of Etruria. sir 
lofty hill, sinking abruptly to the sea 
forming a peninsula. It was destroy* 
Sulla in the civil wars. 

PORCIA ,-ae &] Sister of Cato i tic- 
married L. Domitius Ahenobarbus, e 
b.c 54, who was slain in the batt 
Pharsalia. — (2) Daughter of Cato Etic-t 
married first to M. Bibulus, consul b.c 
and afterwards to M. Brutus, the assas* 



JM 



Julius Cae: 
the night 



. h< 



the loth of Ma 
close to her the conspiracy again: 
life, and she is reported to have 



jassin w 
-band on 
h to dis- 
Caesar-s 
tvounded 
ow that 



herself in the thigh in order to 
she had a courageous soul, and could be 
trusted with the secret. She put an end to 
her own life after the death of Brutus in 42. 
PORCIES CATO. [Cato.] 
PORCIES FESTUS. [Festus.] 
PORCIUS LATBO. ]Eatro.] 
POBCirS LICiNUS. . [Licraus.] 
PORPHYBION (-onis), one of the giants 
who fought against the gods, slain by Zeus 
(Jupiter) and Hercules. 

POBPHYKIUS (4), usually called POR- 
PHYRY, a Greek philosopher of the Neo- 



PORSENA. 



337 



POSEIDON. 



Platonic school, was born a.d. 233, either in 
Batanea in Palestine or at Tyre. His original 
name was Malchus, the Greek form of the 
Syrophoenician Melech, a word which signi- 
fied king. He studied at Athens under 
Longinus, who changed his name into Por- 
phyrias (in allusion to the usual colour of 
royal robes). He settled at Rome in his 
30th year, and there became a disciple of 
Plotinus, whose writings he corrected and 
arranged. [Plotinus.] His most celebrated 
work was his treatise against the Christian j 
religion, which was publicly destroyed by 
order of the emperor Theodosius, 

PORSENA, PORSENA, or PORSENNA 
(-ae), LARS (-tis), king of the Etruscan 
town of Clusium, marched against Rome 
at the head of a vast army, in order to 
restore Tarquinius Superbus to the throne. 
He took possession of the hill Janiculum, 
and would have entered the city by the 
bridge which connected Rome with the Jani- 
culum, had it not been for the superhuman 
prowess of Horatius Codes. [Cocles.] He 
then proceeded to lay siege to the city, 
which soon began to suffer from famine. 
Thereupon a young Roman, named C. Mu- 
cius, resolved to deliver his country by 
murdering the invading king. He accord- 
ingly went over to the Etruscan camp, but 
ignorant of the person of Porsena, killed the 
royal secretary instead. Seized, and threat- 
ened with torture, he thrust his right hand 
into the fire on the altar, and there let it 
burn, to show how little he heeded pain. 
Astonished at his courage, the king bade him 
depart in peace ; and Scaevola, as he was 
henceforward called, told him, out of grati- 
tude, to make peace with Rome, since 300 
noble youths had sworn to take the life of 
the king, and he was the first upon whom 
the lot had fallen. Porsena thereupon made 
peace with the Romans, and withdrew his 
troops from the Janiculum after receiving 20 
hostages from the Romans. Such was the 
tale by which Roman vanity concealed one 
of the earliest and greatest disasters of the 
city. The real fact is, that Rome was com- 
pletely conquered by Porsena, and compelled 
to pay tribute. 

PORTUXUS or PORTTJMXUS (-i), the 
protecting genius of harbours among the 
Romans, identified with the Greek Palaemon. 
[Palaemox.] 

PORUS (-i). (1) King of the Indian pro- 
vinces E. of the river Hydaspes, offered a 
formidable resistance to Alexander, when 
the latter attempted to cross this river, b.c. 
327. He was conquered by Alexander, and was 
afterwards received into his favour. We are 
told that Porus was a man of gigantic stature 



— not less than five cubits in height ; and 
that his personal strength and prowess in war 
were not less conspicuous than his valour. — 
(2) Another Indian monarch at the time of 
Alexander's expedition. His dominions were 
subdued by Hephaestion, and annexed to 
those of the preceding Porus, who was his 
kinsman. 

POSEIDON, called XEPTUXUS (-i) by the 
Romans, was the god of the Mediterranean 
sea. His name seems to be connected with 
ttoto;, trovros, and r7oru.jj.b<s, according to which 
he is the god of the fluid element. He was 
a son of Cronos (Saturnus) and Rhea, whence 
he is called Cronius, and by Latin poets 
| Saturnius. He was accordingly a brother 
of Zeus (Jupiter) and Hades (Pluto) ; and it 
was determined by lot that he should rule 
over the sea. Like his brothers and sisters, 
he was, after his birth, swallowed by his 
father Cronos, but thrown up again. In the 
Homeric poems Poseidon is described as 
equal to Zeus in dignity, but less powerful. 
He resents the attempts of Zeus to intimi- 
date him ; he even threatens his mightier 
brother, and once conspired with Hera (Juno) 
and Athena (Minerva) to put him in chains ; 
but on other occasions we find him submis- 
sive to Zeus, The palace of Poseidon was 
in the depth of the sea near Aegae in Euboea, 
where he kept his horses with brazen hoofs 
and golden manes. With these horses he 
rides in a chariot over the waves of the sea, 
which become smooth as he approaches, 
while the monsters of the deep play around 
his chariot. Poseidon in conjunction with 
Apollo is said to have built the walls of Troy 
for Laomedon, whence Troy is called Keptunia 
Pergama. Laomedon refused to give these 
gods the reward which had been stipulated, 
and even dismissed them with threats. 
Poseidon in consequence sent a marine 
monster, which was on the point of devour- 
ing Laomedon's daughter, when it was killed 
by Hercules. He continued to bear an im- 
placable hatred against the Trojans, and he 
sided with the Greeks in the war against 
their city. In the Odyssey, he appears hos- 
tile to Ulysses, whom he prevents from 
returning home in consequence of his having 
blinded Polyphemus, a son of Poseidon by 
the nymph Thoosa. He is said to have 
created the horse; when he disputed with 
Athena as to which of them should give 
name to the capital of Attica. [Athena.] 
He was accordingly believed to have taught 
men the art of managing horses by the 
bridle, and to have been the originator and 
protector of horse races. He even metamor- 
phosed himself into a horse, for the purpose 
of deceiving Demeter (Ceres). Poseidon 



POSIDONIA. 



338 



PRIAMIDES. 



was married to Amphitrite, by whom lie had 
three children, Triton, Rhode, and Benthe- 
sicyrne ; hut he had also a vast number of 
children by other divinities and mortal 
women. The sacrifices offered to him gene- 
rally consisted of black and white bulls ; but 
wild boars and rams were also sacrificed to 
him. Horse and chariot races were held in 
his honour on the Corinthian isthmus. The 
symbol of Poseidon's power was the trident, 
or a spear with three points, with which he 
used to shatter rocks, to call forth or subdue 
storms, to shake the earth, and the like. In 
works of art, Poseidon may be easily recog- 
nised by his attributes — the dolphin, the 
horse, or the trident, and he is frequently 
represented in groups along with Amphitrite, 
Tritons, Nereids, dolphins, &c, The Roman 
god Nepttjnus is spoken of in a separate 
article. 




Poseidon (Neptunus). (Coin of Hadrian.) 



POSIDONIA. [Paestum.] . 

POSIDONIUS (-i), a distinguished stoic 
philosopher, born at Apamea in Syria, about 
b.c. 135. He studied at Athens under 
Panaetius, and taught at Rhodes with great 
success. He gave instruction to Cicero, and 
numbered Pompey among his friends. In 
b.c. 51 Posidonius removed to Rome, and 
died soon after, at the age of 84. 

POSTUMIUS. [Albixus.1 

POSTUMUS (-i), assumed the title of 
emperor in Gaul, a.d. 258, and reigned till 
267, when he was slain by his soldiers. 

POST VERT A or POSTVORTA (-ae), a 
Roman goddess, presiding over childbirth. 

POTENTI A (-ae), a town of Picenum, on 
the river Flosis. 

POTIDAEA (-ae), a town in Macedonia, 
on the narrow isthmus of the peninsula Pal- 
lene, was a colony of the Corinthians. It 
afterwards became tributary to Athens, and 
its revolt from the latter city, in b.c. 432, was 
one of the immediate causes of the Pelopon- 



nesian war. It was taken by the Athenians 
in 429, after a siege of more than 2 years, its 
inhabitants expelled, and their place supplied 
by Athenian colonists. In 356 it was taken 
by Philip, who destroyed the city and gave its 
territory to the Olynthians. Cassander built 
a new city on the same site, to which he gave 
the name of Cassandrea, and which soon be- 
came the most flourishing city in all Mace- 
donia. 

POTITII. [Pixaeia Gens,] 

POTNIAE (-arum), a small towninBoeotia, 
on the Asopus. The adjective Potniades 
(sing. Potnias) is an epithet frequently given 
to the mares which tore to death Glaucus of 
Potniae. [Geaucus, No. 1.] 

PRAENESTE (-is: Palestrina), one of the 
most ancient towns of Latium, situated on a 
steep and lofty hill, about 20 miles S.E. of 
Rome. It was said to have been founded by 
Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. It was strongly 
fortified by nature and by art, and frequently 
resisted the attacks of the Romans. Toge- 
ther with the other Latin towns, it became 
subject to Rome, and was at a later period 
made a Roman colony. It was here that the 
younger Marius took refuge, and was besieged 
by Sulla's troops. Praeneste possessed a cele- 
brated temple of Fortuna, with an oracle, 
which is often mentioned under the name of 
Praenestmae sortes. In consequence of its 
lofty situation, Praeneste was a cool and 
healthy residence in the great heats of sum- 
mer (hence frigidum Praeneste, in Horace) . 

PRAETORIA AUGUSTA . [Augusta, No. 4.] 

PRASII (-drum), a great and powerful 
people of India, on the Ganges, governed at 
the time of Seleucus I. by king Saxdbocottus. 
Their capital city was Palibothra [Patnd] . 

PRATINAS (-ae), one of the early tragic 
poets at Athens, and a contemporary of 
Aeschylus. 

PRAXITELES (-is), one of the most dis- 
tinguished sculptors of Greece, flourished 
about b.c 364 and onwards. He was a citi- 
zen, if not a native, of Athens. He stands, 
with Scopas, at the head of the later Attic 
school, so called in contradistinction to the 
earlier Attic school of Phidias. Without at- 
tempting those sublime impersonations of 
divine majesty, in which Phidias had been so 
inimitably successful, Praxiteles was unsur- 
passed in the exhibition of the softer beauties 
of the human form, especially in the female 
figure. His most celebrated work was a 
marble statue of Aphrodite (Venus), which 
was distinguished from other statues of the 
goddess by the name of the Cnidians,who pur- 
chased it. 

PRI AMIDES or PRI AMIDES (-ae), that is, 
a son of Priam, by which name Hector, Paris, 



PRIAMUS. 



339 



PROCRUSTES. 



Helenus, Deiphobus, and the other sons of 
Priam, are frequently called. 

PRIAMUS (-i), the famous king of Troy, 
at the time of the Trojan war, was a son of 
Laomedon. His original name was Podarces, 
i.e. " the swift-footed," which was changed into 
Priamus, " the ransomed," (from ?r§/a^a*), 
because he was ransomed by his sister Hesione, 
after he had fallen into the hands of Hercules. 
He was first married to Arisba, and after- 
wards to Hecuba. According to Homer he 
was the father of 5 sons, 1 9 of whom were 
children of Hecuba. In the earlier part of 
his reign, Priam supported the Phrygians in 
their war against the Amazons. "When the 
Greeks landed on the Trojan coast, Priam 
was advanced in years, and took no active 
part in the war. Once only did he venture 
upon the field of battle, to conclude the agree- 
ment respecting the single combat between 
Paris and Menelaus. After the death of 
Hector, Priam went to the tent of Achilles to 
ransom his son's body for burial, and obtained 
it. Upon the capture of Troy, he was slain 
by Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. 

PRIAPUS (-i). (1) Son of Dionysus (Bac- 
chus) and Aphrodite (Venus), was born at 




Priapus. (Visconti, Mus. Pio. Clem., vol. 1, pi. 50.) 

Lampsacus, on the Hellespont, whence he is 
sometimes called Hellespontiacus. He was 
regarded as the god of fruitfulness, in gene- 



ral, and was worshipped as the protector of 
flocks of sheep and goats, of bees, of the 
vine, and of all garden produce. He was re- 
presented in carved images, mostly in the 
form of hermae, carrying fruit in his gar- 
ment, and either a sickle or cornucopia in 
his hand. — (2) A city of Mysia, on the Pro- 
pontis, E. of Parium, a colony of the Milesians, 
and aj;eat of the worship of the god Priapus. 

PRIENE (-es), one of the 12 Ionian cities 
on the coast of Asia Minor, stood in the N.W. 
corner of Caria, at the foot of Mt. Mycale. It 
was the birthplace of Bias, one of the Seven 
Sages of Greece. 

PRIMUS, M. ANTONIUS (-i), a general 
of Vespasian, who gained a victory over the 
Vitellian army at Bedriacum, a.d. 69. 

PRISCIANUS (-i), a Roman grammarian, 
flourished about a.d. 450, and taught gram- 
mar at Constantinople. Several of his gram- 
matical works are extant. K 

PRISCUS, HELVIDIUS (-i), son-in-law of 
Thrasea Paetus, distinguished by his love of 
virtue, philosophy, and liberty, was put to 
deathby Vespasian. 

PRIVERNUM (4), an ancient town of 
Latium, on the river Amasenus. 

PROBUS, AEMILIUS. [NepoSjCornelius.] 

PROBUS, M. AURELIUS (-i), Roman em- 
peror a.d. 276 — 282, was the successor of 
Tacitus. During his reign he gained many 
brilliant victories over the barbarians on the 
frontiers of Gaul and Illyricum, and in other 
parts of the Roman empire. He was killed 
in a mutiny of his own soldiers. 

PROCAS (-ae), one of the fabulous kings of 
Alba Longa, father of Numitor and Amulius. 

PROCHYTA (-ae : Procida), an island off 
the coast of Campania, near the promontory 
Misenum. 

PROCLES, one of the twin sons of Aristo- 
demus. [Eurysthenes.] 

PROCLUS (-i), one of the most celebrated 
teachers of the Neo-Platonic school, was born 
at Byzantium a.d. 412, and died a.d. 485. 
He laid claim to the possession of miraculous 
power, and his philosophical system is cha- 
racterised by vagueness and mysticism, Se- 
veral of his works are still extant. 

PROCNE (-es), daughter of king Pandion 
of Athens, and wife of Tereus. [Teretjs.] 

PROCONNESUS (-i : Marmara), an island 
of the Propontis which takes from it its modern 
name (Sea of Marmara) off the N. coast of 
Mysia, N.W. of the peninsula of Cyzicus or 
Dolionis. The island was celebrated for its 
marble ; and hence its modern name. 

PROCRIS (-is), daughter of Erechtheus 
and wife of Cephalus. [Cephalus.] 

PROCRUSTES (-ae), that is, " the 
Stretcher," a surname of the famous robber 

z 2 



PROCULEIUS. 



340 



PROPOXTIS. 



Polypemon or Daniastes. He used to tie all I 
travellers who fell into his hands upon a 
"bed : if they were shorter than the bed, he 
stretched their limbs till they were of the ' 
same length ; if they were longer than the 
bed, he made them of the same size by 
cutting off some of their limbs, He was j 
slain by Theseus. 

PROCULEIUS, C, a Roman eques, one of 
the friends of Augustus, is said to have 
divided his property with his brothers (per- 
haps cousins) Caepio and Murena, who had 
lost their property in the civil wars. 

PROCULUS (-i), the jurist, was the con- 
temporary of the jurist Nerva the younger, 
who was probably the father of the emperor 
Netva. The fact that Proeulus gave his 
name to the school or sect (Proeirfiani or Pro- 
cideianl\ which was opposed to that of the 
Sabiniani, shows that he was a jurist of note. 

PROCULUS, JULIUS (-i), a Roman sena- 
tor, is said to have informed the Roman 
people, after the death of Romulus, that their 
king had appeared to him, and bade him tell 
the people to honour him in future as a god 
under the name of Quirinus. 

PRODICUS (-i), a celebrated sophist, was 
a native of Iulis in the island of Ceos, and 
lived in the time of the Peloponnesian war 
and subsequently. He frequently visited 
Athens. 

PROETIDES. [Proetus.] 
PROETUS (4), son of Abas and Ocalea, 
and twin-brother of Acrisius. In the dispute 
between the 2 brothers for the kingdom of 
Argos, Proetus was expelled, whereupon he 
■fled to Iobates in Lycia, and married Antea 
or Stheneboea, the daughter of the latter. 
"With the assistance of Iobates, Proetns re- 
turned to his native land ; and Acrisius gave 
him a share of his kingdom, surrendering to 
him Tiryns, Midea, and the coast of Argolis. 
Proetus had 3 daughters, Lysippe, Iphinoe, 
and Iphianassa, who are often mentioned 
under the general name of Proetides. When 
these daughters arrived at the age of matu- 
rity, they were stricken with madness, either 
from despising the worship of Dionysus 
(Bacchus), or from presuming to compare 
their beauty with that of Hera (Juno). 
[Melampus.] The frenzy spread to the other 
women of Argos ; till at length Proetus 
agreed to divide his kingdom between Me- 
lampus and his brother Bias, upon the former 
promising that he would cure the women of 
their madness. Proetus also plays a promi- 
nent part in the story of Bellerophon. 
[Bellerophon.] — According to Ovid, Acrisius 
was expelled from his kingdom by Proetus ; 
and Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, 
avenged his grandfather by turning Proe- 



tus into stone by means of the head of 
Medusa. 

PROMETHEUS (-eos or -ei), son of the 
Titan Iapetus and Clymene, and brother of 
Atlas, Menoetius, and Epimetheus. His name 
signifies "forethought," as that of his brother 
Epimetheus denotes " afterthought." He is 
represented as the great benefactor of men in 
spite of Zeus (Jupiter). He stole fire from 
heaven in a hollow tube, and taught mortals 




Prometheus. (Bellorii, Ant. Lucern. Sepolc. tav. 

all useful arts. In order to punish men, 
Zeus gave Pandora as a present to Epime- 
theus, in consequence of which diseases and 
sufferings of every kind befell mortals. 
[Pandora.] He also chained Prometheus 
to a rock on Mt. Caucasus, where in the 
daytime an eagle consumed his liver, which 
was restored in each succeeding night. Pro- 
metheus was thus exposed to perpetual 
torture ; but Hercules killed the eagle and 
delivered the sufferer, with the consent of 
Zeus, who in this way had an opportunity of 
allowing his son to gain immortal fame. 
I There was also a legend, which related that 
Prometheus created man out of earth and 
! water. He is said to have given to men a 
portion of all the qualities possessed by the 
other animals, 

PRONUBA (-ae), a surname of Juno 
among the Romans, describing her as the 
| deity presiding over marriage, 
I PROPERTIES (-i), SEX. AURELIUS, the 
J Roman poet, was a native of Umbria, and 
was born about b.c. 51. He began to write 
poetry at a very early age, and the merit of 
; his productions attracted the attention and 
patronage of Maecenas. The year of his death 
| is unknown. Propertius is one of the prin- 
cipal of the Roman elegiac poets. 

PROPOXTIS (-idis : Sea of Marmara), so 
called from its position with reference to the 
j Pontus (Euxinus), being ir%o rod Ucvrcv " be- 
ll fore the Pontus," is the small sea uniting 
: the Euxine and the Aegaean, and dividing 



PROSERPIXi. 



341 



PSAMMITICHUS. 



Europe (Thracia) from Asia (Mysia and 
Bithynia). 

PROSERPINA. [Persephone.] 
PROTAGORAS (-ae), a celebrated sophist, 
was born at Abdera, in Thrace, probably 
about b.c. 480, and died about 411, at the 
age of nearly 70 years. He was the first who 
called himself a sophist, and taught for pay ; 
and he practised his profession for the space 
of 40 years. His instructions were so highly 
valued that he sometimes received 100 minae 
from a pupil ; and Plato says that Protagoras 
made more money than Phidias and 10 other 
sculptors. In 411 he was accused of impiety 
by Pythodorus, one of the Four Hundred. 
His impeachment was founded on his book 
on the gods, which began with the statement : 
<; Respecting the gods, I am unable to know 
whether they exist or do not exist." The 
impeachment was followed by his banishment, 
or, as others affirm, only by the burning of 
his book.^ 

PROTESILAUS (-i), son of Iphiclus and 
Astyoche, was a native of Phylace in Thessaly. 
He is called Phylacius and Phyladdes, either 
from that circumstance or from his being a 
grandson of Phylacus. He led the warriors 
of several Thessalian places against Troy, and 
was the first of all the Greeks who was killed 
by the Trojans, being the first who leaped 
from the ships upon the Trojan shore. Ac- 
cording to the common tradition he was slain 
by Hector. 

PROTEUS (-eos, ei, or ei), the prophetic 
old man of the sea, is described in the 
earliest legends as a subject of Poseidon 
(Neptune', whose flocks (the seals) he 
tended. According to Homer he resided 
in the island of Pharos, at the distance of 
one day's journey from the river Aegyptus 
(Nile) ; whereas Yirgil places his residence 
in the island of Carpathos, between Crete 
and Rhodes. At mid-day Proteus rose from 
the sea, and slept in the shade of the 
rocks, vrith the monsters of the deep lying 
around him. Any one wishing to learn 
futurity from him was obliged to catch hold 
of him at that time : as soon as he was 
seized, he assumed every possible shape, in 
order to escape the necessity of prophesying, 
but whenever he saw that his endeavours 
were of no avail, he resumed his usual form, 
and told the truth. After finishing his pro- 
phecy he returned into the sea. Homer 
ascribes to him a daughter Idothea. — 
Another set of traditions describes Proteus 
as a son of Poseidon, and as a king of Egypt, 
who had two sons, Telegonus and Polygonus 
or Tmolus. 

PROTOGENES (-is), a celebrated Greek 
painter. He was a native of Caunus, in 



Caria, a city subject to the Rhodians, and 
j flourished b.c 332 — 300. He resided at 
I Rhodes almost entirely j the only other city 
! of Greece which he is said to have visited is 
i Athens, where he executed one of his great 
\ works in the Propylaea. Up to his 50th year 
! he is said to have lived in poverty and in 

comparative obscurity. His fame had, how- 
I ever, reached the ears of Apelles, who, as the 
i surest way of making the merits of Proto- 

genes known to his fellow-citizens, offered 

him for his finished works the enormous sum 
j of 50 talents apiece, and thus led the Rhodians 
j to understand what an artist they had among 
j them. 

PROXEXUS (-i), a Boeotian, was a disciple 

i of Gorgias, and a friend of Xenophon, 

PRtSA or PRUSIAS (-ae) . (I) A great city 

i of Bithynia, on the N. side of Mt. Olympus, 15 
Roman miles from Cius and 25 from Nicaea. 
— 2; Some writers distinguish from this a 

; smaller city, which stood N.TS". of the former, 

[ and was originally called Ciepots. 

PRUSIAS (-ae). (1) King of Bithynia 

i from about b.c. 228 to 180. He was the son 

j of Zielas, whom he succeeded. He appears 
to have been a monarch of vigour and ability, 

I and raised his kingdom of Bithynia to a much 
higher pitch of power and prosperity than it 
had previously attained. He basely sur- 

i rendered Hannibal, who had taken refuge at 
his court, to the Romans ; but who escaped 

! falling into the hands of his enemies by a 

j voluntary death. — (2) The son and successor 

j of the preceding, reigned from about 180 to 
149. He courted assiduously the alliance of 

1 the Romans. He carried on war with Attalus, 
king of Pergamus, with whom, however, he 

: was compelled by the Romans to conclude 

! peace in 154. 

PSAMMENITUS (-i), king of Egypt, suc- 
ceeded his father Amasis in b.c. 526, and 
reigned only 6 months. He was conquered 
by Cambyses in 525, and his country made a 
province of the Persian empire. 

PSAMAIIS, king of Egypt, succeeded his 

• father Necho, and reigned from e.c 601 
to 595. 

PSAMMITICHUS or PSA^D-IETICHUS 
(-i), a king of Egypt, and founder of the 
Saitic dynasty, reigned from b.c. 671 to 617. 
, He was originally one of the 12 kings who 
obtained an independent sovereignty in the 
j confusion which followed the death of Setho. 
} Having been driven into banishment by the 
j other kings, he took refuge in the marshes : 
| but shortly afterwards, with the aid of some 
j Ionian and Carian pirates, he conquered the 
| other kings, and became sole ruler of Egypt. 

The employment of foreign mercenaries by 
i Psammitichus gave great offence to the mill- 



PSOPHIS, 



312 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



tary caste in Egypt ; and being indignant at .j 
other treatment which they received from j 
him, they emigrated in a body of 240,000 
men, into Ethiopia, where settlements were 1 
assigned to them by the Ethiopian king. 

PSOPHIS (-idis: Khan of Tripotamo), a 
town in the N.W. of Arcadia, on the river 
Erymanthus, is said to have been originally ' 
called Phegia. 

PSYCHE (-es), "the soul," occurs in the 
later times of antiquity, as a personification 
of the human soul. Psyche was the youngest 
of the 3 daughters of a king, and excited by 
her beauty the jealousy and envy of Venus. | 
In order to avenge herself, the goddess 
ordered Cupid or Amor to inspire Psyche 
with a love for the most contemptible of all 
men : but Cupid was so stricken with her 
beauty that he himself fell in love with her. 
He accordingly conveyed her to a charming 
spot, where unseen and unknown, he visited 
her every night, and left her as soon as the 
day began to dawn. But her jealous sisters 
made her believe that in the darkness of ! 
night she was embracing some hideous j 
monster, and accordingly once, while Cupid j 
was asleep, she drew near to him with a 
lanip, and, to her amazement, beheld the j 
most handsome and lovely of the gods. In 
the excitement of joy and fear, a drop of hot : 
oil fell from her lamp upon his shoulder. 
This awoke Cupid, who censured her for her 
mistrust, and fled. Psyche's happiness was | 
now gone, and after attempting in vain to 




Psyche. (From an ancient Gem 



throw herself into a river, she wandered 
about from temple to temple, inquiring after 
her lover, and at length came to the palace 



of Venus. There her real sufferings began, 
for Venus retained her, treated her as a slave, . 
and imposed upon her the hardest and most 
humiliating labours. Psyche would have 
perished under the weight of her sufferings, 
had not Cupid, who still loved her in secret, 
invisibly comforted and assisted her in her 
toils. With his aid she at last succeeded in 
overcoming the jealousy and hatred of Venus : 
she became immortal, and was united to him 
for ever. In this pleasing story Psyche 
evidently represents the human soul, which 
is purified by passions and misfortunes, and 
thus prepared for the enjoyment of true and 
pure happiness. In works of art Psyche is 
represented as a maiden with the wings of a 
butterfly, along with Cupid in the different 
situations described in the allegory. 

PSYLLI (-oruni), a Eibyan people, the 
earliest known inhabitants of the district of 
N. Africa called Cyrenaica. 

PSYTTALEA. * [Salamis.] 

PTELETJM (-i). (1) (Ptelia), an ancient 
seaport town of Thessaly in the district 
Phthiotis, at the SVY. extremity of the Sinus 
Pagasaeus, was destroyed by the Romans. — 
(2) A town in Elis Triphylia, said to have 
been a colony from the preceding. — (3) A 
fortress of Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor, 
belonging to Erythrae. 

PTOLEMAEUS (-i\ usually called PTO. 
LEMY, the name of several kings of Egypt, 
I. surnamed Soter, the Preserver, but more 
commonly known as the son of Lagos, reigned 
b.c. 323 — 285. His father Lagus was a 
Macedonian of ignoble birth, but his mother 
Arsinoe had been a concubine of Philip of 
Macedon, on which account it seems to have 
been generally believed that Ptolemy was 
in reality the offspring of that monarch. 
Ptolemy accompanied Alexander throughout 
his campaigns in Asia, and on the division of 
the empire which followed Alexander's death 
[323), obtained the government of Egypt 
He afterwards enlarged his dominions by 
seizing upon the important satrapy of Phoe- 
nicia and Coele-Syria, and made himself 
master of Jerusalem, by attacking the city on 
the Sabbath day. These provinces he lost, 
but again recovered in a war with Antigonus 
and his son Demetrius. Ptolemy subse- 
quently crossed over to Greece, where he 
announced himself as the liberator of the 
Greeks, but he effected little. In 306 he was 
defeated by Demetrius in a great sea fight off 
Salamis in Cyprus, by which he lost that 
important island. Next year (305) Ptolemy 
rendered the most important assistance to the 
Khodians, who were besieged by Demetrius ; 
and when Demetrius was at length compelled 
to raise the siege (304), the Ehodians paid 



PTOLEMAEUS.. 



343 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



divine honours to the Egyptian monarch as 
their saviour and preserver (Soter). The 
latter years of Ptolemy's reign appear to have 
been devoted almost entirely to the arts of 
peace, and in 285 he abdicated in favour of 
his youngest son Ptolemy Philadelphus. He 
survived this event 2 years, and died in 283. 
The character of Ptolemy does not merit 
unqualified praise ; but he distinguished him- 
self as a ruler, and as a patron of literature I 
and science. He is thought to have founded i 
the Library and the Museum of Alexandria, i 
Many men of literary eminence were gathered 
around the Egyptian king : among whom may 
be especially noticed Demetrius of Phalerus, 
the great geometer Euclid, the philosophers 
Stilpo of Megara, Theodorus of Cyrene, and 
Diodorus surnamed Cronus ; as well as the 
elegiac poet Philetas of Cos, and the gram- 
marian Zenodotus. Ptolemy was himself an 
author, and composed a history of the wars 
of Alexander. — II. Philadelphus (b.c. 285 
— 247), the son of Ptolemy I. by his wife 
Berenice, was born in the island of Cos, 309. 
His long reign was marked by few events of 
a striking character. He was long engaged 
in war with his half-brother Magas, for 
the possession of the Cyrena'ica, which he 
eventually ceded to . Magas. Ptolemy al^o 
concluded a treaty with the Bornans. He 
was frequently engaged in hostilities with 
Syria, which were terminated towards the 
close of his reign by a treaty of peace, by 
which Ptolemy gave his daughter Berenice 
in marriage to Antiochus II. Ptolemy's 
chief care, however, was directed to the 
internal administration of his kingdom, and 
to the patronage of literature and science. 
Under him the Museum of Alexandria became 
the resort and abode of all the most dis- 
tinguished men of letters of the day, and in 
the library attached to it were accumulated 
all the treasures of ancient learning. Ac- 
cording to a well-known tradition, it was 
by his express command that the Holy Scrip- 
tures of the Jews were translated into Greek. 
The new cities or colonies founded by him in 
different parts of his dominions were ex- 
tremely numerous. All authorities concur 
in attesting the great power and wealth to 
which the Egyptian monarchy was raised 
under Philadelphus ; but his private life and 
relations do not exhibit his character in as 
favourable a light as we might have inferred 
from the splendour of his administration. — 
III. Euergetes (b.o. 247 — 222), eldest son and 
successor of Philadelphus. Shortly after his 
accession he invaded Syria, in order to avenge 
the death of his sister Berenice. He ad- 
vanced as far as Babylon and Susa, and after 
reducing all Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and 



Susiana, received the submission of all the 
upper provinces of Asia as far as the confines 
of Bactria and India. From this career of 
conquest he was recalled by the news of 
seditions in Egypt, and returned to that 
country, carrying with him an immense 
booty, comprising, among other objects, all 
the statues of the Egyptian deities which had 
been carried off by Cambyses to Babylon or 
Persia, and which he restored to their 
respective temples. Hence he obtained the 
title of Euergetes (the Benefactor). His 
fleets were equally successful ; but it appears 
that the greater part of the eastern provinces 
speedily fell again into the hands of Seleucus, 
while Ptolemy retained possession of tbe 
maritime regions and a great part of Syria 
itself. During the latter years of his reign 
he subdued the Ethiopian tribes on his 
southern frontier, and advanced as far as 
Adule, a port on the Bed Sea. Ptolemy 
Euergetes is scarcely less celebrated than his 
father for his patronage of literature and 
science. — IY. Philopator. (b.c. 222 — 205), 
eldest son and successor of "Euergetes, was 
very far from inheriting the virtues or abili- 
ties of his father : and his reign was the 
commencement of the decline of the Egyptian 
kingdom. Its beginning was stained with 
crimes of the darkest kind. He put to death 
his mother Berenice, his brother Magas, 
and his uncle Lysimachus, and then gave 
himself up without restraint to a life of in- 
dolence and luxury, while he abandoned to 
his minister Sosibius the care of all political 
affairs. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, 
availed himself of this state of disorder, and 
conquered the greater part of Coele-Syria 
and Palestine, but in the 3rd year of the 
war (217), he was completely defeated by 
Ptolemy in person at the decisive battle of 
Baphia. On his return from his Syrian 
expedition, Ptolemy gave himself up more 
and more to every species of vice and de- 
bauchery, and thus shortened his life. He 
died in 205. Like his predecessors, he en- 
couraged philosophers and men of letters, 
and especially patronised the distinguished 
grammarian Aristarchus. — Y. Epiphaxes 
(b.c 205 — 181), son and successor of Ptolemy 
IY. He was a child of 5 years old at the 
death of his father, 205. Philip king of 
Macedonia and Antiochus III. of Syria, took 
advantage' of the minority of Ptolemy, and 
entered into a league to divide his dominions 
between them. In pursuance of this ar- 
rangement, Antiochus conquered Coele-Syria, 
while Philip reduced the Cyclades and the 
cities in Thrace which had still remained 
subject to Egypt ; but the Romans commanded 
both monarchs to refrain from further hos~ 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



344 



PTOLEMAEES. 



tilities, and restore all the conquered cities. 
In 196 the young king was declared of age, 
and the ceremony of his Anacleteria, or 
coronation, was solemnised with great mag- 
nificence, on which occasion the decree was 
issued which has been preserved to us in the 
celebrated inscription known as the Bosetta 
stone. As long as Ptolemy continued under 
the guidance and influence of Aristomenes. 
his administration was equitable and popular. 
Gradually, however, he became estranged 
from his able and virtuous minister, and 
at length compelled him to take poison. 
Towards the close of his reign Ptolemy con- 
ceived the project of recovering Coele-Syria 
from Seleucus, the successor of Antiochus, as 
the latter monarch had not restored that 
province, according to treaty, when Ptolemy 
married his daughter, Cleopatra. But having, 
by an unguarded expression, excited the ap- 
prehensions of some of his friends, he was 
cut off by poison in the 24th year of his reign 
and the 29th of his age, 181. His reign was 
marked by the rapid decline of the Egyptian 
monarchy, and at his death Cyprus and the 
Cyrenaica were almost the only foreign pos- 
sessions still attached to the crown of Egypt. 
— TI. Philo:.ietor (b.c. 181 — 146), eldest 
son and successor of Ptolemy Y. He was a 
child at the death of his father in 181, and 
the regency was assumed during his minority 
by his mother Cleopatra. After her death, 
in 173, his ministers had the rashness to 
engage in war with Antiochus Epiphanes, 
king of Syria, in the vain hope of recovering 
the provinces of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia. 
But their army was totally defeated by 
Antiochus, near Pelusium, and Antiochus 
advanced as far as Memphis, 170. The young- 
king himself fell into his hands, but was 
treated with kindness and distinction, as 
Antiochus hoped by his means to make him- 
self the master of Egypt. But being unable 
to take Alexandria, which was defended 
by Ptolemy's younger brother, Antiochus 
withdrew into Syria, after establishing Phi- 
lometor as king at Memphis, but retaining 
in his hands the frontier fortress of Pelu- 
sium. This last circumstance, together with 
the ravages committed by the Syrian troops, 
awakened Philometor, who had hitherto been | 
a mere puppet in the hands of the Syrian 
king, to a sense of his true position, and he 
hastened to make overtures of peace to his 
brother, who during Ptolemy's captivity had 
assumed the title of king Euergetes II. It 
was agreed that the two brothers should 
reign together, and that Philometor should 
marry his sister Cleopatra. Upon this An- 
tiochus advanced a second time to the walls 
of Alexandria, but withdrew to his own 



! dominions, 16S, at the command of M. 
| Popillius Laenas, the Roman ambassador. 
J Dissensions soon broke out between the two 
j brothers, and Euergetes expelled Philometor 
j from Alexandria. Hereupon Philometor re- 
I paired in person to Pome, 164, where he 
was received by the senate with the utmost 
honour, and deputies were appointed to re- 
instate him in the sovereign power. The 
remainder of his reign was chiefly occupied 
< with Syrian affairs. In 146 he gained a 
decisive victory over Alexander Balas, but 
I died a few days afterwards, in consequence 
1 of a fall from his horse during the battle. 
; He had reigned 35 years from the period of 
I his first accession, and 18 from his restoration 
by the Romans. Philometor is praised for 
; the mildness and humanity of his disposition, 
and if not one of the greatest, he was at 
! least one of the best of the race of the Ptole- 
; mies. — YII. Euergetes II. or Physcox, that 
is Big-Belly, reigned b.c. 146 — 117. In 
| order to secure undisputed possession of the 
j throne, he married his sister Cleopatra, the 
| widow of his brother Philometor, and put to 
! death his nephew Ptolemy, who had been 
j proclaimed king under the surname of Eu- 
pator. A reign thus commenced in blood 
was continued in a similar spirit. Many of 
the leading citizens of Alexandria, who had 
taken part against him on the death of his 
brother, were put to death, and the streets 
of the city were repeatedly deluged with 
| blood. At the same time that he thus in- 
j curred the hatred of his subjects by his 
i cruelties, he rendered himself an object of 
■ their aversion and contempt by abandoning 
j himself to the most degrading vices. He 
j became enamoured of his niece Cleopatra 
j (the offspring of his wife by her former 
I marriage with Philometor), and he did net 
j hesitate to divorce the mother, and receive 
her daughter instead, as his wife and queen. 
I By this proceeding he alienated still more 
j the minds of his Greek subjects ; and his 
I vices and cruelties at length produced an 
| insurrection at Alexandria* Thereupon he 
fled to Cyprus, and the Alexandrians declared 
his sister Cleopatra queen (130). Enraged 
at this, Ptolemy put to death Memphitis, his 
son by Cleopatra, and sent his head and hands 
to his unhappy mother. But Cleopatra 
I having been shortly afterwards expelled from 
; Alexandria in her turn, Ptolemy found him- 
! self unexpectedly reinstated on the throne 
j (127). He died after reigning 29 years from 
the death of his brother Philometor. Al- 
though the character of Ptolemy Physcon was 
j stained by the most infamous vices, and by 
! the most sanguinary cruelty, he still re- 
tained that love of letters which appears to 



PTOLEMAEUS. 



345 



PTOLEMAIS. 



have been hereditary in the whole race of the 
Ptolemies. — VIII, Soter II., and also Philo- 
metor, hut more commonly called Lath Vitus 
or Lathures, reigned b.c, 117 — 107, and 
also 89 — 81. Although he was of full age 
at the time of his father's death (117), he 
was obliged to reign jointly with his mother, 
Cleopatra, who had been appointed by the 
will of her late husband to succeed him on 
the throne. After reigning 10 years, he was 
expelled from Alexandria by an insurrection 
of the people, which she had excited against 
him (107). His brother Alexander now 
assumed the sovereignty of Egypt, in con- 
junction with his mother, and reigned for 18 
years. After the death of Cleopatra and the 
expulsion of Alexander in 89, Ptolemy 
Lathyrus, who had established himself at 
Cyprus, was recalled by the Alexandrians, 
and established anew on the throne of Egypt, 
which he occupied thenceforth without in- 
terruption till his death in 81. The most 
important event of this period was the revolt 
of Thebes, in Upper Egypt, which was taken 
after a 3 years' siege, and reduced to the state 
of ruin in which it has ever since remained. 
— IX. Alexander I., youngest son of Ptolemy 
VII. , reigned conjointly with his mother 
Cleopatra from the expulsion of his brother 
Lathyrus, b.c. 107 to 90. In this year he 
assassinated his mother ; but he had not 
reigned alone a year, when he was compelled 
by a general sedition of the populace and 
military to quit Alexandria. — X. Alexander 
II., son of the preceding, put to death by the 
Alexandrians shortly after his accession. — 
XI. Dioxvsrs, but more commonly known by 
the appellation of Auletes, the flute-player, 
an illegitimate son of Ptolemy Lathyrus, was 
on the death of Alexander II. proclaimed 
king by the Alexandrians, b,c. 80. To obtain 
the ratification of his title from the Eomans, 
he expended immense sums, which he was 
compelled to raise by the imposition of fresh 
taxes, and the discontent thus, excited com- 
bining with the contempt entertained for his 
character, led to his expulsion by the Alex- 
andrians, in 58. Thereupon he proceeded 
in person to Rome to solicit assistance ; but 
it was not till 55 that A. Gabinius, proconsul 
in Syria, was induced, by the influence of 
Pompey, aided by the enormous bribe of 
10,000 talents from Ptolemy himself, to 
r undertake his restoration. One of his first 
acts was to put to death his daughter Bere- 
nice (whom the Alexandrians had placed on 
the throne) and many of the leading citizens 
of Alexandria. He died in 51, after a reign 
29 years from the date of his first accession. 
— XII. Eldest son of the preceding. By his 
father's will the sovereign power was left to 



himself and his sister Cleopatra jointly ; but 
the latter was expelled by the minister 
Pothinus after she had reigned in conjunc- 
tion with her brother about 3 years. Here- 
upon she took refuge in Syria, and assembled 
an army, with which she invaded Egypt. 
Shortly after, Caesar arrived in Egypt, and 
as Cleopatra's charms gained her his support, 
Pothinus determined to excite an insurrec- 
tion against him. Hence arose what is 
usually called the Alexandrian war. Ptolemy, 
who was at first in Caesar's hands, managed 
to escape, and put himself at the head of the 
insurgents, but he was defeated by Caesar, 
and was drowned in an attempt to escape by 
the river (47). — XIII. Youngest son of 
Ptolemy Auletes, was declared king by Caesar 
in conjunction with Cleopatra, after the death 
of his elder brother ; but in 43 Cleopatra 
put him to death. — Kings of other Countries: 
(1) Ptolemy, surnamed Alorites, that is, of 
Alorus, regent, or, according to some authors, 
king of Macedonia, assassinated by Perdiccas 
III., 364. — (2) Surnamed Apiox, king of 
Cyrene (117 — 96), an illegitimate son of 
Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt. — (3) Sur- 
named Cerauxes, son of Ptolemy I., king of 
Egypt, assassinated Seleucus (280) and took 
possession of the Macedonian throne. After 
reigning a few months he was defeated in 
battle by the Gauls, taken prisoner, and put 
to death. — (4) Tetrareh of Chalcis, in Syria, 
reigned from about 70 to 40. — (5; King of 
Cypres, the younger brother of Ptolemy 
Auletes, king of Egypt, put an end to his own 
life, 5 7. — (6) King of Epires, the 2nd son of 
Alexander II. The date of his reign cannot 
be fixed with certainty, but it may be placed 
between 239 — 229. — (7) King of Maere- 
taxia, was the son and successor of Juba II. 
By his mother Cleopatra he was descended 
from the kings of Egypt, whose name he bore. 
He reigned from a.d. 18, or earlier, till a.d. 
40, when he was summoned to Home by 
Caligula, and shortly after put to death. 

PTOLEMAEUS (4), CLAUDIUS, a cele- 
brated mathematician, astronomer, and geo- 
grapher. Of Ptolemy himself we know abso- 
lutely nothing but his date. He certainly 
observed in a.d. 139, at Alexandria; and 
since he survived Antoninus he was alive 
a.d. 161. His Geography, in 8 books, is his 
most celebrated work. 

PTOLEMAIS (-idis). (1) Also called ACE (in 
O. T. ACCO : Arab. Akka, Fr. St. Jean d'Acre, 
Eng. Acre), a celebrated city on the coast of 
Phoenicia, S. of Tyre, and X. of Mt. Carmel, 
lies at the bottom of a bay surrounded by 
mountains, in a position marked out by nature 
as a key of the passage between Coele-Syria 
and Palestine. It is one of the oldest cities 



PUBLICOLA. 



346 



PYDNA. 



of Phoenicia, being mentioned in the Book of ] 
Judges (i. 31). — (2) (At or near El-Lahum), 
a small town of Middle Egypt, in the Noinos 
Arsinoites. — (3) P. Hekhii (MensMeh , Ru.) , a 
city of Upper Egypt, on the W. bank of the 
Nile, below Abydos. — (4) P. Therox, or 
Epitheras, a port on the Red Sea, on the 
coast of the Troglodytae. — (5) (Tolme'ita, or 
Tolometa, Ru.), on the N.W. coast of Cyre- 
naica, one of the 5 great cities of the Libyan 
Pentapolis. 

PUBLICOLA, or POPLICULA, or POPLI- 
COLA (-ae), a Roman cognomen, signifying 
" one who courts the people " (from populus 
and colo), and thus " a friend of the people." 
The form Poplicida or Poplicola was the more 
ancient, but Publicola was the one usually 
employed by the Romans in later times. 
(1) P. Valerius Publicola, took an active 
part in expelling the T.arquins from the city, 
and was thereupon elected consul with Brutus 
(b.c 509). He secured the liberties of the 
people by proposing several laws, and ordered 
the lictors to lower the fasces before the 
people, as an acknowledgment that their 
power was superior to that of the consuls. 
Hence he became so great a favourite with 
the people, that he received the surname of 
Publicola. He was consul 3 times again, 
namely in 508, 507, and 504. He died in 
503. — (2) L. Gellius Publicola, consul with 
Cn. Lentulus Clodianus, b.c. 72. He belonged 
to the aristocratical party. In 63 he warmly 
supported Cicero in the suppression of the 
Catilinarian conspiracy. — (3) L. Gellius 
Publicola, son of the preceding, espoused the 
republican party and went with M. Brutus 
to Asia, but deserted to the ti'iumvirs, Octa- 
vian and Antony, for which treachery he 
obtained the consulship in 36. In the war 
between Octavian and Antony, he espoused 
the side of the latter, and commanded the 
right wing of Antony's fleet at the battle of 
Actium. 

PUBLILIA (-ae), the 2nd wife of M. 
Tuliius Cicero, whom he married b.c 46. 

PUBLILIUS PHILO. [Philo.] 

PUBLILIUS, (-i), VOLERO (-onis), tribune 
ofthe plebs, b.c 472, and again 471, effected an 
important change in the Roman constitution. 
In virtue of the laws which he proposed, the 
tribunes of the plebs and the aediles were 
elected by the comitia tributa, instead of by 
the comitia centuriata, as had previously been 
the case, and the tribes obtained the power 
of deliberating and determining in all matters 
affecting the whole nation, and not such only 
as concerned the plebs. 

PUBLIUS SYRUS. [Syrus,] 

PUDICITIA (-ae), a personification of 
modesty, was worshipped both in Greece and 



at Rome. At Athens an altar was dedicated 
to her. At Rome two sanctuaries were 
dedicated to her, one under the name of 
Pudicitia patricia, and the other under that 
of Pudicitia plebeia. 

PULCHER, CLAUDIUS. [Claudius.] 
PULCHRUM PROMONTORIUM (-i), a 
promontory on the N. coast of the Cartha- 
ginian territory in N. Africa, probably 
identical with the Apollixis Promoxtoeloi. 

PUPIENUS MAXIMUS, M. CLODIUS (i-), 
was elected emperor with Balbinus, in 

a. d. 238, when the senate received intelligence 
of the death of the two Gordians in Africa ; 
but the new emperors were slain by the 
soldiers at Rome in the same year. 

PUPIUS (-i), a Roman dramatist. 

PURPURARIAE INSULAE (-arum), 
(prob. the Madeira group}, a group of islands 
in the Atlantic Ocean, off the N.W. coast of 
Africa. 

PUTEOLANUM (-i), a country-house of 
Cicero near Puteoli, where he wrote his 
Quaestiones Academicae, and where the 
emperor Hadrian was buried. 

PUTEOLANUS SINUS (4 : Bay of Naples), 
a bay of the sea on the coast of Campania 
between the promontory Misenum and the 
promontory of Minerva, which was originally 
called Cumanus. 

PUTEOLI (-orum : Pozzuoli), originally 
named DICAEARCHIA, a celebrated, sea- 
port town of Campania, situated on a pro- 
montory on the E. side of the Puteolanus 
Sinus, and a little to the E. of Cumae, 
was founded by the Greeks of Cumae, 

b. c 521, under the name of Dicaearchia. It 
obtained the name of Puteoli, either from its 
numerous wells or from the stench arising 
from the mineral springs in its neighbour- 
hood. The town was indebted for its impor- 
tance to its excellent harbour, which was 
protected by an extensive mole to which 
Caligula attached a floating bridge, which 
extended as far as Baiae, a distance of 2 
miles. Puteoli was the chief emporium for 
the commerce with Alexandria and with the 
greater part of Spain. The town was colon- 
ised by the Romans in b.c 194, and also 
anew by Augustus, Nero, and Yespasian. It 
was destroyed by Alaric in a.d. 410, by 
Genseric in 455, and also by Totilas in 545, 
but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. 
There are still many ruins of the ancient 
town at the modern Pozzuoli. 

PYDNA (-ae : Mtron), a town of Mace- 
donia in the district Pieria, was situated at 
a small distance W. of the Thermaic gulf, 
on which it had a harbour. It was originally 
a Greek colony, but it was subdued by the 
i Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it 



PYGELA. 



347 



pyrrha. 



frequently revolted. It was subdued "by 
Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. 
It is especially memorable on account of the 
victory gained under its walls by Aemilius 
Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Mace- 
donia, 168. Under the Romans it was also 
called Citrum or Citrus. 

PYGELA or PHYGELA (-ae), a smaU town 
of Ionia, on the coast of Lydia, 

PYGMAEI (-orum), i.e. men of the height 
of a nvyur h i.e. \Z\ inches, a fabulous people 
first mentioned by Homer, as dwelling on 
the shores of Ocean, and attacked by cranes 
in spring-time. Some writers place them in 
Aethiopia, others in India, and others in the 
extreme N. of the earth. 

PYGMALION (-onis). (1) King of Cyprus. 
He is said to have fallen in love with the 
ivory image of a maiden which he himself I 
had made, and to have prayed to Aphrodite 
(Yenus) to breathe life into it. When the 
request was granted, Pygmalion married the 
maiden, and became by her the father of j 
Paphus.' — (2) Son of Belus and brother of 
Dido, who murdered Sichaeus, Dido's 
husband. [Dido.] 

PYLADES (-is). (I) Son of Strophius and 
Anaxibia, a sister of Agamemnon. His father 
was king of Phocis ; and after the death of 
Agamemnon, Orestes was secretly carried to 
his father's court. Here Pylades contracted 
that friendship with Orestes, which became 
proverbial. He assisted Orestes in murdering 
his mother Clytaemnestra, and eventually 
married his sister Electra. [Orestes.] — 
(2) A pantomime dancer in the reign of 
Augustus. 

PYLAE (-arum), a general name for any 
narrow pass, such as Thermopylae, Pylae 
Albaniae, Caspiae, &c. 

PYLEXE (-es), an ancient town of Aetolia 
near the coast, mentioned by Homer. The 
Aeolians who took Pylene afterwards removed 
higher up into the country and founded j 
Proschitjm. 

PYLOS (-i), the. name of 3 towns on the 
W. coast of Peloponnesus. (1) In Elis, at 
the foot of Mt. Scollis, and about 70 or 80 
stadia from the city of Elis on the road to 
Olympia, near the confluence of the Ladon 
and the Peneus. — (2) In Triphylia, about 30 
stadia from the coast, on the river Mamaus, 
W. of the mountain Minthe, and X. of 
Lepreum. — (3) In the S.W. of Messenia, was 
situated at the foot of Mt. Aegaleos on a pro- 
montory at the X, entrance of the basin, now 
called the Bay of Xarariuo, the largest and 
safest harbour in all Greece. This harbour 
was fronted and protected by the small island 
of Sphacteria (Sphagia), which stretched 
along the coast about l£ mile, leaving only 



2 narrow entrances at each end. Pylos 
became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, 
when the Athenians under Demosthenes built 
a fort on the promontory Coryphasium a 
little S. of the ancient city, and just within 
the X. entrance to the harbour (b.c. 425). 
The attempts of the Spartans to dislodge the 
Athenians proved unavailing ; and the capture 
by Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in 
the island of Sphacteria was one of the most 
important events in the whole war. 

PYRACMOX. [Cyclopes.] 

PYRAMUS, [Thisbe.] 

PYRAMUS (-i : Jihan), one of the largest 
rivers of Asia Minor, rises in the Anti- 
Taurus range, near Arabissus, in Cataonia 
(the S.E. part of Cappadocia), and after 
running S.E., first underground, and then as 
a navigable river, breaks through the Taurus 
chain by a deep and narrow ravine, and then 
flows S.W. through Cilicia, in a deep and 
rapid stream, about 1 stadium (606 feet) in 
width, and falls into the sea near Mallus. 

PYREXE (-es) or PYREXAEI (-orum) 
MOXTES {Pyrenees)^ a range of mountains, 
extending from the Atlantic to the Mediterra- 
nean, and forming the boundary between Gaul 
and Spain. The length of these mountains is 
about 270 miles in a straight line ; their 
breadth varies from about 40 miles to 20 ; 
their greatest height is between 11,000 and 
12,000 feet. The continuation of the moun- 
tains along the Mare Cantabricum was called 
Saltus Yasconum, and still further W. Mons 
Yindius or Yinnius. 

PYREXES PROMOXTORIUM, or PROM. 
VEXERIS {C. Creus)\ the S.E. extremity of 
the Pyrenees in Spain, on the frontiers of 
Gaul, derived its 2nd name from a temple of 
Yenus on the promontory. 

PYRGI (-orum). (1) The most S.-ly town 
of Triphylia, in Elis, near the Messenian 
frontier, said to have been founded by the 
Minyae. — (2) [Santa Severa), an ancient 
Pelasgic town on the coast of Etruria, was 
used as the port of Caere or Agylla, and 
was a place of considerable importance as a 
commercial, emporium. 

PYRGOTELES (-is), one of the most cele- 
brated gem-engravers of ancient Greece, was 
a contemporary of Alexander the Great, who 
placed him on a level with Apelles and Ly- 
sippus, by naming him as the only artist who 
was permitted to engrave seal-rings for the 
king. 

PYRIPHLEGETHOX (-ontis), that is, 
flaming with fire, the name of one of the 
rivers in the lower world. 

PYRRHA (-ae). (1) [Deucalion.:— (2) 
A town on the W. coast of the island of 
Lesbos, on the inner part of the deep bay 



PYBEHO. 



348 



PYTHAGORAS. 



named after it, and consequently on the 
narrowest part of the island. — (3) A 
town and promontory of Phthiotis, in Thes- 
saly, on the Pagasaean gulf, and near the 
frontiers of Magnesia. Off this promon- 
tory there were 2 small islands named Pyrrha 
and Deucalion. 

PYEBHO (-onis). the founder of the 
Sceptical or Pyrrhonian school of philosophy, 
was a native of Elis, in Peloponnesus. He 
is said to have been poor, and to have fol- 
lowed, at first, the profession of a painter. 
He is then said to have been attracted to 
philosophy by the books of Democritus, to 
have attended the lectures of Brysou, a dis- 
ciple of Stilpon, to have attached himself 
closely to Anaxarchus, and with him to have 
joined the expedition of Alexander the Great. 
He asserted that certain knowledge on any 
subject was unattainable ; and that the great 
object of man ought to be to lead a virtuous 
life. Pyrrho wrote no works, except a poem 
addressed to Alexander, which was rewarded 
by the latter in a royal manner. His philo- 
sophical system was first reduced to writing 
by his disciple Timon. He reached the age 
of 90 years ; but we have no mention of the 
year either of his birth or of his death. 

PYEEHUS (-i). (1) Mythological. [Xeo- 
PTOLEmjs.] — (2) I. King of Epirus, son of 
Aeacides and Phthia, was born b.c, 318. 
Cassander having prevailed upon the Epirots 
to expel their young king, Pyrrhus, who was 
only 17 years of age, accompanied his 
brother-in-law Demetrius to Asia, and was 
present at the battle of Ipsus, 301, in which 
he gained great renown for his valour. 
Afterwards he went as a hostage for Deme- 
trius into Egypt, where he married Antigone, 
the daughter of Berenice. Ptolemy now 
supplied him with forces, with which he 
regained his kingdom (295). After this he 
made an attempt to conquer Macedonia, and 
actually obtained a share of the throne with 
Lysimachus, but was driven out of the 
country after a reign of 7 months (286). Eor 
the next few years Pyrrhus reigned quietly in 
Epirus ; but in 280 he accepted the invitation 
of the Tarentines to assist them in their war 
against the Eomans. He crossed over to 
Italy with a large army, and in the 1st cam- 
paign defeated the Eoman consul, M. Valerius 
Laevinus, near Heraclea. The battle was long 
and bravely contested ; and it was not till 
Pyrrhus brought forward his elephants, 
which bore down everything before them, 
that the Eomans took to flight. The loss of 
Pyrrhus, though inferior to that of the j 
Eomans, was still very considerable. Hence { 
he advanced within 24 miles of Eome ; but 
as he found it impossible to compel the I 



Eomans to accept peace, he retraced his 
steps, and withdrew into winter-quarters to 
Tarentum. In the 2nd campaign (279) 
Pyrrhus gained another victory near Ascu- 
lum over the Eomans, who were commanded 
by the consuls P. Decius Mus and P. Sul- 
picius Saverrio. The battle, however, was 
followed by no decisive results, and his forces 
were so much exhausted by it, that he lent a 
ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks in 
Sicily, who begged him to come to their 
assistance against the Carthaginians. He 
accordingly crossed over into Sicily, where 
he remained from the middle of 27 8 to the 
end of 276. At first he met with brilliant 
success, but having failed in an attempt upon 
Lilybaeum, he lost his popularity with the 
Greeks, who began to form cabals and plots 
against him. His position in Sicily at length 
became so uncomfortable and dangerous, 
that he returned to Italy in the autumn of 
276. The following year he was defeated 
with great loss near Beneventum by the 
Eoman consul Curius Dentatus, and obliged 
to leave Italy. He brought back with him 
to Epirus only 8000 foot and 500 horse, and 
had not money to maintain even these with- 
out undertaking new wars. He therefore 
invaded Macedonia, of which he became king 
a second time, and afterwards turned his 
arms against Sparta and Argos. In the last 
city he was killed (272) by a tile hurled by 
a woman from the house-top, in the 46th 
year of his age, and 23rd of his reign. 
Pyrrhus was the greatest warrior, and one 
of the best princes of his time. — (3) II. 
King of Epirus, son of Alexander II. and 
Olympias, and grandson of Pyrrhus I. 

PYTHAGORAS (-ae). (f) A celebrated 
Greek philosopher, a native of Samos, 
flourished in the times of Polycrates and 
Tarquinius Superbus (b.c. 540 — 510). He 
studied in his own country under Creophilus, 
Pherecydes of Syros, and others, and is said 
to have visited Egypt and many countries of 
the East for the purpose of acquiring know- 
ledge. He believed in the transmigration of 
souls ; and is said to have pretended that he 
had been Euphorbus, the son of Panthos, in 
the Trojan war, as well as various other 
characters. He paid great attention to 
arithmetic, and its application to weights, 
measures, and the theory of music. He 
pretended to divination and prophecy ; and 
he appears as the revealer of a mode of life 
calculated to raise his disciples above the 
level of mankind, and to recommend them to 
the favour of the gods. Having settled at 
Crotona, in Italy, he formed a select brother- 
hood or club of 300, bound by a sort of vow 
to Pythagoras and each other, for the pur- 



PYTIIEAS. 



349 



QULNTLLIANUS. 



pose of cultivating the religious and ascetic 
observances enjoined by their master, and of 
studying his religious and philosophical 
theories. It appears that they had some 
secret conventional symbols, by which mem- 
bers of the fraternity could recognise each 
other, and they were bound to secresy. But 
the populace of Crotona rose against them ; 
the building in which they assembled was set 
on fire, and only the younger and more active 
members escaped. Similar commotions ensued 
in the other cities of Magna Graecia, in which 
Pythagorean clubs had been formed. Re- 
specting the fate of Pythagoras himself, the 
accounts varied. Some say that he perished 
in the temple with his disciples ; others that 
he fled first to Tarentum, and that, being 
driven thence, he escaped to Metapontum, 
and there starved himself to death. — (2) Of 
Rhegium, one of the most celebrated statu- 
aries of Greece, probably flourished b.c. 
480—430. 

PYTHEAS (-ae). (1) An Athenian orator, 
distinguished by his unceasing animosity 
against Demosthenes. — (2) Of Massilia, in 
Gaul, a celebrated Greek navigator, who 
probably lived in the time of Alexander the 
Great, or shortly afterwards. He appears to 
have undertaken voyages, one in which he 
visited Britain and Thule, and a second in 
which he coasted along the whole of Europe 
from Gadira ( Cadiz) to the Tanais, and the 
description of which probably formed the 
subject of his Periphis. Pytheas made Thule 
a 6 days' sail from Britain ; and said that 
the day and the night were each 6 months 
long in Thule. Hence some modern writers 
have supposed that he must have reached 
Iceland ; while others have maintained that 
he advanced as far as the Shetland Islands. 
But either supposition is very improbable. 

PYTHIUS (-i), the Pythian, a surname of 
the Delphian Apollo. [Python.] 

PYTHON (-onis), the celebrated serpent, 
which was produced from the mud left on the 
earth after the deluge of Deucalion. He 
lived in the caves of Mt. Parnassus, but was 
slain by Apollo, who founded the Pythian 
games in commemoration of his victory, and 
received in consequence the surname Pythius. 

PYXUS. [Btjxentum.] 



QUADI, a powerful German people of the 
Suevic race, dwelt in the S.E. of Germany, 
between Mt. Gabreta, the Hercynian forest, 
the Sarmatian mountains, and the Danube. 
They were bounded on the W. by the Marco- 
manni, with whom they were always closely 
united, on the 2s . by the Gothini and Osi, on 



the E. by the Iazyges Metanastae, from whom 
they were separated by the river Granuas 
(Grari), and on the S. by the Pannonians, 
from whom they were divided by the Danube. 
In the reign of Tiberius, the Quadi were 
taken under the protection of the Romans. 
In the reign of M. Aurelius, however, they 
joined the Alarcomanni and other German 
tribes in the long and bloody war against the 
empire, which lasted during the greater part 
of that emperor's reign. Their name is es- 
pecially memorable in the history of this 
war by the victory which AT. Aurelius gained 
over them in 174. The Quadi disappear 
from history towards the end of the 4th 
century. 

QUADRIFBONS (-ontis), a surname of 
Janus. It is said that after the conquest of 
the Faliscans an image of Janus was found 
with 4 foreheads. Hence a temple of Janus 
Quadrifrons was afterwards built in the 
Forum transitorium, which had 4 gates. The 
fact of the god being represented with 4 heads 
is considered by the ancients to be an indica- 
tion of his being the divinity presiding over 
the year with its 4 seasons. 

QUADRIGABIUS, Q. CLAUDIUS (-i), a 
Roman historian who flourished b.c 100 — 78. 
His work commenced immediately after the 
destruction of Borne by the Gauls, and must 
in all probability have come down to the 
death of Sulla. 

QUINT ILIUS VARUS. [Yarxs.] 

QUINTILIANUS, M. FABIUS (-i), the 
most celebrated of Boman rhetoricians, was 
born at Calagurris (CalaJw) ra), in Spain, 
a.d. 40. He completed his education at 
Borne, and began to practise at the bar about 
68. But he was chiefly distinguished as a 
teacher of eloquence, bearing away the palm 
in this department from all his rivals, and 
associating his name, even to a proverb, with 
pre-eminence in the art. By Domitian he 
was invested with the insignia and title of 
consul (consularia orname)ita), and is, more- 
over, celebrated as the first public instructor, 
who, in virtue of the endowment by Yespa- 
sian, received a regular salary from the im- 
perial exchequer. He is supposed to have 
died about 11S. The great work of Quin- 
tilian is a complete system of rhetoric, in 12 
books, entitled Be Institutione Orator ia Libri 
XII. , or sometimes Institutiones Oratoriae, 
dedicated to his friend Alarcellus Yictorius, 
himself a celebrated orator, and a favourite 
at court. This production bears throughout 
the impress of a clear, sound judgment, keen 
discrimination, and pure taste, improved by 
extensive reading, deep reflection, and long 
practice. There are also extant 164 decla- 
mations under the name of Quintilian, but 



QUIXTIUS. 



350 



RAVENNA. 



no one believes these to be the genuine pro- j 
dnctions of Quintilian, and few suppose that j 
they proceeded from any one individual. 

T. QUINTIUS CAPITOLINUS BARBA- j 
TUS (-i), a celebrated general in the early 
history of the republic, and equally distin- 
guished in the internal history of the state. 
He was six times consul, namely, in b.c. 4 71, ; 
468, 465, 446, 443, 439. — Several of his de- I 
scendants held the consulship, but none of j 
these require mention except T. Qnxnrs 
Pexxus Capitolixus Cmspixrs, who was J 
consul 2 OS, and was defeated by Hannibal. I 

QUINTIUS CINCINNATUS. [Cixcixxa- j 

TUS.] 

QUINTIUS FLAaLTNINUS. [Flamixinus.] 
QUINTUS CURTIUS. [Curtius.] 
QUINTUS SMYRNAEUS (-i), commonly 
called QUINTUS CALABER, author of a 
Greek epic poem on the events of the Trojan 
war from the death of Hector to the return j 
of the Greeks. Quintus closely copied Homer, 
but not a single poetical idea of his own seems j 
ever to have inspired him. 

QUIRIXALIS MONS. [Soma.] 
QUIRINUS (-i), a Sabine word, perhaps 
derived from quiris, a lance or spear. It 
occurs first of all as the name of Romulus, 
after he had been raised to the rank of a 
divinity ; and the festival celebrated in his 
honour bore the name of Quirinalia. It is 
also used as a surname of Mars, Janus, and j 
even of Augustus. 



T3ABIBIUS (-i). (1) C, an aged senator, 
-"-^ was accused in b.c. 63, by T. Labienus, 
tribune of the piebs, of having put to death 
the tribune L. Appuleius Saturninus in 100, 
nearly 40 years before. [Satuenixus.] The 
accusation was set on foot at the instigation 
of Caesar, who judged it necessary to deter 
the senate from resorting to arms against the 
popular party. The Duumviri BerdueUionis, 
(an obsolete tribunal), appointed to try Rabi- 
rius were C. Caesar him self and his relative 
L. Caesar. Pvabirius was condemned, but 
appealed to the people in the comitia of the 
centuries. The case excited the greatest in- 
terest ; since it was not simply the life or 
death of Pvabirius, but the power and autho- 
rity of the senate, which were at stake. 
Pvabirius was defended by Cicero ; but the 
eloquence of his advocate was of no avail, 
and the people would have ratified the deci- 
sion of the duumvirs, had not the meeting 
been broken up by the praetor, Q. Metellus 
Celer, who removed the military flag which 
floated on the Janiculum. — (2) C. Pvabirius 
Postuxus was the son of the sister of the 



preceding. After the restoration of Ptolemy 
Auletes to his kingdom by means of Gabinius, 
in b.c. 5 5, Rabirius repaired to Alexandria, 
and was invested by the king with the office 
of Dioecetes, or chief treasurer. In this office 
his extortions were so terrible that Ptolemy 
had him apprehended ; but Pvabirius escaped 
from prison, probably through the connivance 
of the king, and returned to Borne. Here a 
trial awaited him. Gabinius had been sen- 
tenced to pay a heavy fine on account of his 
extortions in Egypt ; and as he was unable 
to pay this fine, a suit was instituted against 
Rabirius, who was liable to make up the de- 
ficiency, if it could be proved that he had 
received any of the money of which Gabinius 
had illegally become possessed. Rabirius was 
defended by Cicero, and was probably con- 
demned. — (3) A Roman poet, who lived in 
the last years of the republic, and wrote a 
poem on the Civil Wars. 

RAMSES, the name of many kings of 
Egypt of the 18th, 19th, and 20th dynasties. 

RAPHIA or RAPHEA (-ae : Bepha), a sea- 
port town in the extreme S.V>". of Palestine, 
beyond Gaza, on the edge of the desert. 

RASENA. [Etbueia.] 

RATOMAGUS or ROTOaIAGUS (-i : 
Boue?i), the chief town of the Yeilocasses in 
Gallia Lugdunensis. 

RAUDII CAMPI. [Campi Raudii.] 

RAURACI (-oruni), a people in Gallia 
Belgica, bounded on the S. by the Helvetii, 
on the W. by the Sequani, on the N. by the 
Tribocci, and on the E. by the Rhine. They 
must have been a people of considerable im- 
portance, as 23,000 of them are said to have 
emigrated with the Helvetii in b.c 58, and 
they possessed several towns, of which the 
most important were Augusta {August) and 
Basilia (Basle or Dale). 

RAVENNA (-ae : (Northern Italy) Ba- 
venna), an important town in Gallia Cisalpina, 
on the river Bedesis and about a mile from 
the sea, though it is now about 5 miles in 
the interior, in consequence of the sea having 
j receded all along this coast. Ravenna was 
situated in the midst of marshes, and was 
only accessible in one direction by land, pro- 
bably by the road leading from Ariminum. 
It was said to have been founded by Thessa- 
| lians (Pelasgians), and afterwards to have 
; passed into the hands of the Umbrians, but 
I it long remained an insignificant place, and 
i its greatness does not begin till the time of the 
! empire, when Augustus made it one of the 2 
I chief stations of the Roman fleet. Ravenna 
thus suddenly became one of the most im- 
■ portant places in the N. of Italy. V "hen the 
Roman empire was threatened by the bar- 
barians, the emperors of the AVest took up 



REATE. 



351 



RESAIXA. 



their residences at Ravenna, which, on 
account of its situations and fortifications, 
was regarded as impregnahle. After the 
downfall of the Western empire, Theodoric 
also made it the capital of his kingdom ; and 
after the overthrow of the Gothic dominion 
by Xarses, it became the residence of the 
Exarchs or the governors of the Byzantine 
empire in Italy, till the Lombards took the 
town,^A.D L 752. 

EE ATE (-is : Rieti), an ancient town of 
the Sabines in Central Italy, said to have 
been founded by the Aborigines or Pelas- 
gians, was situated on the Lacus Yelinus 
and the Via Salaria. It was the chief place 
of assembly for the Sabines, and was subse- 
quently a praefectura or a municipium. The 
valley in which Reate was situated was so 
beautiful that it received the name of Tempe ; 
and in its neighbourhood is the celebrated 
waterfall, which is now known under the 
name of the fail of Terni or the Cascade 
delle Marmore. 

REDOXES (-urn), a people in the interior 
of Gallia Lugdunensis, whose chief town was 
Condate (Rennes). 

REGILLUS LACUS (-i), a lake in Latium, 
memorable for the victory gained on its 
banks by the Romans over the Latins, B.C. 
498. It was E. of Rome in the territory of 
Tusculum, and between Lavicum and Gabii ; 
but it cannot be identified with certainty with 
anv modern lake. 

REGIUM LEPIDI, REGIUM LEPLDUM, 
or simply REGIUM, also EORUM LEPIDI 
(Reggio), a town of the Boii in Gallia Cisal- 
pina._ 

REGULUS (-i), the name of a family of 
the Atilia gens. (1) M. Atilitjs Regulus, 
consul b.c. 267, conquered the Sallentini, 
took the town of Brundusium, and obtained 
in consequence the honour of a triumph. In 
256, he was consul a 2nd time with L. 
Manlius Yulso Longus. The 2 consuls de- 
feated the Carthaginian fleet, and afterwards 
landed in Africa with a large force. They 
met with great and striking success ; and 
after Manlius returned to Rome with half of 
the army, Regulus remained in Attica with 
the other half, and prosecuted the war with 
the utmost vigour. The Carthaginian gene- 
rals, Hasdrubai, Bostar, and Hamilcar, with- 
drew into the mountains, where they were 
attacked by Regulus, and defeated with great 
loss. The Carthaginian troops retired within 
the walls of the city, and Regulus now over- 
ran the country without opposition. The 
Carthaginians in despair sent a herald to 
Regulus to solicit peace ; but the Roman 
general would only grant it on such into- 
lerable terms that the Carthaginians resolved 



to continue the war, and hold out to the last. 
A Lacedaemonian named Xanthippus pointed 
out to the Carthaginians that their defeat was 
owing to the incompetency of their generals, 
and not to the superiority of the Roman 
arms. Being placed at the head of their 
forces, he totally defeated the Romans, and 
took Regulus himself prisoner (255). Regu- 
lus remained in captivity for the next 5 years, 
till 250, when the Carthaginians, after their 
defeat by the proconsul Metellus, sent an em- 
bassy to Rome to solicit peace, or at least an 
exchange of prisoners. They allowed Regulus 
to accompany the ambassadors on the promise 
that he would return to Rome if their pro- 
posals were declined. This embassy of Re- 
gulus is one of the most celebrated stories in 
Roman history. It is related that he dis- 
suaded the senate from assenting to a peace, 
or even to an exchange of prisoners, and that 
resisting, all the persuasions of his friends to 
remain in Rome, he returned to Carthage, 
where a martyr's death awaited him. On 
his arrival at Carthage he is said to have been 
put to death with the most excruciating tor- 
tures. YVhen the news of the barbarous 
death of Regulus reached Rome, the. senate 
is said to have given Hamilcar and Bostar, 
2 of the noblest Carthaginian prisoners, to 
the family of Regulus, who revenged them- 
selves by putting them to death with cruel 
torments. But many writers have supposed 
that this tale was invented in order to excuse 
the cruelties perpetrated by the family of 
Regulus on the Carthaginian prisoners conu 
mitted to their custody. Regulus was one of 
the favourite characters of early Roman story, 
j Not only was he celebrated on account of his 
i heroism in giving the senate advice which 
I secured him a martyr's death, but also on 
account of his frugality and simplicity of life. 
— (2) C, surnamed Serraxus, consul 257, 
when he defeated the Carthaginian fleet off 
the Liparean islands, and obtained possession 
of the islands of Lipara and Melite. He was 
consul a second time in 250, with L. Manlius 
Yulso. This Regulus is the first Atilius who 
bears the surname of Serranus. 

REMI or RHEMI (-orum), one of the most 
powerful people in Gallia Belgica, inhabited 
the country through which the Axona flowed, 
and were bounded on the S. by the Xervii, 
on the S.E. by the Yeromanclui, on the E. by 
the Suessiones and Bellovaci, and on the W. 
by the Xervii. They formed an alliance with 
Caesar, when the rest of the Belgae made 
war against him, b.c 57. Their chief town 
was Durocortorum, afterwards called Remi 
(Rhehns). 

REMUS. [Romulus.] 

RESAIXA, RES A EX A, RESIXA (-ae : 



REUDIGNI. 



352 



RHEA. 



Ras-el-Ain), a city of Mesopotamia, near the 
sources of the Chaboras, on the road from 
Carrae to Nisibis. After its restoration and 
fortification by Theodosius, it was called 
Theodosiopolis. 

REUDIGNI (-orum), a people in the N. 
of Germany, on the right bank of the Albis, 
N. of the Langobardi. 

EEX (Regis), MARCIUS. (1) Q., praetor 
B.C. 144, built the aqueduct called Aqua 
Marcia. — (2) Q., consul in 118, founded in 
this year the colony of Narbo Martius, in 
Gaul. — (3) Q., consul 68, and proconsul in 
Cilicia in the following year. Being refused 
a triumph on his return to Rome, he remained 
outside the city till the Catilinarian conspiracy 
broke out in G3, when the senate sent him to 
Faesulae, to watch, the movements of C. 
Mallius or Manlius, Catiline's general. 

RHA {Volga), a great river of Asia, first 
mentioned by Ptolemy, who describes it as 
rising in the N. of Sarmatia, in 2 branches, 
Rha Occidentalis &nd Rha Orientalis (the 
Volga and the Kama), after the junction of 
which it flowed S.W., forming the boundary 
between Sarmatia Asiatica and Scythia, till 
near the Tanai's [Don), where it suddenly 
turns to the S.E., and falls into the N.W. part 
of the Caspian. 

RHADAMANTHUS (-i), son of Zeus (Jupi- 
ter) and Europa, and brother of king Minos 
of Crete. From fear of his brother lie fled to 
Ocalea inBoeotia, and there married Alcmene. 
In consequence of his justice throughout life, 
he became after his death, one of the judges 
in the lower world. 

RHAETIA (-ae), a Roman province S. of 
the Danube, was originally distinct from 
Yindelicia, and was bounded on the W. by 
the Helvetii, on the E. by Noricum, on the 
N. by Vindelicia, and on the S. by Cisalpine 
Gaul, thus corresponding to the Grisons in 
Switzerland, and to the greater part of the 
Tyrol. Towards the end of the first century, 
however, Vindelicia was added to the pro- 
vince of Rhaetia, whence Tacitus speaks of 
Augusta Vindelicorum as situated in Rhaetia. 
At a later time Rhaetia was subdivided into 
2 provinces, Rhaetia Prima and Rhaetia 
Secunda, the former of which answered to 
the old province of Rhaetia, and the latter to 
that of Vindelicia. Rhaetia was a very moun- 
tainous country, since the main chain of the 
Alps ran through the greater part of the pro- 
vince. These mountains were called Alpes 
Rhaeticae, and extended from the St. Gothard 
to the Orteler by the pass of the Stelvio ; 
and in them rose the Oenus {Inn) and most 
of the chief rivers in the N. of Italy, such as 
the Athesis {Adige), and the Addua {Adda). 
The original inhabitants of the country, the 



Rhaeti, are said by most ancient writers to 
have been Tuscans, who were driven out of 
the N. of Italy by the invasion of the Celts, 
and who took refuge in this mountainous dis- 
trict under a leader called Rhaetus. They 
were a brave and warlike people, and caused 
the Romans much trouble by their marauding 
incursions into Gaul and the N. of Italy. 
They were not subdued by the Romans till 
the reign of Augustus, and they offered a 
brave and desperate resistance against both 
Drusus and Tiberius, who finally conquered 
them. Rhaetia was then formed into a Ro- 
man province, to which Vindelicia was after- 
wards added, as has been already stated. 
The only town in Rhaetia of any importance 
was Tejdentinum {Trent). 

RHAGAE (-arum : Rai, Ru. S.E. of Tehran), 
the greatest city of Media, lay in the extreme 
N. of Great Media, at the S. foot of the moun- 
tains (CaspiusM.), which border the S. shores 
of the Caspian Sea, and on the W. side of the 
great pass through those mountains called the 
Caspiae Pylae. It was therefore the key of 
Media towards Parthia and Hyrcania. Hav- 
ing been destroyed by an earthquake, it was 
restored by Seleucus Nicator, and named 
Exjropus. In the Parthian wars it was again 
destroyed, but it was rebuilt by Arsaces, and 
called Arsacia. In the middle ages it was 
still a great city under its original name, 
slightly altered [Rai] ; and it was finally de- 
stroyed by the Tartars in the 12 th century. 

RHAMNUS (-untis : Obrio Kastro) , a demus 
in Attica, belonging to the tribe Aeantis, 
which derived its name from the rhamnus, a 
kind of prickly shrub. Rhamnus was situ- 
ated on a small rocky peninsula on the E. 
coast of Attica, 60 stadia from Marathon. 
It possessed a celebrated temple of Nemesis, 
who is hence called by the Latin poets 
Rhamnusia dea or virgo. 

RHAMPSINiTUS (-i), one of the ancient 
kings of Egyyt, succeeded Proteus, and was 
succeeded by Cheops. Rhampsinitus belongs 
to the 20th dynasty, and is known in inscrip- 
tions by the name of Ramessu Neter-kek-pen. 
. RHEA (-ae), an ancient Greek goddess, 
appears to have been a goddess of the earth. 
She is represented as a daughter of Uranus 
and Ge, and the wife of Cronos (Saturn), 
by whom she became the mother of Hestia 
(Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), Hera (Juno), Hades 
(Pluto), Poseidon (Neptune), and Zeus 
(Jupiter). Cronos devoured all his children 
by Rhea, but when she was on the point of 
giving birth to Zeus, she went to Lyctus, in 
Crete, by the advice of her parents. When 
Zeus was born she gave to Cronos a stone 
wrapped up like an infant, which the god 
swallowed, supposing it to be his child. 



RHEA. 



353 



RHEGIUM. 



Crete was undoubtedly the earliest seat of 
the worship of Rhea ; though many other 
parts of Greece laid claim to the honour of 
being the birthplace of Zeus. Rhea was 
afterwards identified by the Greeks in Asia 
Minor with the great Asiatic goddess, known 
under the name of "the Great Mother," or 
" the Mother of the Gods," and also bearing 
other names, such as Cybele, Agdistis, Dindy- 
mene, &c. Hence her worship became of a 
wild and enthusiastic character, and various 
Eastern rites were added to it, which soon 
spread through the whole of Greece. From 
the orgiastic nature of these rites, her 
worship became closely connected with that 
of Dionysus (Bacchus), Under the name of 
Cybele, her worship was universal in Phry- 
gia. Under the name of Agdistis, she was 
worshipped with great solemnity at Pessi- 
nus, in Galatia, which town, was regarded 
as the principal seat of her worship. Under 
different names we might trace the worship 
of Rhea as far as the Euphrates, and even 
Bactriana. She was, in fact, the great god- 
dess of the Eastern world, and we find her 
worshipped there under a variety of forms 
and names. As regards the Romans, they 
had from the earliest times worshipped Jupi- 
ter and his mother Ops, the wife of Saturn, 
who seems to have been identical with Rhea. 
In all European countries Rhea was con- 
ceived to be accompanied by the Curetes, who 
are inseparably connected with the birth and 
bringing up of Zeus in Crete, and in Phrygia 
by the Corybantes, Atys, and Agdistis. The 
Corybantes were her enthusiastic priests, who, 




Rhea, or Cybele. (From a Roman Lamp.) 



with drums, cymbals, horn?, and in full 
armour, performed their orgiastic dances in 



the forests and on the mountains of Phrygia. 
In Rome the Galli were her priests. The 
lion was sacred to her. In works of art she 
is usually represented seated on a throne, 
adorned with a mural crown, from which a 
veil hangs down. Lions appear crouching 
on the right and left of her throne, and some- 
times she is seen riding in a chariot drawn 
by lions. 




Rhea, or Cybele. (From a Medallion of Hadrian.) 



RHEA SILVIA. [Rom-Lrs.] 

RHEDOXES. [Redoxes.] 

RHEGIUM (-i: Eeggio), a celebrated 
Greek town on the coast of Bruttium in 
the S. of Italy, was situated on the Fretum 
Siculum, or the Straits, which separate 
Italy and Sicily. Rhegium was founded 
about the beginning of the first Messenian 
war, b.c. 743, by Aeolian Chalcidians from 
Euboea and by Doric Messenians, who had 
quitted their native country on the com- 
mencement of hostilities between Sparta and 
Messenia. Even before the Persian wars 
Rhegium was sufficiently powerful to send 
3000 of its citizens to the assistance of the 
Tarentines, and in the time of the elder 
Dionysius it possessed a fleet of 80 ships of 
war. This monarch, having been offended 
by the inhabitants, took the city, and treated 
it with the greatest severity. Rhegium 
never recovered its former greatness, though 
it still continued to be a place of considerable 
importance. The Rhegians having applied 
to Rome for assistance when Pyrrhus was in 
the S. of Italy, the Romans placed in the 
town a garrison of 4000 soldiers, who had 
been levied among the Latin colonies in Cam- 
pania. These troops seized the town in 279, 
killed or expelled the male inhabitants, and 
took possession of their wives and children 

A A 



RHENEA. 



354 



PHODAXUS. 



The Romans were too much engaged at 
the time with their war against Pyrrhus 
to take notice of this outrage ; but when 
Pyrrhus was driven out of Italy, they took 
signal vengeance upon these Campanians, 
and restored the surviving Phegians to their 
city. Phegium was the place from which 
persons usually crossed over to Sicily, hut the 
spot at which they embarked was called 
Coltjmna Phegixa [Torre di Car alio), and 
was 100 stadia N. of the town. 

PHEXEA (-ae), anciently called Ortygia 
and Celadussa, an island in the Aegean sea 
and one of the Cyclades, W, of Delos, from 
which it was divided by a narrow strait only 
4 stadia in width. 

PHEXUS (-i). (l)(B7iein in German, Phine 
in English) , one of the great rivers in Europe, 
forming in ancient times the boundary be- 
tween Gaul and Germany, rises in Mt. 
Adulas (St. Gothard) not far from the sources 
of the Phone, and flows first in a W.-ly 
direction, passing through the Eacus Brigan- 
tinus [Lake of Constance), till it reaches 
Easilia (Basle), where it takes a X.-ly direc- 
tion and eventually flows into the ocean by 
several mouths. The ancients spoke of 2 
main arms, into which the Rhine was divided 
on entering the territory of the Eatavi, of 
which the one on the E. continued to bear 
the name of Phenus, while that on the W. 3 
into which the ATosa (JIaas or 3fev.se) flowed, 
was called Tahalis (Waal). After Erusus in 
b.c. 12 had connected the Elevo Lacus 
(Zuyder-Zee) with the Phine by means of a 
canal, in making which he probably made 
use of the bed of the Yssel, we find mention 
of 3 mouths of the Phine. Of these the 
names, as given by Pliny, are on the TT., 
Helium (the Tahalis of other writers), in the 
centre Phenus, and on the E., Flevum ; but 
at a later time we again find mention of only 
2 mouths. The Phine is described by the 
ancients as a broad, rapid, and deep river. 
It receives many tributaries, of which the 
most important are the ALosella (Jloselle) and 
Alosa {JIaas or Meuse) on the left, and the 
Nicer (Xeckar), Aloenus (Main) and Euppia 
(Lippe) on the right. Its whole course 
amounts to about 950 miles. The inundations 
of the Phine near its mouth are mentioned 
by the ancients. Caesar was the first Poman 
general who crossed the Phine. He threw 
a bridge of boats across the river, probably 
in the neighbourhood of Cologne. — (2) (Reno) , 
a tributary of the Padus (Po) in Gallia Cisal- 
pina near BonGiiia, on a small island of which 
Octavian, Antony, and Eepidus formed the 
celebrated triumvirate. 

PHESES (-i). (1) A river-god in Bithy- 
nia, one of the sons of Oceanus and Tethys. 



— '2) Son of king E'ioneus in Thrace, marched 
to the assistance of the Trojans in their war 
with the Greeks. An oracle had declared 
j that Troy would never be taken if the snow- 
j white horses of Phesus should once drink 
the water of the Xanthus, and feed upon the 
grass of the Trojan plain. But as soon as 
Rhesus had reached the Trojan territory and 
had pitched his tents late at night, Llysses 
and Diomedes penetrated into his camp, slew 
J Phesus himself, and carried off his horses. 
PHIAXES (-i), of Crete, a distinguished 
Alexandrian poet and grammarian, flourished 

■ e.c. 222. 

RHIXOCOLURA or RHIXOCOREPA 
; [Kulat-el-Arish) , the frontier town of Egypt 
| and Palestine, lay in the midst of the desert, 
' at the mouth of the brook [JEl-Arish), which 
; was the boundary between the countries, and 

which is called in Scripture the river of 

Egypt. 

PHIPAEI AEOXTES (-orum), the name of 
j a lofty range of mountains in tb e northern 
I part of the earth, respecting which there are 
j diverse statements in the ancient writers. 

■ The name seems to have been given by the 
Greek poets quite indefinitely to all the 
mountains in the northern parts of Europe 
and Asia. Thus the Phipaei Alontes are 
sometimes called the Hyperborei Alontes. 
[Hypereorei.] The later geographical 
writers place the Phipaean mountains X.E. 
of Mt. Alaunus on the frontiers of Asiatic 
Sarmatia, and state that the Tanais rises in 
these mountains. According to this account 
the Phipaean mountains may be regarded as 
a western branch of the Ural Mountains. 

PHICAI (-i : Castello di Jlorea), a pro- 
! montory in Achaia, opposite to the promon- 
tory of Antirrhium [Castello di Pomelia), on 
the borders of Aetolia and Eocris, with which 
it formed the narrow entrance to the Co- 
rinthian gulf, which Straits are now called 
I the Little Dardanelles. 

PHODA or RHODES (-ae, or -i : Pozas , 
a Greek emporium on the coast of the Indi- 
getae in Hispania Tarraconensis, founded by 
the Rhodians, and subsequently occupied by 
the inhabitants of Massilia. 

RHODANUS (4 : Phone), one of the chief 
rivers of Gaul, rises in Mt. Adulas, on the 
Pennine Alps, not far from the sources of the 
; Rhine, flows first in a westerly direction, and 
i after passing through the Lacus Lemanus, 
turns to the S., passes by the towns of Lug- 
dunum, Tienna, Avenio, and Arelate, receives 
I several tributaries, and finally falls by several 
mouths into the Sinus Gallicus in the Medi- 
terranean. The Phone is a very rapid river, 
and its upward navigation is therefore dif- 
| ficult, though it is navigable for large vessels 



RHODE. 



355 



RHODES. 



as high as Lugdunum [Lyon), and by means 
of the Arar still farther X. 
RHODE. [Rhodos.] 

RHODIUS (-i : proh. the brook of the 
Dardanelles), a small river of the Troad, 
mentioned both by Homer and Hesiod. It 
rose on the lower slopes of Mt. Ida, and 
flowed N.W. into the Hellespont, between 
Abydus and Dardanus, after receiving the 
Selle'i's from the W. 

RHODOPE (-es), one of the highest ranges 
of mountains in Thrace, extending from Mt. 
Scomius, E. of the river Xestus and the boun- 
daries of Macedonia, in a S.E.-ly direction 
almost down to the coast. It is highest in 
its northern part, and is thickly covered with 
wood. Rhodope, like the rest of Thrace, was 
sacred to Dionysus (Bacchus). 

RHODOPIS' (-idis), a celebrated Greek 
courtesan, of Thracian origin, was a fellow- 
slave with the poet Aesop, both of them 
belonging to the Samian Iadmon. She 
afterwards became the property of Xanthus, 
another Samian, who carried her to Xau- 
cratis in Egypt, in the reign of Amasis, and 
at this great sea-port she carried on the 
trade of an hetaera for the benefit of her 
master. While thus employed, Charaxus, 
the brother of the poetess Sappho, who had 
come to Xaucratis as a merchant, fell in love 
with her, and ransomed her from slavery for 
a large sum of money. She was in conse- 
quence attacked by Sappho in a poem. She 
continued to live at Xaucratis, and with the 
tenth part of her gains she dedicated at 
Delphi 10 iron spits, which were seen by 
Herodotus. She is called Rhodopis by He- 
rodotus, but Sappho in her poem spoke of 
her under the name of Doricha. It is 
therefore probable that Doricha was her real 
name, and that she received that of Rhodopis, 
which signifies the " rosy-cheeked," on ac- 
count of her beauty. 

RHODOS, sometimes called RHODE [-es), 
daughter of Poseidon (Neptune) and Helia, 
or of Helios (Sol) and Amphitrite, or of 
Poseidon and Aphrodite (Yenus), or lastly of 
Oceanus. From her the island of Rhodes is 
said to have derived its name ; and in this 
island she bore to Helios 7 sons. 

RHODES (-i: Rhodos, Rhodes), the most 
easterly island of the Aegean, or more spe- 
cifically, of the Carpathian Sea, lies off the 
S. coast of Caria, due S. of the promontory 
of Cynossema (C. Aloupo), at the distance of 
about 12 geog. miles. Its length, from X.E. 
to S.W., is about 45 miles ; its greatest 
breadth about 20 to 25. In early times it 
was called Aethraea and Ophiussa, and several 
other names. There are various mythological 
stories about its origin and peopling. Its 



Hellenic colonisation is ascribed to Tlepo- 
lemus, the son of Hercules, before the Trojan 
war, and after that war to Althaemenes. 
Homer mentions the 3 Dorian settlements in 
Rhodes, namely, Lindus, Ialysus, and Ca- 
mirus ; and these cities, with Cos, Cnidus, 
and Halicarnassus, formed the Dorian Hexa- 
polis, which was established, from a period 
of unknown antiquity, in the S.W. corner of 
Asia Minor. Rhodes soon became a great 
maritime state, or rather confederacy, the 
island being parcelled out between tbe 3 
cities above mentioned. The Rhodians made 
distant voyages, and founded numerous colo- 
nies. At the beginning of the Peloponnesian 
war, Rhodes was one of those Dorian mari- 
time states which were subject to Athens ; 
but in the 20th year of the war, e.g. 412, it 
joined the Spartan alliance, and the oligar- 
chical party, which had been depressed, and 
their leaders, the Eratidae, expelled, recovered 
their former power, under Dorieus. In 408, 
the new capital, called Rhodus, was built, 
and peopled from the 3 ancient cities of 
Ialysus, Lindus, and Camirus. At the Mace- 
donian conquest the Rhodians submitted to 
Alexander, but upon his death expelled the 
Macedonian garrison. In the ensuing wars 
they formed an alliance with Ptolemy, the 
son of Lagus, and their city, Rhodes, suc- 
cessfully endured a most famous siege by the 
forces of Demetrius Poliorcetes, who at 
length, in admiration of the valour of the 
besieged, presented them with the engines he 
had used against the city, from the sale of 
which they defrayed the- cost of the celebrated 
Colossus. At length they came into connexion 
with the Romans, whose alliance they joined, 
with Attalus, king of Pergamus, in the war 
against Philip III. of Macedon, In the en- 
suing war with Antiochus, the Rhodians 
gave the Romans great aid with their fleet ; 
and, in the subsequent partition of the 
I Syrian possessions of Asia Minor, they were 
J rewarded by the supremacy of S. Caria, 
! where they had had settlements from an early 
i period. A temporary interruption of their 
i alliance with Rome was caused by their es- 
pousing the cause of Perseus, for which they 
were severely punished, 168 ; but they re- 
I covered the favour of Rome by the important 
j naval aid they rendered in the Mithridatic 
i war. In the civil wars they took part with 
I Caesar, and suffered in consequence from 
! Cassius, 42, but were afterwards compensated 
1 for their losses by the favour of Antonius. 
: They were at length deprived of their inde- 
pendence by Claudius ; and their prosperity 
t received its final blow from an earthquake, 
; which laid the city of Rhodes in ruins, in the 
reign of Antoninus Pius, a.d. 155. 



RHOECt'S, 



356 



ROMA. 



RHOECUS (-i). (1) A Centaur, who, in 
conjunction "with. Hylaeus, pursued Atalanta 
in Arcadia, but "was killed by her "with an 
arrow. The Roman poets call him Rhoetus, 
and relate that he "was "wounded at the nup- 
tials of Pirithous. — ,2; Son of Phileas or 
Philaeus, of Sanios, an architect and statuary, 
nourished about b.c. 640. He invented the 
art of casting statues in bronze and iron. 

RHOETEUM [-i : C. Litepeh or Barb 1 erf . 
a promontory, or a strip of rocky coast, 
breaking into several promontories, in Mysia, 
on the Hellespont, near Aeantium, with a 
town of the same name (prob. Paleo Castro). 

EHOETUS. 11) A Centaur. [Rhoectjs,] 
— (2) One of the giants -who -was slain by 
Dionysus ; he is usually called Eurytus. 

RHOXOLAXI or ROXOLAXI (-orum), a 
"warlike people in European Sarmatia, on the 
coast of the Palus Maeotis, and between the 
Borysthenes and the Tanais, usually sup- 
posed to be the ancestors of the modern 
Russians. 

RHYXDaCUS [4: Pdrenos), or Lvcrs, a 
considerable river of Asia Minor. Rising in 
Mt. Dindymene, opposite to the sources of 
the Hermus, it flows X. through Phrygia, 
then turns N.W., then TV., and then X.. 
through the lake Apoiloniatis, into the 
Propontis. Prom the point where it left 
Phrygia, it formed the boundary of Mysia 
and Bithynia. 

RHYPES, one of the 12 cities of Achaia, 
situated between Aegium and Patrae. It 
was destroyed by Augustus, and its inha- 
bitants removed to Patrae. 

RHYTIOI ^-i), a town in Crete, men- 
tioned by Homer. 

RICIMER (-eris), the Roman " King- 
Maker,* ' was the son of a Suevian chief, and 
was brought up at the court of Yalentinian 
III. In a.d. 47 2 he took Rome by storm, 
and died 40 days afterwards. 

ROBIGUS or ROBIGO ,-i, or -mis), is 
described by some Latin writers as a divinity 
worshipped for the purpose of averting blight 
or too great heat from the young cornfields. 
The festival of the Robigalia was celebrated 
on the 25 th of April, and was said to have 
been instituted by Xunia. 

ROBUS (-i), a fortress in the territory of 
the Rauraci, in Gallia Belgica. 

ROMA (-ae : Rome), the capital of Italy 
and of the world, was situated on the left 
bank of the river Tiber, on the XYV. con- 
fines of Latium, about 16 miles from the 
sea. Rome is said to have been a colony 
from Alba Longa, and to have been founded 
by Romulus, about b.c. 7 53. [Romulus.] 
All traditions agree that the original city 
comprised only the Hons Palaiinus or 



Palatium, and some portion of the ground 
immediately below it. It was surrounded 
by walls, and was built in a square form, 
whence it was called Roma Quadrata. On 
the neighbouring hills there also existed 
from the earliest times settlements of Sabines 
and Etruscans. The Sabine town, probably 
called Quirium, and inhabited by Quirites, 
was situated on the hills to the X. of the 
Palatine, that is, the QuirinaUs and Capito- 
linus, or Capitolium, on the latter of which 
hills was the Sabine Arx or citadel. Accord- 
ing to traditions, the Sabines were united 
with the Romans, or Latins, in the reign of 
Romulus, and thus was formed one people, 
under the name of u Populus Roman us (et) 
Quirites." The Etruscans were settled on 
Hons Caelius, and extended over Hons CLs- 
pius and Hons Oppius, which are part of the 
Esquiline. These Etruscans were at an early 
period incorporated in the Roman state, but 
were compelled to abandon their seats on the 
hills, and to take up their abode in the plains 
between the Caelius and the Esquiline, 
whence the Vicus Tuscus derived its name. 
I'nder the kings the city rapidly grew in 
population and in size. Aliens Martins added 
the Hons Aventinus to the city. The same 
king also built a fortress on the Janiculus, a 
hill on the other side of the Tiber, as a pro- 
tection against the Etruscans, and connected 
it with the city by means of the Pons Subli- 
cius. Rome was still further improved and 
enlarged by Tarquinius Prisons and Servius 
Tullius. The completion of the city, however, 
was ascribed to Servius Tullius. This king 
added the Hons Yiminalis and Hons Rsquili- 
nus, and surrounded the whole city with a 
line of fortifications, which comprised all the 
seven hills of Rome (Pal at i nus, Capitol inns, 
Quirinalis, Caelius, Aventinus, T'iminalis, Ps- 
quilinus). Hence Rome was called Urbs 
Septicollis. These fortifications were about 
7 miles in circumference. In b.c. 390 Rome 
was entirely destroyed by the Gauls, with 
the exception of a few houses on the Palatine. 
On the departure of the barbarians it was 
rebuilt in great haste and confusion, without 
any attention to regularity, and with narrow 
and crooked streets. After the conquest of 
the Carthaginians and of the monarchs of 
Macedonia and Syria, the city began to be 
adorned with many public buildings and 
handsome private houses ; and it was still 
further embellished by Augustus, who used 
to boast that he had found the city of brick 
and had left it of marble. The great fire at 
Rome in the reign of Xero (a.d. 64' destroyed 
two-thirds of the city. Xero availed himself 
of this opportunity to indulge his passion for 
bunding ; and the city now assumed a still 



ROMA. 



357 



ROMA. 



more regular and stately appearance. The 
emperor Aurelian surrounded Rome with, 
new walls, which embraced the city of 
Servius Tullius and all the suburbs which 
had subsequently grown up around it, such 
as the M. Janicidus on the right bank of the 
Tiber, and the Collis Hortidorum or M. 
Pincianus, on the left bank of the river, to 
the X. of the Quirinalis. The walls of Aure- 
lian were about 11 miles in circumference. 
They were restored by Honorius, and were 
also partly rebuilt by Belisarius. Rome was 
divided by Servius Tullius into 4 Region es or 
districts, corresponding to the 4 city tribes. 
Their names were : 1. Suburana, compre- 
hending the space from the Subura to the 
Caelius, both inclusive. 2. Fsquilina, com- 
prehending the Esquiline hill. 3. Collina, 
extending over the Quirinal and Yiminal. 
4. Palatina, comprehending the Palatine hill. 
The Capitoline, as the seat of the gods, and the 
A ventine, were not included in these Regiones. 
These Regiones were again subdivided into 
27 Sacella Argaeorum, which were probably 
erected where two streets com pit 'a ) crossed 
each other. The division of Servius Tullius 
into 4 Regiones remained unchanged till 
the time of Augustus, who made a fresh 
division of the city into 14 Regiones, viz. : 
1. Porta Capena. 2. CaeJimontium. 3. Isis et 
Serajiis. 4, Via Sacra. 5. Esquilina aim 
Colle Yiminal i. 6. Alta Semita. 7. Via 
Lata. S. Forum Romanian. 9. Circus Fla- 



minius. 10. Palatium. 11. Circus Maximus. 
j 12. Piscina Publica. 13. Aventinus ; and 
14. Trans Tiber im, the only region on the 
! right bank of the river. Each of these 
1 Regiones was subdivided into a certain 
number of Vici, analogous to the sacella of 
Servius Tullius. The houses were divided 
into 2 different classes, called respectively 
domus and insulae. The former were the 
dwellings of the Roman nobles, correspond- 
ing to the modern palazzi ; the latter were 
the habitations of the middle and lower 
classes. Each insula contained several apart- 
ments or sets of apartment-, which were let 
to different families ; and it was frequently 
surrounded with shops. The number of 
insulae of course greatly exceeded that of the 
domi. It is stated that there were 46,602 
insulae at Rome, but only 1790 domus. We 
learn from the Monumentum Ancyranuni, 
that the plebs urbana, in the time of Augus- 
tus, was 320,000. This did not include the 
women, nor the senators, nor knights ; 
so that the free population could not have 
been less than 650,000. To this number we 
must add the slaves, who must have been at 
least as numerous as the free population. 
Consequently the whole population of Rome 
in the time of Augustus must have been at 
least 1,300,000, and in all probability greatly 
exceeded that number. Moreover, as we 
know that the city continued to increase in 
size and population down to the time of 




Ancient Rome. (Restored by Professor Cockerell.) 



Vespasian and Trajan, we shall not be far I of those emperors. The Aqueducts (Aquae- 
wrong in supposing that the city contained ! ductus) supplied Rome with an abundance of 
nearly 2 millions of inhabitants in the reigns I pure water from the hills which surround 



ROMULEA. 



3 



58 



ROXANA. 



the Campagna. The Romans at first had 
recourse to the Tiber and to -wells sunk in 
the city. It was not till b.c. 313 that the 
first aqueduct was constructed, but their 
number was gradually increased, till they 
amounted to 14, in the time of Procopius, 
that is, the 6th century of the Christian 
era. 

ROMULEA (-ae), an ancient town of the 
Hirpini, in Samnium, on the road from 
Beneventuni to Tarentum. 

ROMULUS (-i), the founder of the city of 
Rome, must not be regarded as a real per- 
sonage. The stories about him are mythical. 
According to the common legend, Romulus 
and Remus were the sons of Rhea Silvia, by 
Mars. Silvia was the daughter of Numitor 
(a descendant of lulus, the son of Aeneas), 
who had been excluded from the throne of 
Alba Longa, by his brother, Amulius ; and 
as Silvia was a vestal virgin, she and her 
twin offspring were condemned to be 
drowned in the Tiber. The cradle in which 
the children were exposed, having stranded, 
they were suckled by a she-wolf, which 
carried them to her den, w r here they were 
discovered by Faustulus, the king's shepherd, 
who took the children to his own house, and 
gave them into the care of his wife, Acca 
Larentia. "When they were grown up, 
Romulus and Remus left Alba to found a city 
on the banks of the Tiber. A strife arose 
between the brothers where the city should 
be built, and after whose name it should be 
called, in which Remus was slain by his 
brother. As soon as the city was built, 
Romulus found his people too few in num- 
bers. He therefore set apart, on the Ca- 
pitoline hill, an asylum, or sanctuary, in 
which homicides and runaway slaves might 
take refuge. The city thus became filled 
with men, but they wanted women. Romu- 
lus, therefore, proclaimed that games were 
to be celebrated in honour of the god Consus, 
and invited his neighbours, the Latins and 
Sabines, to the festival, duiing which the 
Roman youths rushed upon their guests, and 
carried off the virgins. This produced a war 
between the two nations ; but during a long 
and desperate battle, the Sabine women i 
rushed in between the armies, and prayed 
their husbands and fathers to be reconciled. 
Their prayer was heard ; the two people not 
only made peace, but agreed to form only 
one nation. But this union did not last 
long. Titus Tatius, the Sabine king, who 
reigned conjointly with Ptomulus, was slain 
at a festival at Lavinium by some Lauren- 
tines, to whom he had refused satisfaction 
for outrages which had been committed by 
his kinsmen. Henceforward R,omulus ruled 



alone over both Romans and Sabines. After 
reigning 3 7 years, he was at length taken away 
from the world by his father, Mars, who 
carried him up to heaven in a fiery chariot. 
Shortly afterwards he appeared in more than 
mortal beauty to Julius Proculus, and bade 
him tell the Romans to worship him as their 
guardian god, under the name of Quirinus. 
Such was the glorified end of Romulus in the 
genuine legend ; but, according to another 
tale, the senators, discontented with the 
tyrannical rule of their king, murdered him 
during the gloom of a tempest, cut up his 
body, and carried home the mangled pieces 
under their robes. 

ROMULUS AUGUSTULUS. [ Augusttjixs . ] 
ROMULUS SILYIUS. [Silvtus.] 
ROSCTANUM (-i : Rossano), a fortress on 
the E. coast of Bruttium between Thurii and 
Pater num. 

ROSCIUS. (1) L., a Roman ambassador 
sent to Fidenae in b.c. 438. — (2) Sex., of 
Ameria, a town in Umbria, accused of the 
murder of his father, and defended by Cicero 
(b.c 80) in an oration which is still extant. 
— (3) the most celebrated comic actor at 
Rome, was a native of Solonium, a small 
place in the neighbourhood of Lanuvium. 
His histrionic powers procured him the favour 
of many of the Roman nobles, and, among 
others, of the dictator Sulla, who presented 
him with a gold ring, the symbol of equestrian 
rank. Roscius enjoyed the friendship of 
Cicero, who constantly speaks of him in terms 
both of admiration and affection. Roscius 
was considered by the Romans to have reached 
such perfection in his profession, that it be- 
came the fashion to call every one who 
became particularly distinguished in the his- 
trionic art, by the name of Roscius. He 
realised an immense fortune by his profession, 
and died in 6?. 

ROTOMAGUS. [Ratomagus.] 

ROXANA, daughter of Oxyartes the 
Bactrian, fell into the hands of Alexander on 
his capture of the hill-fort in Sogdiana, 
named "the rock," b.c 327. Alexander 
was so captivated by her charms, that he 
married her. Soon after Alexander's death 
(323), she gave birth to a son (Alexander 
Aegus), who was admitted to share the nomi- 
nal sovereignty with Arrhidaeus, under the 
regency of Perdiccas. Roxana afterwards 
crossed over to Europe with her son, placed 
herself under the protection of Olympias, and 
threw herself into Pydna along with the 
latter. In 316 Pydna was taken by Cassan- 
der ; Olympias was put to death ; and Roxana 
and her son were placed in confinement in 
Amphipolis, where they were murdered by 
Cassander's orders in 3 1 1 . 



ROXOLANI. 



359 



SABA coy. 



ROXOLAXI. [Rhoxoilani.] 

RUBI (-orum : Ruuo), a town in Apulia on 
the road from Canusiuni to Brundusiuin. 

RUBICO (-onis), a small river in Italy, 
falling into the Adriatic a little X. of Ari- 
minmn, formed the boundary in the republican 
period between the province of Gallia Cisal- 
pina and Italia proper. It is celebrated in 
history on account of Caesar's passage across 
it at the head of his army, by which act he 
declared war against the republic. 

RUBRA SAXA. called Rubrae breves (-sc. 
petrae) by Martial, a small place in Etruria 
only a few miles from Rome, near the river 
Cremera, and on the Via Flaniinia. 

RTTBRESUS LACTS. [Narbo.] 

RUBRUM MARE. [Ekythraeum Maee.j 

RUDIAE '-arum: Botigliano or Huge), a 
town of the Peucetii in Apulia, on the road 
from Brundusium to Yenusia, was originally 
a Greek colony, and afterwards a Roman 
municipium. Rudiae is celebrated as the 
birthplace of Ennius. 

RL'GII (-orum), an important people in 
Germany, originally dwelt on the coast of the 
Baltic between the Yiadus (Oder) and the 
Vistula. After disappearing a long time from 
history, they are found at a later time in 
Attila's army ; and after Attila's death they 
founded a new kingdom on the X. bank of the 
Danube, in Austria and Hungary, the name 
of which is still preserved in the modern 
RugUand. They have left traces of their 
name in the country which they originally 
inhabited, in the modern Rilgen. Riigenwalde, 
Reg a, Regemcalde. 

HULL-US, P. SERYLLIUS (-i), tribune of 
the plebs b.c. 63, proposed an agrarian law, 
which Cicero attacked in 3 orations which 
have come down to us. 

RUPIMUS (-i), P., consul b.c. 132, pro- 
secuted with the utmost vehemence all the 
adherents of Tib. Gracchus, who had been 
slain in the preceding year. As proconsul 
in Sicily in the following year he made vari- 
ous regulations for the government of the 
province, which were known by the name of 
Leges Rupiliae. Rupilius was condemned in 
the tribunate of C. Gracchus, 123, on account 
of his illegal and cruel acts in the prosecution 
of the friends of Tib. Gracchus. 

RUSCINO '-onis), a town of the Sordones 
or Sordi, in the S.E. part of Gallia Xarbonen- 
sis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. 

RUSELLAE (-arum: nr. Grosseto, Ru.), 
One of the most ancient cities of Etruria, 
situated on an eminence E. of the lake Prelius 
and on the Yia Aurelia. The walls of Rusellae ! 
still remain, and are some of the most ancient 
in Italy. 

RUSTICUS ;-i), L. JUNIUS ARULEXUS, 



was a friend and pupil of Pac-tus Thrasea, and 
an ardent admirer of the Stoic philosophy. 
He was put to death by Domitian, because 
he had written a panegyric upon Thrasea. 

RUTEXI -orum), a people in Gallia Aqui- 
tanica, on the frontiers of Gallia Xarbonensis, 
in the modern Rovergne. 

RUTILIUS LUPUS. [Lrpus.] 

RUTILIUS RUFUS (-i), P., a Roman 
statesman and orator. He was military tri- 
bune under Scipio in the Xumantine war, 
praetor b.c. Ill, consul 105, and legatus in 
95 under Q. Mucius Scaevola, proconsul of 
Asia. While acting in this capacity he dis- 
played so much honesty and firmness in re- 
pressing the extortions of the publicani, that 
he became an object of fear and hatred to the 
whole body. Accordingly, on his return to 
Rome, he was impeached of malversation [de 
rejietundis), found guilty, and compelled to 
withdraw into banishment, 92. 

RUTUBA '-ae : Soya), a river on the coast 
of Liguria, which flows into the sea near 
Album Intemelium. 

RUTL'LI '-orum', an ancient people in 
Italy, inhabiting a narrow slip of country on 
the coast of Latium, a little to the S. of the 
Tiber. Their chief town was Ardea, which 
was the residence of Turnus. They were 
subdued at an early period by the Romans, 
and disappear from history. 

RUTUPAE or EUTUPIAE [Richborovgh), 
a port of the Cantii, in the S.E. of Britain, 
where there are still several Roman remains. 



C ABA '-ae). (1) (0. T. Sheba), the capital 
of the Sabaei, in Arabia Felix, lay on a 
high woody mountain, and was pointed out 
by an Arabian tradition as the residence of 
the " Queen of Sheba." — 2) There w as an- 
other city of the same name in the interior 
of Arabia Felix, where a place Sabea is still 
found, nearly in the centre of El -Yemen. — 
(3) A seaport town of Aethiopia, on the Red 
Sea. S. of Ptolemais Theron. 

SABACOX, a king of Ethiopia, who in- 
vaded Egypt in the reign of the blind king 
Anysis, whom he dethroned and drove into 
the marshes. The Ethiopian conqueror then 
reigned over Egypt for 50 years, but at length 
quitted the country in consequence of a 
dream, whereupon Anysis regained his king- 
dom. This is the account which Herodotus 
received from the priests (ii. 137 — 140) ; but 
it appears from Manetho, that there were 3 
Ethiopian kings who reigned over Egypt, 
named Sabaeon, Sebichus, and Taracus* whose 
collective reigns amount to 40 or 50 years, 
and who form the 25th dynasty of that writer. 



SABAEI. 



360 



SABINI. 



The account of Manetho is to be preferred to 
that^of Herodotus. 

SABAEI or SABAE (-5mm, or -arum: 
0. T. Shebai'im), one of the chief peoples of 
Arabia, dwelt in the S.W. corner of the penin- 
sula, in the most beautiful part of Arabia 
Felix, the X. and centre of the province of 
El-Yemen.- So at least Ptolemy places 
them ; but the fact seems to be that they are 
the chief representatives of a race which, at 
an early period, was widely spread on both 
sides of the S. part of the Bed Sea, where 
Arabia and Aethiopia all but joined at the 
narrow strait of Bab -el -Maud eb ; and hence, 
probably, the confusion often made between 
the Sheba and Seba of Scripture, or between 
the Shebai'im of Arabia and the Sebaiim of 
Aethiopia. Their country produced all the 
most precious spices and perfumes of Arabia. 

SABATE, a town of Etruria, on the road 
from Cosa to Borne, and on the N.W. corner 
of a lake, which was named after it Lactjs 
Sabatinvs (Lago di Bracciano). 

SABATIXI (-5rum), a people in Campania, 
who derived their name from the river 
Sabatus (Sabbato), a tributary of the Calor, 
which flows into the Yulturnus. 

SABAZIUS (-i), a Phrygian divinity, com- 
monly described as a son of Bhea or Cybele. 
In later times he was identified with the mystic 
Dionysus (Bacchus), who hence is sometimes 
called Dionysus Sabazius. Eor the same rea- 
son Sabazius is called a son of Zeus (Jupiter) 
by Persephone, and is said to have been 
reared by a nymph, Xysa ; though others, by 
philosophical speculations, were led to con- 
sider him a son of Cabirus, Dionysus, or 
Cronos. He was torn by the Titans into 7 
pieces. 

SABELLI. [Sabini.] 

SABIXA (-ae), the wife of the emperor 
Hadrian, was the grand-niece of Trajan, be- 
ing the daughter of Matidia, who was the 
daughter of Mareiana, the sister of Trajan. 
Sabina was married to Hadrian about a.d. 
100, but the marriage did not prove a happy 
one. Sabina at length put an end to her life, 
probably in 138, and there was a report that 
she had even been poisoned by her hus- 
band. 

SABIXA, POPPAEA (-ae), a woman of sur- 
passing beauty, but licentious morals, was the 
daughter of T. Ollius, but assumed the name 
of her maternal grandfather Poppaeus Sabinus, 
who had been consul a.d. 9, She was first 
married to Rufius Crispinus, and afterwards 
to Otho, who was one of the boon companions 
of Xero. The latter soon became enamoured 
of her ; and in order to get Otho out of the 
way, Xero sent him to govern the province of 
Lusitania (58). Poppaea now became the 



acknowledged mistress of Xero, over whom 
she exercised absolute sway. Anxious to 
become the wife of the emperor, she per- 
suaded Xero first to murder his mother 
Agrippina (59), who was opposed to such a 
disgraceful union, and next to divorce and 
shortly afterwards put to death his innocent 
and virtuous wife Octavia (62). She then 
! became the wife of Xero. In 65, Poppaea 
being pregnant, was killed by a kick from 
her brutal husband. 

SABIXI (-5mm), one of the most ancient 
and powerful of the peoples of central Italy. 
The ancients usually derived their name from 
Sabinus, a son of the native god Sancus. The 
different tribes of the Sabine race were widely 
spread over the whole of central Italy, and 
were connected with the Opicans, Unibrians, 
and those other peoples whose languages were 
akin to the Greek. The earliest traces of the 
Sabines are found in the neighbourhood of 
Amiternum at the foot of the main chain of 
the Apennines, whence they spread as far S. 
as the confines of Lucania and Apulia. The 
Sabines may be divided into 3 great classes, 
called by the names of Sabini, Sabelli, and 
Samnites respectively. The Sabini proper 
inhabited the country between the Xar, the 
Anio and the Tiber, between Latium, Etruria, 
Umbria and Picenum. The Sabelli were 
the smaller tribes who issued from the 
Sabines. To these belong the Testini, Marsi, 
Marrucini, Peligni, Erentani and Hirpini. 
The Picentes, the Picentini, and the Lucani, 
were also of Sabine origin. The Samnites, 
who were by far the most powerful of all 
the Sabine peoples, are treated of in a separate 
article. [Samnium.] There were certain 
national characteristics which distinguished 
the whole Sabine race. They were a people 
of simple and virtuous habits, faithful to 
their word, and imbued with deep religious 
feeling. Hence we find frequent mention of 
omens and prodigies in their country. They 
were a migratory race, and adopted a peculiar 
system of emigration. With the exception 
of the Sabines in Lucania and Campania, 
they never attained any high degree of 
civilisation or mental culture ; but they were 
always distinguished by their love of free- 
dom, which they maintained with the greatest 
bravery. The Sabines formed one of the 
elements of which the Roman people was 
composed. In the time of Romulus, a portion 
of the Sabines, after the rape of their wives 
and daughters, became incorporated with the 
Romans, and the 2 peoples were united into 
one under the general name of Quirites. The 
remainder of the Sabini proper, who were 
less warlike than the Samnites and Sabellians, 
were finally subdued by M. Curius Dentatus, 



SABINTJS. 



361 



SAGRA. 



B.C. 290, and received the Koman franchise, 
sine suffragio. 

SABINUS (-i). (1) A contemporary poet 
and a friend of Ovid, who informs us that 
Sahinus had written answers to six of his 
Epistolae Heroidum. — (2) Flavius, brother 
of the emperor Yespasian, governed Moesia 
for 7 years during the reign of Claudius, 
and held the important office of praefectus 
urbis during the last 11 years of Nero's reign. 
He was removed from this office by Galba, 
but was replaced in it on the accession of 
Otho, who was anxious to conciliate Yespa- 
sian, He continued to retain the dignity 
under Yitellius. During the struggle for the 
empire between Yespasian and Yitellius, 
Sabinus took refuge in the Capitol, where he 
was attacked by the Yitellian troops. In 
the assault the Capitol was burnt to the 
ground, Sabinus was taken prisoner, and 
put to death by the soldiers in the presence 
of Yitellius, who endeavoured in vain to 
save his life. Sabinus was a man of dis- 
tinguished reputation, and of unspotted 
character. — (3) Masstjkitjs, was a distin- 
guished jurist in the time of Tiberius. This 
is the Sabinus from whom the school of the 
Sabiniani took its name. [Capito.] — (4) Pop- 
paeus, consul a.d. 9, was appointed in the 
lifetime of Augustus governor of Moesia, and 
was not only confirmed in this government 
by Tiberius, but received from the latter the 
provinces of Achaia and Macedonia in addi- 
tion. He continued to hold these provinces 
till his death in 35, having ruled over Moesia 
for 24 years. — (5) Q. Tittjhius, one of 
Caesar's legates in Gaul, who perished along 
with L. Aurunculeius Cotta in the attack 
made upon them by Ambiorix in b.c. 54. 

SABIS (-is: Sambre). (1) A broad and 
deep river in Gallia Belgica and in the terri- 
tory of the Ambiani, falling into the river 
Mosa. — (2) A small river on the coast of 
Carmania. — (3) [Sapis.] 

SABRATA. [Abeotox-oi.] 

SABRINA (-ae), also called SABRIANA 
(Severn), a river in the W. of Britain, which 
flowed by Yenta Silurum into the ocean. 

SACAE (-arum), one of the most numerous 
and most powerful of the Scythian nomad 
tribes, had their abodes E. and N.E. of the 
Massagetae, as far as Serica, in the steppes of 
Central Asia, which are now peopled by the 
Kirghiz Kliasaks, in whose name that of 
their ancestors is traced by some geographers. 
They were very warlike, and excelled espe- 
cially as cavalry, and as archers both on 
horse and foot. The name of the Sacae is 
often used loosely for other Scythian tribes, 
and sometimes for the Scythians in general. 

SACER MONS. (1) An isolated hill in 



the country of the Sabines, on the right bank 
of the Anio and AY. of the Yia Nomentana, 
3 miles from Rome, to which the plebeians 
repaired in their celebrated secessions. — 
(2) A mountain in Hispania Tarraconensis 
near the Minius. 

SACRA YIA, the principal street in Rome, 
ran from the valley between the Caelian and 
Esquiline hills, through the arch of Titus, 
and past the Forum Romanum, to the 
Capitol. 

SACRIPORTUS (-us), a small place in 
Latium, of uncertain site, memorable for the 
victory of Sulla over the younger Marius, 
b.c 82. 

SACRUM PROMONTORIUM. (1) {C.St. 
Vincent), on the AY. coast of Spain. — (2) [C. 
Corsci), the N.E. point of Corsica. — (3) (C. 
Iria, also JIakri, Efta Kavi or Jedi Buram, i.e. 
the 7 points), the extreme point of the moun- 
tain Cragus, in Lycia, between Xanthus and 
Telmissus. — (4) [C. Xhelidoni), another pro- 
montory in Lycia, near the confines of Pam- 
phylia, and opposite the Chelidonian islands, 
whence it is also called, Prom. Chelido- 

NIUM. 

SADYATTES (-is), a king of Lydia, suc- 
ceeded his father Ardys, and reigned b.c. 
629 — 617. He carried on war with the 
Milesians for 6 years, and at his death 
bequeathed the war to his son and successor, 
Alyattes L [Alyattes.] 

SAEPINUM or SEPINUM (-is: Sepi}io), 
a municipium in Samnium, on the road from 
Allifae to Beneventum. 

SAETABIS (-is). (1) (Alcoy!), a river on 
the S. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, AY. of 
the Sucro. — (2) Or Setabis (Setabitanus : 
Jativa), an important town of the Contestani, 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Roman 
municipium, was situated on a hill S. of the 
Sucro, and was celebrated for its manufacture 
of linen. 

SAGALASSUS (-i : Ailahsun, Ru.), a 
large fortified city of Pisidia, near the Phry- 
gian border, a day's journey S.E. of Apamea 
Cibotus. It lay, as its large ruins still show, 
in the form of an amphitheatre on the side 
of a hill, and had a citadel on a rock 30 feet 
high. 

SAGARIS (-is), a river of Sarin atia Euro- 
paea, falling into a bay in the N.W. of the 
Euxine, which was called after it Sagaricus 
Sixus, and which also received the river 
Axiaces. 

SAGARTII (-orum), according to Hero- 
dotus, a nomad people of Persis. Afterwards 
they are found, on the authority of Ptolemy, 
in Media and the passes of Mt. Zagros. 

SAGRA (-ae), a small river in Magna 
Graecia, on the S.E. coast of Bruttium, 



SAGUXTOI. 



362 



SALEXTIXI. 



falling into the sea between Caulonia and 
Locri. 

SAGTJNTTJM, more rarely SAGTTNTUS (-i: 
Murviedro), said to have been founded by the 
Zacynthians, a town of the Edetani or Se- 
detani, in Spain, S. of the Iberus, on the 
river Palantias, about 3 miles from the coast. 
Although S. of the Iberus, it had formed an 
alliance with the Romans ; and its siege by 
Hannibal, b.c. 219, was the immediate cause 
of the 2nd Punic war. The ruins of a 
theatre and a temple of Bacchus, are extant 
at Murviedro, which is a corruption of Muri 
veteres. 

SAIS (-is : Sa-elSajjar, Pai.), a great 
city of Egypt, in the Eelta, on the E. side of 
the Canopic branch of the Kile. It was the 
ancient capital of Lower Egypt, and con- 
tained the palace and burial-place of the 
Pharaohs, as well as the tomb of Osiris. The 
city gave its name to the Sa'ites Xomos. 

SAITIS, a surname of Athena, under 
which she had a sanctuary on Mt. Pontinus, 
near Lerna, in Argolis. The name was 
traced by the Greeks to the Egyptians, 
among whom Athena was said to have been 
called Sai's. 

SALA (-ae": Saale). (1) A river of Germany, 
between which and the Rhine Drusus died. 
It was a tributary of the Albis. — (2) {Saale), 
also a river of Germany, and a tributary of 
the Moenus, which formed the boundary 
between the Hermunduri and Chatti, with 
great salt springs in its neighbourhood. 

SALACIA (-ae), the female divinity of 
the sea among the Romans, and the wife of 
Xeptune. The name is evidently connected 
with sal and accordingly denotes the 

wide, open sea. 

SAL AMIS (-mis), (l) (Koluri), an island 
off the W* coast of Attica, from which it is 
separated by a narrow channel. It forms 
the S. boundary of the bay of Eleusis. Its 
greatest length, from X. to S., is about 10 
miles, and its width, in its broadest part, 
from E. to W., is a little more. It is said to 
have been called Salamis from a daughter of 
Asopus, of this name. It was colonised at 
an early time by the Aeacidae of Aegina. 
Telamon, the son of Aeacus, fled thither 
after the murder of his half-brother Phocus, 
and became sovereign of the island. His son 
Ajax accompanied the Greeks with 12 Sala- 
minian ships to the Trojan war. Salamis 
continued an independent state till about the 
beginning of the 40th Olympiad (b.c. 620), 
when a dispute arose for its possession 
between the Megarians and the Athenians. 
After a long struggle it first fell into the 
hands of the Megarians, but was finally taken 
possession of by the Athenians through a | 



stratagem of Solon [Solon], and became one 
of the Attic demi. It continued to belong to 
Athens till the time of Cassander, when its 
inhabitants voluntarily surrendered it to the 
Macedonians, 318. The Athenians reco- 
vered the island in 232 through Aratus, 
and punished the Salaminians for their de- 
sertion to the Macedonians with great se- 
verity. The old city of Salamis stood on the 
S. side of the island, opposite Aegina ; but 
this was afterwards deserted, and a new city 
of the same name built on the E. coast oppo- 
site Attica, on a small bay now called Ambe- 
lakia. At the extremity of the S. promontory 
forming this bay was the small island of 
Psyttalia [Lypsofcutali), which is about a 
mile long, and from 200 to 300 yards wide. 
Salamis is chiefly memorable on account of 
the great battle fought off its coast, in which 
the Persian fleet of Xerxes was defeated by 
the Greeks b.c. 4S0. — (2) An ancient city of 
Cyprus, situated in the middle of the E. coast 
a little X. of the river Pediaeus. Under Con- 
stantine it suffered from an earthquake, 
which buried a large portion of the inhabit- 
ants beneath its ruins. It was, however, 
rebuilt by Constantine, who gave it the name 
of Constantia, and made it the capital of the 
island. There are still a few ruins of this 
town. 

SAL APIA (-ae : Salpi), an ancient town of 
Apulia, in the district Daunia, was situated 
S. of Sipontum, on a lake named after it. It 
is not mentioned till the 2nd Punic war, when 
it revolted to Hannibal after the battle of 
Cannae, but it subsequently surrendered to 
the Romans, and delivered to the latter 
the Carthaginian garrison stationed in the 
town. 

SALAPIXA PALES [Lago di Salpi), a 
lake of Apulia, between the mouths of the 
Cerbalus and Aufidus. 

SAL ARIA (-ae), a town of the Bastetani, 
in Hispania Tarraconensis, and a Roman 
colony. 

SALARIA VIA, a Roman road, which 
ran from the Porta Salaria through Ei- 
denae, Reate, and Asculum Picenum, to 
Castrum Truentinum, and thence along the 
coast to Ancona. 

SALASSI f-orum), a brave and warlike 
people in Gallia Transpadana, in the valley 
of the Duria, at the foot of the Graian and 
Pennine Alps, whom some regarded as a 
branch of the Salves or Salluvii, in Gaul. 
Their chief town was Augusta Praetoria 
(Aosta). 

SALEXTIXI or SALLEXTIXI (-orum), a 
people in the S. part of Calabria, who dwelt 
around the promontory Iapygium, which is 
hence called Salextixum or Salextixa. 



SALERNUM. 



3G3 



SALMANTICA. 



They were subdued by the Romans at the 
conclusion of their war with Pyrrhus. 

SALERNUM -i : Salerno), an ancient town j 
in Campania, at the innermost corner of the 
Sinus Paestanus, situated on a hill near the j 
coast. It was made a Roman colony b.c. 194 ; i 
but it attained its greatest prosperity in the { 
middle ages, after it had been fortified by the j 
Lombards. 

SALGANEUS or SALGANEA (-i, or -ae), 
a small town of Boeotia, on the Euripus, and \ 
on the road from Anthedon to Chalcis. 

SALINAE (-arum), salt-works, the name 
of several towns which possessed salt-works 
ill their vicinity. (1) A town in Britain, on 
the E. coast, in the S. part of Lincolnshire, j 
■ — (2) A town of the Suetrii, in the Maritime \ 
Alps in Gallia Xarbonensis, E. of Reii. — 
(3) {Torre delle Saline), a place on the coast 
of Apulia, near Salapia. — [4) A place in 
Picenum, on the river Sannus (Salino). — 
(5) {Tor da), a place in Dacia. — (6) Salinas j 
Hebccleae, near Herculanum, in Campania. 

SALINATOR (-oris), LIVIUS. (1) M., con- 
sul b.c. 219, with L. Aemilius Paulus, carried 
on war along with his colleague against the 
Iilyrians. On their return to Rome, both 
consuls were brought to trial on the charge 
of having unfairly divided the booty among 
the soldiers. Livius was condemned, but the 
sentence seems to have been an unjust one, 
and Livius took his disgrace so much to 
heart that he retired to his estate. In 210 
the consuls compelled him to return to the 
city, and in 207 he was elected consul a 2nd ! 
time with C. Claudius Nero. He shared with I 
his colleague in the glory of defeating Has- j 
drubal on the Metaurus. [Xero, Clacdius.] 
Xext year (206) Livius was stationed in 
Etruria, as proconsul, with an army, and his I 
imperium was prolonged for 2 successive 
years, In 204 he was censor with his former ! 
colleague in the consulship, Claudius Xero. 
and imposed a tax upon salt, in consequence I 
of which he received the surname of Sali- \ 
motor, which seems to have been given him \ 
in derision, but which became, notwith- j 
standing, hereditary in his family. — (2) C, 
curule aedile, 203, and praetor 202, in which j 
year he obtained Bruttii as his province. — 
(3) C., praetor 191, when he had the com- 
mand of the fleet in the war against j 
Antiochus. He was consul 188, and obtained 
Gaul as his province. 

SALLENTLNI. [Salentixi.] 
w SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS, C, or SALUS- 
TIUS (-i). (1) The Roman historian, be- 
longed to a plebeian family, and was born ; 
b.c. 86, at Amiternum, in the country of the 1 
Sabines. He was quaestor about 59, and 
tribune of the plebs in 52, the year in which I 



Clodius was killed by Milo. In his tribunate 
he joined the popular party, and took an 
active part in opposing Milo. Jn 50 Sallust 
was expelled from the senate by the censors, 
probably because he belonged to Caesar's 
parry, though some give as the ground of his 
ejection from the senate his adultery with 
the Avife of Milo. In the civil war he 
followed Caesar's fortune. In 47 we find 
him praetor elect, by obtaining which dig- 
nity he was restored to his rank. He nearly 
lost his life in a mutiny of some of Caesar's 
troops in Campania, who had been led 
thither to pass over into Africa. He ac- 
companied Caesar in his African war (46), 
and was left by Caesar as the governor of 
Xumidia, in which capacity he is charged 
with having oppressed the people, and en- 
riched himself by unjust means. The charge 
is somewhat confirmed by the fact of his 
becoming immensely rich, as was shown by 
the expensive gardens which he formed 
{horti Sallustiani) on the Quirinalis. He 
retired into privacy after he returned from 
Africa, and passed quietly through the 
troublesome period after Caesar's death. He 
died 34, about 4 years before the battle 
of Actium. The story of his marrying 
Cicero's wife, Terentia, ought to be rejected. 
It was probably not till after his return from 
Africa that Sallust wrote his historical works, 
namely, the Catilina, or BeUum Catilina- 
rium, a history of the conspiracy of Catiline 
during the consulship of Cicero, 63 ; the Ju~ 
gurtha, or BeUum J ugurthinum, the history 
of the war of the Romans against Jugurtha, 
king of Xumidia ; and the Historiarum Libri 
Quinque. This last work is lost, with the 
exception of fragments which have been 
collected and arranged. Besides these there 
are attributed to Sallust Duae Bpistolae de 
Republica ordinanda, and a Beclamatio in 
Ciceronem. Some of the Roman writers 
considered that Sallust imitated the style 
of Thucydides. His language is generally 
concise and perspicuous : perhaps his love of 
brevity may have caused the ambiguity that 
is sometimes found in his sentences. He 
also affected archaic words. He has, how- 
ever, probably the merit of being the first 
Roman who wrote what is usually called 
history. — (2) The grandson of the sister of 
the historian, was adopted by the latter, and 
inherited his great wealth. On the fall of 
Maecenas he became the principal adviser of 
Augustus. He died in a.d. 20, at an ad- 
vanced age. One of Horace's odes [Carm. 
ii. 2) is addressed to him. 

SALMANTICA (-ae : Salamanca), called 
HELMAXTICA or HERMAXDICA by Livy, 
and ELM AX TIC A by Polybius, an important 



SALMOXA. 



364 



SAMARIA. 



town of the Yettones, in Lusitania, S. of the 
Durius, on the road from Emerita to Caesar- 
augusta. 

SALMON A or SALMOXIA (-ae), a town 
of Elis, in the district Pisatis, on the river 
Enipeus, said to have "been founded by 
Salmoneus. 

SALMOXEUS (-eos, -el), son of Aeolus and 
Enarete, and brother of Sisyphus. He 
originally lived in Thessaly, but emigrated to 
Elis, where he built the town of Salmone. 
His presumption and arrogance were so great 
that he deemed himself equal to Zeus 
(Jupiter), and ordered sacrifices to be offered 
to himself ; nay, he even imitated the 
thunder and lightning of Zeus, but the father 
of the gods killed him with his thunderbolt, 
destroyed his town, and punished him in the 
lower world. His daughter Tyro bears the 
patronymic Salmonis. • 

SALMYDESSUS (-i), called HALMYDES- 
SUS also in later times [Midja or Midjeh), a 
town of Thrace, on the coast of the Euxine, S. 
of the promontory Thynias. The name was 
originally applied to the whole coast from this 
promontory to the entrance of the Bosporus ; 
and it was from this coast that the Black Sea 
obtained the name of Pontus Axenos, or 
inhospitable. 

SALO (-onis: Xalon), a tributary of the 
Iberus, in Celtiberia, which flowed by Bil- 
bilis, the birth-place of Martial, who ac- 
cordingly frequently mentions it in his 
poems. 

SALOXA (-ae), SALOXAE (-arum), or 
SALOX (-onis : Salona), an important town 
of Illyria, and the capital of Dalmatia, was 
situated on a small bay of the sea. The 
emperor Diocletian was born at the small 
village Dioclea, near Salona ; and after his 
abdication he retired to the neighbourhood 
of this town, and here spent the rest of his 
days. The remains of his magnificent palace 
are still to be seen at the village of Spalatro, 
the ancient Spolattjm, 3 miles S. of Salona. 

SALYIL'S OTHO. [Otho.] 

SALUS (-utis), a Roman goddess, the 
personification of health, prosperity, and the 
public welfare. In the first of these three senses 
she answers closely to the Greek Hygieia, 
and was accordingly represented in works of 
art with the same attributes as the Greek 
goddess. In the second sense she represents 
prosperity in general. In the third sense 
she is the goddess of the public welfare 
(Salus puhlica or Romano). In this capacity 
a temple was vowed to her in the year b.c. 
307, by the censor C. Junius Bubulcus, on 
the Quirinal hill, which was afterwards 
decorated with paintings by C. Fabius Pictor. 
She was worshipped publicly on the 30th of 



April, in conjunction with Pax, Concordia, 
and Janus. Salus was represented, like 
Eortuna, with a rudder, a globe at her feet, 
and sometimes in a sitting posture, pouring 
from a patera a libation upon an altar, 
round which a serpent is winding. 
SALUSTIUS. [Salle stius.] 
SAL YES (-urn) or SALLUYII (-drum), the 
most powerful and most celebrated of all the 
Ligurian tribes, inhabited the S. coast of 
Gaul from the Rhone to the Maritime Alps. 
They were troublesome neighbours to Mas- 
silia, with which city they frequently carried 
on war. They were subdued by the Romans 
in b.c. 123 after a long and obstinate struggle, 
and the colony of Aquae Sextiae was founded 

I in their territory by the consul Sextius. 
SAMARA. [Samarobriva.] 
SAMARIA (-ae : Heb. Shomron, Chaldee, 
Shamrain : Samarltes, pi. Samarltae), aft. 
Sebaste (Sebusiiek, Ru.), one of the chief 
cities of Palestine, was built by Omri, king 
of Israel (about b.c 922), on a hill in the 
midst of a plain surrounded by mountains, 
just in the centre of Palestine W. of the 
Jordan. Its name was derived from Shemer, 
the owner of the hill which Omri purchased 
for its site. It was the capital of the king- 
dom of Israel, and the chief seat of the 
idolatrous worship to which the ten tribes 
were addicted, until it was taken by Shal- 
maneser, king of Assyria (about b.c 720), 
who carried away the inhabitants of the city 
and of the surrounding country, which is 
also known in history as Samaria [see below], 
and replaced them by heathen peoples from 
the E. provinces of his empire. YYhen the 
Jews returned from the Babylonish captivity, 

! those of the Samaritans who worshipped 

| Jehovah offered to assist them in rebuilding 
the temple at Jerusalem ; but their aid was 

j refused, and hence arose the lasting hatred 
between the Jews and the Samaritans. Under 
the Syrian kings and the Maccabean princes, 
we find the name of Samaria used distinctly 
as that of a province, which consisted of the 
district between Galilee on the X. and Judaea 
on the S. Pompey assigned the district to 
the province of Syria, and Gabinius fortified 
the city anew. Augustus gave the district 
to Herod, who greatly renovated the city of 
Samaria, which he called Sebaste in honour 
of his patron. By the 4th century of our 
era it had become a place of no importance. 
Its beautiful site is now occupied by a poor 
village, which bears the Greek name of the 
city, slightly altered, viz. Sebustieh. As a 
district of Palestine, Samaria extended from 
Ginaea (Jenin) on the X. to Bethhoron, N.W. 
of Gibeon on the S. ; or, along the coast, 
from a little S. of Caesarea on the X. to a 



SAMAROBRIVA. 



365 



SAMOS. 



little N. of Joppa on the S. It was inter- 
sected by the mountains of Ephraim, running 
N. and S. through, its middle, and by their 
lateral branches, which divide their country 
into beautiful and fertile valleys. [Palaes- 

TINA.] 

SAMAROBRIVA (-ae), afterwards AM- 
BIANI {Amiens), the chief town of the 
Ambiani in Gallia Belgica, on the river 
Samara ; whence its name, which signifies 
Samara-Bridge. 

SAME (-es) or SAMOS (-i), the ancient 
name of Cephallenia. [Cephallenia.] It 
was also the name of one of the 4 towns of 
Cephallenia. The town Same or Samos was 
situated on the E. coast, opposite Ithaca, and 
was taken and destroyed by the Romans, 
B.C. 189. 

SAMNIUM (-i) (Samnltes, -urn, more 
rarely Samnltae, pi.), a country in the centre 
of Italy, bounded on the N. by the Marsi, 
Peligni, and Marrucini, on the W. by Latium 
and Campania, on the S. by Lucania, and on 
the E. by the Frentani and Apulia. The Sam- 
nites were an offshoot of the Sabines, who 
emigrated from their country between the 
Nar, the Tiber, and the Anio, before the 
foundation of Rome, and settled in the 
country afterwards called Samnium. [Sabini.] 
This country was at the time of their migra- 
tion inhabited by Opicans, whom the Samnites 
conquered, and whose language they adopted ; 
for we find at a later time that the Samnites 
spoke Opican or Oscan. Samnium is a country 
marked by striking physical features. The 
greater part of it is occupied by a huge mass 
of mountains, called at the present day the 
Matese, which stands out from the central 
line, of the Apennines. The Samnites were 
distinguished for their bravery and love of 
freedom. Issuing from their mountain fast- 
nesses, they overran a great part of Campania ; 
and it was in consequence of Capua applying 
to the Romans for assistance against the 
Samnites, that war broke out between the 2 
peoples in b.c 343. The Romans fouud the 
Samnites the most warlike and formidable ene- 
mies whom they had yet encountered in Italy ; 
and the war, which commenced in 343, was 
continued with few interruptions for the space 
of 53 years. The civil war between Marius 
and Sulla gave them hopes of recovering 
their independence ; but they were defeated 
by Sulla before the gates of Rome (82), the 
greater part of their troops fell in battle, and 
the remainder were put to death. Their 
towns were laid waste, the inhabitants sold 
as slaves, and their place supplied by Roman 
colonists. 

SAMOS or SAMUS (-i : Greek Samo, 
Turkish Susam Adassi), one of the principal 



islands of the Aegaean Sea, lying in that 
portion of it called the Icarian Sea, off the 
coast of Ionia, from which it is separated only 
by a narrow strait formed by the overlapping 
of its E. promontory Posidium (C. Colon/no) 
with the W.-most spur of Mt. Mycale, Pr. 
Trogilium (C. S. Maria). This strait, which 
is little more than 3-4ths of a mile wide, was 
the scene of the battle of Mycale. The 
island is formed by a range of mountains 
extending from E. to W., whence it derived 
its name ; for 2^0? was an old Greek 
word signifying a mountain. The circum- 
ference of the island is about 80 miles. 
According to the earliest traditions, it was a 
chief seat of the Carians and Leleges, and 
the residence of their first king, Ancaeus ; 
and was afterwards colonised by Aeolians 
from Lesbos, and by Ionians from Epidaurus. 
The Samians early acquired such power at 
sea that, besides obtaining possession of parts 
of the opposite coast of Asia, they founded 
many colonies. After a transition from the 
state of an heroic monarchy, through an 
aristocracy, to a democracy, the island became 
subject to the most distinguished of the so- 
called tyrants, Poly crates (b.c. 532), under 
whom its power and splendour reached their 
highest pitch, and Samos would probably 
have become the mistress of the Aegaean, but 
for the murder of Poly crates. At this period 
the Samians had extensive commercial re- 
lations with Egypt, and they obtained from 
Amasis the privilege of a separate temple at 
Naucratis. The Samians now became subject 
to the Persian empire, -under which they were 
governed by tyrants, with a brief interval at 
the time of the Ionic revolt, until the battle 
of Mycale, which made them independent, 
b.c 479. They now joined the Athenian 
confederacy, of which they continued inde- 
pendent members until b.c 440, when an 
opportunity arose for reducing them to entire 
subjection and depriving them of their fleet, 
which was effected by Pericles after an ob- 
stinate resistance of 9 months' duration. 
In the Peloponnesian war, Samos held firm 
to Athens. Transferred to Sparta after the 
battle of Aegospotami, 405, it was soon 
restored to Athens by that of Cnidus, 394 ; 
but went over to Sparta again in 390. Soon 
after, it fell into the hands of the Persians, 
being conquered by the satrap Tigranes ; but 
it was recovered by Timotheus for Athens. 
In the Social war, the Athenians successfully 
defended it against the attacks of the confe- 
derated Chians, Rhodians, and Byzantines, 
and placed in it a body of 2000 cleruchi, b.c. 
352. After Alexander's death, it was taken 
from the Athenians by Perdiccas, 323 ; but 
restored to them by Polysperchon, 319. In 



SAMOSATA. 



3(36 



SAPIS. 



the Macedonian war, Samos was taken by the 
Ehodians, then by Philip, and lastly by the 
Ehodians again, B.C. 200. It took part with 
Mithridates in his first war against Rome, on 
the conclusion of which it was finally united to 
the province of Asia, b.c. 84. Meanwhile it 
had greatly declined, and during the war it 
had been wasted by the incursions of pirates. 
Its prosperity was partially restored under 
the propraetorsMp of Q. Cicero, b.c. 62, but 
still more by the residence in it of Antony 
and Cleopatra, 32, and afterwards of Octa- 
vianus, who made Samos a free state. It sank 
into insignificance as early as the 2nd century. 
Samos may be regarded as almost the chief 
centre of Ionian manners, energies, luxury, 
science, and art. In very early times, there 
was a native school of statuary, and Samian 
architects became famous beyond their own 
island. In painting, the island produced Calli- 
phon,Theodorus, Agatharchus, andTimanthes. 
Its pottery was celebrated throughout the 
ancient world. In literature, Samos was made 
illustrious by the poets Asius, Choerilus, and 
Aeschrion ; by the philosophers Pythagoras 
and Melissus ; and by the historians Pagaeus 
and Duris. — The capital city, also called Sa- 
mos, stood on the S.E. side of the island, oppo- 
site Pr. Trogilium, partly on the shore, and 
partly rising on the hills behind in the form 
of an amphitheatre. It had a magnificent 
harbour, and numerous splendid buildings, 
among which, besides the Heraeum and other 
temples, the chief were the senate-house, the 
theatre, and a gymnasium dedicated to Eros. 
In the time of Herodotus, Samos was reckoned 
one of the finest cities of the world. Its 
ruins are so considerable as to allow its plan 
to be traced : there are remains of its walls 
and towers, and of the theatre and aqueduct. 

SAMOSATA (Someisat), the capital of the 
province, and afterwards kingdom, of Com- 
magene, in the N. of Syria, stood on the 
right bank of the Euphrates, N.W. of Edessa. 
It is celebrated, in literary history, as the 
birthplace of Lucian, and, in church history, 
as that of the heretic Paul, bishop of Antioch, : 
in the 3rd century. Nothing remains of it 
but a heap of ruins. 

SAMOTHRACE (-es) and SAMOTHBACIA j 
(-ae : Samothraki), a small island in the X. 
of the Aegaean sea, opposite the mouth of the 
Hebrus in Thrace, from which it was 38 
miles distant. It is about 32 miles in cir- 
cumference, and contains in its centre a lofty 
mountain, called Saoce, from which Homer 
says that Troy could be seen. Samothrace 
was the chief seat of the worship of the 
Cabiri [Cabiri], and was celebrated for its 
religious mysteries, which were some of the I 
most famous in the ancient world. The j 



1 political history of Samothrace is of little 
j importance. 

SAMPSICEBAMUS (-i), the name of a 
I petty prince of Emesa in Syria ; a nickname 
j given by Cicero to Cn. Pompeius. 

SAXCHUXIATHOX (-onis), said to have 
been an ancient Phoenician writer, whose 
works were translated into Greek by Philo By- 
blius, who lived in the latter half of the ] st cen- 
tury of the Christian era. A considerable frag- 
ment of the translation of Philo is preserved 
by Eusebius in the first book of his Prae- 
paratio Ev angelica ; but it is now generally 
agreed among modern scholars, that the work 
was a forgery of Philo. 

SAXCTTS, ' SAXGUS, or SEMO SAXCUS 
(-i), a Eoman divinity, said to have been 
originally a Sabine god, and identical with 
Hercules and Dius Fidius. The name, which 
is etymologically the same as Sanctus, and 
connected with Sancire, seems to justify this 
belief, and characterises Sancus as a divinity 
presiding over oaths. Sancus had a temple 
at Some, on the Quirinal, opposite that of 
Quirinus, and close by the gate which de- 
I rived from him the name of Sanqualis porta. 

SAXDROCOTTTJS (-i), an Indian king in 
\ the time of Seleucus Xicator, ruled over the 
' powerful nation of the Gangaridae and Prasii 
' on the banks of the Ganges. 

SAXGABIUS (-i), SAXGAEIS, or SA- 
! GAEIS [Sakariyeh), the largest river of Asia- 
Minor after the Halys, had its source in a 
i mountain called Adoreus, near the little town 
of Sangia, on the borders of Galatia and 
Phrygia, whence it flowed first X. through 
Galatia, then W. and N.W. through the N.E. 
part of Phrygia, and then X. through Bithy- 
nia, of which it originally formed the E. 
: boundary. It fell at last into the Euxine, 
| about half way between the Bosporus and 
Heraclea. 

SANGIA. [SAXGARirs.] 
SAXXIO (-onis), a name of the buffoon in 
the mimes, derived from san n a, whence comes 
the Italian Zanni (hence our Zany). 

■ SAXXYBIOX (-onis), an Athenian eomie 
poet, flourished b.c. 407 and onwards. His 
excessive leanness was ridiculed by Strattis 
and Aristophanes. 

SAXTOXES (-urn) or SAXTOXI (-orum\ 
a powerful people in Gallia Aquitanica, dwelt 
on the coast of the ocean, X. of the Garumna. 
Under the Eomans they were a free people. 
Their chief town was Mediolanuni, afterwards 
Santones (Saintes). 

SAPAEI (-orum), a people in Thrace, dwelt 
on Mt. Pangaeus, between the lake Bistonis 
and the coast. 

SAPIS (-is : Sario), a small river in Gallia 
Cisalpina, rising in the Apennines, and flow- 



SAPOR. 



367 



SARDINIA. 



ing into the Adriatic S. of Ravenna, between 
the Po and the Atermis. 

SAPOR._ [Sassaxidae.] 

SAPPHO (-us), one of the two great 
leaders of the Aeolian school of lyric poetry 
(Alcaeus being the other), was a native of 
Mytilene, or, as some said, of Eresos in Lesbos. 
Sappho was contemporary with Alcaeus, Stesi- 
chorus, and Pittacus, That she was not only 
contemporary, but lived in friendly inter- 
course, with Alcaeus, is shown by existing 
fragments of the poetry of both. Of the 
events of her life we have no other informa- 
tion than an obscure allusion in the Parian 
Marble, and in Ovid [Her. xv. 51), to her 
flight from Mytilene to Sicily, to escape some 
unknown danger, between 604 and 592 ; and 
the common story that being in love with 
Phaon, and finding her love unrequited, she 
leapt down from the Leucadian rock. This 
story, however, seems to have been an inven- 
tion of later times. At Mytilene Sappho 
appears to have been the centre of a female 
literary society, most of the members of 
which were her pupils in poetry, fashion, and 
gallantry. The ancient writers agree in ex- 
pressing the most unbounded admiration for 
her poetry. Her lyric poeins formed 9 books, 
but of these only fragments have come down 
to us. The most important is a splendid ode 
to Aphrodite (Yenus), of which we perhaps 
possess the whole. 

SARANCAE, SARAXGAE or -ES (-arum), 
a people of Sogdiana. 

SARDANAPALES (-i), the last king of the 
Assyrian empire of Ninus or Nineveh, noted 
for his luxury, licentiousness, and effeminacy. 
He passed his time in his palace unseen by 
any of his subjects, dressed in female apparel, 
and surrounded by concubines. At length 
Arbaces, satrap of Media, and Beiesys, the 
noblest of the Chaldaean priests, resolved 
to renounce allegiance to such a worthless 
monarch, and advanced at the head of a for- 
midable army against Nineveh. Rut aU of a 
sudden the effeminate prince threw off his 
luxurious habits, and appeared an undaunted 
warrior. Placing himself at the head of his 
troops, he twice defeated the rebels, but was 
at length worsted and obliged to shut him- 
self up in Nineveh. Here he sustained a 
siege for two years, till at length, finding it 
impossible to hold out any longer, he collected 
all his treasures, wives, and concubines, and 
placing them on an immense pile which he 
had constructed, set it on fire, and thus de- 
stroyed both himself and them, b.c. 876. 
This is the account of Ctesias, which has been 
preserved by Diodorus Siculus, and which 
has been followed by most subsequent writers 
and chronologists. Modem writers however 



have shown that the whole narrative of Cte- 
sias is mythical, and it is in direct contradic- 
tion to Herodotus and the writers of the Old 
Testament. 

SARDI. w [Sardinia.] 

SARDINIA f-ae : Sardi: Sardinia), a large 
island in the Mediterranean, is in the shape 
of a parallelogram, upwards of 140 nautical 
miles in length from N. to S. with an 
average breadth of 60. It was regarded 
by the ancients as the largest of the Medi- 
terranean islands, and this opinion, though 
usually considered an error, is now found to 
be correct ; since it appears by actual ad- 
measurement that Sardinia is a little larger 
than Sicily. Sardinia lies in almost a central 
position between Spain, Gaul, Italy, and 
Africa. A chain of mountains runs along 
the whole of the E. side of the island from 
N. to S. occupying about l-3rd of its surface. 
These mountains were called by the ancients 
Insani Montes, a name which they probably 
derived from their wild and savage appear- 
ance, and from their being the haunt of 
numerous robbers. Sardinia was very fertile, 
but was not extensively cultivated, in con- 
sequence of the uncivilised character of its 
inhabitants. Still the plains in the TV. and 
S. parts of the island produced a great 
quantity of corn, of which much was ex- 
ported to Rome every year. Among the pro- 
ducts of the island one of the most cele- 
brated was the Sardonica herba, a poisonous 
plant, which, was said to produce fatal con- 
vulsions in the person who ate of it. These 
convulsions agitated and distorted the mouth 
so that the person appeared to laugh, though 
| in excruciating pain ; hence the well-known 
? m ism Sardonicus. Sardinia contained a large 
; quantity of the precious metals, especially 
• silver, the mines of which were worked in 
| antiquity to a great extent. There were 
i likewise numerous mineral springs ; and 
: large quantities of salt were manufactured 
j on the W. and S. coasts. — The population of 
! Sardinia was of a very mixed kind. To what 
race the original inhabitants belonged we 
| are not informed ; but it appears that Phoe- 
I nicians, Tyrrhenians, and Carthaginians 
i settled in the island at different periods. 
I The Greeks are also said to have planted 
j colonies in the island, but this account is 
very suspicious. Sardinia was known to the 
Greeks as early as b.c, 500, since we find 
' that Histiaeus of Miletus promised Darius 
i that he would render the island of Sardo 
\ tributary to his power. It was conquered 
I by the Carthaginians at an early period, 
j and continued in their possession till the end 
i of the first Pimic war. Shortly after this 
j event, the Romans availed themselves of the 



SAUDIS. 



368 



SAEPEDOX. 



dangerous war which the Carthaginians were 
carrying on against their mercenaries in 
Africa, to take possession of Sardinia, b.c. 
238. It was now formed into a Pcoman 
province under the government of a praetor ; 
but a large portion of it was only nominally 
subject to the Romans ; and it was not till 
after many years and numerous revolts, that 
the inhabitants submitted to the Eoman 
dominion. Sardinia continued to belong to 
the Eoman empire till the 5th century, when 
it was taken possession of by the Yandals. 

SARDIS (-is), or SAEDES (-ium : Sar- 
diani : Sort, Eu.), one of the most ancient 
and famous cities of Asia Minor, and the 
capital of the great Lydian monarchy, stood 
on the S. edge of the rich valley of the 
Hermus, at the X. foot of the Mt. Tmolus, on 
the little river Pactolus, 30 stadia (3 geog. 
miles) S. of the junction of that river with 
the Hermus. On a lofty precipitous rock, 
forming an outpost of the range of Tmolus, 
was the almost impregnable citadel, which 
some suppose to be the Hyde of Homer, who, 
though he never mentions the Lydians or 
Sardis by name, speaks of Mt. Tmolus and the 
lake of Gyges. The erection of this citadel 
was ascribed to Meles, an ancient king of 
Lydia. It was surrounded by a triple wall, 
and contained the palace and treasury of the 
Lydian kings. At the downfall of the Lydian 
empire, it resisted all the attacks of Cyrus, 
and was only taken by surprise. Under the 
Persian and Greco-Syrian empires, Sardis 
was the residence of the satrap of Lydia. 
The rise of Pergamus greatly diminished its 
importance ; but under the Romans it was 
still a considerable city, and the seat of a 
conventus juridicus. In the reign of Tiberius, 
it was almost entirely destroyed by an earth- 
quake, but it was restored by the emperor's 
aid. It was one of the earliest seats of the 
Christian religion, and one of the 7 churches 
of the province of Asia, to which St. John 
addressed the Apocalypse ; but the apostle's 
language implies that the church at Sardis 
had already sunk into almost hopeless decay 
(Eev. iii. 1, foil.). In the wars of the middle 
ages the city was entirely destroyed, and its 
site now presents one of the most melancholy 
scenes of desolation to be found among the 
ruins of ancient cities. 

SAEMATAE or SAUROMATAE (-arum), a 
people of Asia, dwelling on the X.E. of the 
Palus Maeotis {Sea of Azov), E. of the river 
Tanais [Don), which separated them from the 
Scythians of Europe. [Sarmatia.] 

SARMATIA (-ae), (the E. part of Poland, 
and S. part of Russia in Europe,) a name first 
used by Mela ftr the part of X. Europe and 
Asia extending from the Vistula ( TTisla) and 



the Sarmatici Moxtes on the W., which 
, divided it from Germany, to the Eha (Volga) 
on the E., which divided it from Scythia ; 
| bounded on F the S.W. and S. by the rivers 
j Ister {Danube), Tibiscus {TJieiss), and Tyras 
, {Dniester), which divided it from Pannonia 
and Dacia, and, farther, by the Euxine, and 
beyond it by M. Caucasus, which divided it 
■ from Colchis, Iberia, and Albania ; and ex- 
! tending on the N. as far as the Baltic and 
the unknown regions of X. Europe. The 
j people from whom the name of Sarmatia was 
derived inhabited only a small portion of the 
country. The greater part of it was peopled 
by Scythian tribes ; but some of the inha- 
i bitants of its W, part seem to have been of 
\ German origin, as the Venedj on the Baltic, 
I and the Iazyges, Ehoxolaxi, and Hamaxobu 
; in S. Russia : the chief of the other tribes 
j W. of the Tanais were the Alauni or Alani 
| Scythae, a Scythian people who came out of 
\ Asia and settled in the central parts of Bussia. 
I The whole country was divided by the river 
Tanais [Bon) into 2 parts called respectively 
Sarmatia Europaea and Sarmatia Asiatica ; 
but it should be observed that, according to 
the modern division of the continent, the 
I whole of Sarmatia belongs to Europe. It 
should also be noticed that the Chersonesus 
Taurica {Crimea), though falling within the 
j specified limits, was not considered as a part 
of Sarmatia, but as a separate countrv. 

SARMATICAE POETAE f-arum), {Pass 
< of Dariel), the central pass of the Caucasus, 
j leading from Iberia to Sarmatia. 

SARMATICI MOXTES, (part of the Car- 
I patMan Mowitains,) a range of mountains 
in central Europe, extending from the sources 
! of the Vistula to the Danube, between 

Germany on the W. and Sarmatia on the E. 
! SARMATICUS OCEAXUS and POXTUS, 
! S AEMAT I CUM MARE {Baltic), a great 
: sea, washing the N. coast of European 
; Sarmatia. 

SAEXUS (-i : Sarno), a river in Campa- 
nia, flowing by Nuceria, and falling into the 
-Sinus Puteolanus near Pompeii. 
I SAEOXICUS SINUS {G. of Bgina), a 
bay of the Aegaean sea lying between Attica 
and Argolis, and commencing between the 
; promontory of Sunium in Attica and that of 
I Scyllaeum in Argolis. 

SAEPEDOX (-onis). (1) Son of Zeus 
(Jupiter) and Europa, and brother of Minos 
and Ehadamanthus. Being involved in a 
j quarrel with Minos about Miletus, he took 
j refuge with Cilix, whom he assisted against 
: the Lycians. [Miletus.] He afterwards 
j became king of the Lycians, and Zeus granted 
him the privilege of living 3 generations. — 
! (2) Son of Zeus and Laodamia, or, according 



SARPEDOX. 



369 



SASSAXIDAE. 



to others, of Evander and Deidamia, and a 
brother of Clarus and Themon. He was a 
Lycian prince, and a grandson of Xo. 1. 
In the Trojan war he was an ally of the 
Trojans, and distinguished himself by his 
valour, but was slain by Patroclus. 

SARPEDOX PROMOXTORIUM {C.Lissan 
el Xapeh), a promontory of Cilieia, in 
long. 34° E., 80 stadia W. of the mouth of 
the Calycadnus. 

SARPEDOXIUM PROM. (4), a promon- 
tory of Thrace between the mouths of the 
rivers Melas and Erginus, opposite the island 
of Imbros. 

SARRASTES. [Sarxus.] 

SARSIXA (-ae : Sarsina), an ancient town 
of Umbria, on the river Sapis, S.W. of Ari- 
minum, and subsequently a Roman muni- 
cipium, celebrated as the birthplace of the 
comic poet Plautus. 

SARUS (-i : Seihan), a considerable river 
in the S.E. of Asia Minor. Rising in the 
Anti-Taurus, in the centre of Cappadocia, it 
flows S. past Comana to the borders of Cilieia, 
where it receives a W. branch that has run 
nearh T parallel to it ; and thence, flowing 
through Cilieia Campestris in a winding 
course, it falls into the sea a little E. of the 
mouth of the Cydnus, and S.E. of Tarsus. 

SASO or SASOXIS IXSULA [Saseno, Sas- 
soiio, Sassa), a small rocky island off the 
coast of Illyria, X. of the Acroceraunian 
promontory, much frequented by pirates. 

SASPIRES (-urn) or SASPIRI (-orum), a 
Scythian people of Asia, S. of Colchis and X. 
of Media, in an inland position (?'. e. in 
Armenia) according to Herodotus, but, ac- 
cording to others, on the coast of the Euxine. 

SASSAXIDAE (-arum), the name of a 
dynasty which reigned in Persia from a.d. 226 
to a.d. 651. (1) Artaxerxes (the Ardishir or 
Ardshir of the Persians), the founder of the 
dynasty of the Sassanidae, reigned a.d. 
226 — 240. He was a son of one Babek, an 
inferior officer. Artaxerxes had served with 
distinction in the army of Artabanus, the 
king of Parthia, was rewarded with ingra- 
titude, and took revenge in revolt. He 
claimed the throne on the plea of being 
descended from the ancient kings of Persia, 
the progeny of the great Cyrus. The people 
warmly supported his cause, as he declared 
himself the champion of the ancient Persian 
religion. In 226 Artabanus was defeated 
in a decisive battle ; and Artaxerxes there- 
upon assumed the pompous, but national title 
of " King of Kings." One of his first legis- 
lative acts was the restoration of the religion 
of Zoroaster and the worship of fire. Having 
succeeded in establishing his authority at 
home, Artaxerxes demanded from the em- 



peror Alexander Severus the immediate 
cession of all those portions of the Roman 
empire that had belonged to Persia in the 
time of Cyrus and Xerxes, that is, the whole 
of the Roman possessions in Asia, as well as 
Egypt. An immediate war between the two 
empires was the direct consequence. After 
a severe contest, peace was restored, shortly 
after the murder of Alexander in 23 7, each 
nation retaining the possessions which they 
held before the breaking out of the war. — ■ 
(2) Sapor I, (Shaper), the son and successor 
of Artaxerxes I., reigned 240 — 27 3. He 
carried on war first against Gordian, and after- 
wards against Valerian. The latter emperor 
was defeated by Sapor, taken prisoner, and 
kept in captivity for the remainder of his life. 
After the capture of Valerian, Sapor conquered 
Syria, destroyed Antioch, and having made 
himself master of the passes in the Taurus, 
laid Tarsus in ashes, and took Caesarea. His 
further progress was stopped by Odenathus and 
Zenobia. — (3) Hormisdas I. (Hormuz), son 
of the preceding, who reigned only one year, 
and died 2 74. — (4) Varaxes or Vararaxes I. 
(Bahram or Baharam), son of Hormisdas I., 
reigned 2 7 4 — 2 7 7. He carried on unprofitable 
wars against Zenobia, and after her captivity, 
was involved in a contest with Aurelian, 
which however, was not attended with any 
serious results, on account of the sudden 
death of Aurelian in 275. In his reign the 
celebrated Mani was put to death. — (5) Ya- 
raxes II. (Bahram),- son of Varanes I., 
reigned 27 7 — 294. He was defeated by 
Cams, who took both Seleucia and Ctesiphon, 
and his dominions were only saved from 
further conquests by the sudden death of 
Cams (283).— (6) Varaxes III. (Bahram), 
elder son of Varanes II., died after a reign 
of 8 months, 294. — (7) Narses (Xarsi), 
younger son of Varanes II., reigned 294 — 303. 
He carried on a formidable war against the 
emperor Diocletian ; but in the second cam- 
paign Xarses was defeated with great loss, 
and was obliged to conclude a disadvantageous 
peace with the Romans. In 303 Xarses 
abdicated in favour of his son, and died soon 
afterwards. — (8) Hormisdas II. (Hormuz), 
son of Xarses, reigned 303 — 310. During 
his reign nothing of importance happened 
regarding Rome. — (9) Sapor II. Postvmvs 
(Shapur), son of Hormisdas II., was born 
after the death of his father, and was crowned 
in his mother's womb, the Magi placing the 
diadem with great solemnity upon the body 
of his mother. He reigned 310 — 381. His 
reign was signalised by a cruel persecution 
of the Christians. He carried on a successful 
war for many years against Constantius II., 
and his successors. Sapor Iras been surnamed 

-. ' B B 



SASSULA. 



370 



SATURNUS. 



the Great, and no Persian king had ever 
caused such terror to Rome as this monarch. 
Sapor was succeeded by 18 princes of the 
same dynasty ; but in 651 Yesdigerd III., 
the last king, was defeated and slain by 
Kaleb, general of the Khalif Abu-Bekr. 
Persia then became a Mahomedan country. 

SASSULA (-ae), a town in Latium, belong- 
ing to the territory of Tiber. 

SAT ALA (-drum), a considerable town in 
the N.E. of Armenia Minor, important as the 
key of the mountain passes into Pontus. It 
stood at the junction of 4 roads leading to 
places on the Euxine, a little N. of the Eu- 
phrates, in a valley surrounded by mountains, 
325 Roman miles from Caesarea in Cappa- 
docia, and 135 from Trapezus. 

SATICULA (-ae), a town of Samnium, 
situated upon a mountain on the frontiers of 
Campania. 

SATRICUM (-i : Casale di Conca), a town 
in Latium, near Antium. 

SATURAE PALUS {Lago diPaola), a lake 
or marsh in Latium, formed by the river 
Nymphaeus, and near the promontory Cir- 
ceium. 

SATURIUM or SATTJREIUM (4: Saturo), 
a town in the S. of' Italy, near Tarentum, 
celebrated for its horses. (Hor. Sat. i. 6. 59.) 

SATURNIA (-ae) . (1) An ancient name of 
Italy [Italia]. — (2) (Saturnia), formerly 
called Aurinia, an ancient town of Etruria, 
said to have been founded by the Pelasgians, 
was situated in the territory of Caletra, on 
the road from Rome to Cosa, about 20 miles 
from the sea. 

SATURNINUS (4). (1) One of the Thirty 
Tyrants, was a general of Yalerian, by whom 
he was much beloved. Disgusted by the de- 
bauchery of Gallienus, he accepted from the 
soldiers the title of emperor, but was put to 
death by the troops, who could not endure 
the sternness of his discipline. — (2) A native 
of Gaul, and an able officer, was appointed by 
Aurelian commander of the Eastern frontier, 
and was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria 
during the reign of Probus, by whose soldiers 
he was eventually slain. 

SATURNINUS (-i), L. APPULEIUS, the 
celebrated demagogue, was quaestor b.c. 104, 
and tribune of the plebs for the first time 102. 
He entered into a close alliance with Marius 
and his friends, and soon acquired great 
popularity. He became a candidate for the 
tribunate for the 2nd time, 100, and obtained 
it by the murder of his rival. As soon as 
he had entered upon office, he brought for- 
ward an agrarian law, which led to the 
banishment of Metellus Numidicus, as is re- 
lated elsewhere. [Metellus.] Saturninus 
proposed other popular measures, such as a 



Lex Frumentaria, and a law for founding new 
colonies in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. 
In the comitia for the election of the magis- 
trates for the following year, Saturninus ob- 
tained the tribunate for the third time. At 
the same time there was a struggle for the 
consulship between Glaucia and Memmius, 
and as the latter seemed likely to carry his 
election, Saturninus and Glaucia hired some 
ruffians who murdered him openly in the 
comitia. This last act produced a complete 
reaction against Saturninus and his associates. 
The senate declared them public enemies, 
and ordered the consuls to put them down by 
force. Marius was unwilling to act against 
his friends, but he had no alternative, and 
his backwardness was compensated by the 
zeal of others. Driven out of the forum, 
Saturninus, Glaucia, and the quaestor Sau- 
feius took refuge in the Capitol, but the par- 
tisans of the senate cut off the pipes which 
supplied the Capitol with water. Unable to 
hold out any longer, they surrendered to 
Marius. The latter did all he could to save 
their lives ; as soon as they descended from 
the Capitol, he placed them for security in 
the Curia Hostilia, but the mob pulled off the 
tiles of the senate-house, and pelted them 
with the tiles till they died. 

SATURNIUS (4), that is, a son of Saturnus, 
and accordingly used as a surname of Jupi- 
ter, Neptune, and Pluto. For the same 
reason the name of Saturnia is given both 
to Juno and Yesta. 

SATURNUS (4), a mythical king of Italy, 
whom the Romans invariably identified with 
the Greek Cronos, and hence made the former 
the father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, 
&c. [Cronos] ; but there is in reality no re- 
semblance between the attributes of the two 
deities, except that both were regarded as the 
most ancient divinities in their respective 
countries. The resemblance is much stronger 
between Demeter (Ceres) and Saturn, for all 
that the Greeks ascribe to their Demeter is 
ascribed by the Italians to Saturn. Saturnus 
derived his name from sowing (sero, sevi, 
satmri), and was reputed the introducer of 
civilisation and social order, which are inse- 
parably connected with agriculture. His 
reign is conceived for the same reason to have 
been the golden age of Italy. As agricultural 
industry is the source of wealth, his wife was 
Ops, the representative of plenty. The story 
ran that the god came to Italy in the reign 
of Janus, by whom he was hospitably re- 
ceived, and that he formed a settlement on 
the Capitoline hill, which was hence called 
the Saturnian hill. At the foot of that hill, 
on the road leading up to the Capitol, there 
stood in after times the temple of Saturn. 



SATYRI. 



371 



SCAEVOLA. 



Saturn then taught the people agriculture, 
suppressed their savage mode of life, and 
introduced among them civilisation and 
morality. The result was that the whole 
country was called Saturnia or the land of 
plenty. It is further related that Latium 
received its name (from lateo) from the dis- 
appearance of Saturn, who was suddenly 
removed from earth, and who for the same 
reason was regarded by some as a divinity 
of the nether world. Respecting the festival 
solemnised by the Romans in honour of 
Saturn, see Diet, of Antiq. s. v. Saturnalia. 
The statue of Saturnus was hollow and filled 
with oil, probably to denote the fertility of 
Latium in olives ; in his hand he held a 
crooked pruning-knife, and his feet were 
surrounded with a woollen riband. The | 
temple of Saturn was used as the treasury of 
the state, and many laws were also deposited ! 
in it. 

SATYRI (-orum), the name of a class of 
beings in Greek mythology, who are insepara- 
bly connected with the worship of Dionysus 
(Bacchus), and represent the luxuriant vital 
powers of nature. They are commonly said 
to be the sons of Hermes and Iphthima, or of 
the Naiades. The Satyrs are represented with 
bristly hair, the nose round and somewhat 
turned upwards, the ears pointed at the top, 
like those of animals, with 2 small horns 




Satyr. (From a Statue in the Louvre.) 

growing out of the top of the forehead, and 
with a tail like that of a horse or goat. In 
works of art they are represented at different 



stages of life ; the older ones were commonly 
called Sileni, and the younger ones are 
termed Satyrisci. The Satyrs are always 
described as fond of wine (whence they often 
appear either with a cup or a thyrsus in 
their hand), and of every kind of sensual 
pleasure, whence they are seen sleeping, 
playing musical instruments, or engaged in 
voluptuous dances with nymphs. They are 
dressed with the skins of animals, and wear 
wreaths of vine, ivy or fir. Like all the 
gods dwelling in forests and fields, they were 
greatly dreaded by mortals. Later writers, 
especially the Roman poets, confound the 
Satyrs with the Italian Fauni, and accordingly 
represent them with larger horns and goats' 
feet, although originally they were quite 
distinct kinds of beings. 

SATYRUS (-i) a distinguished comic 
actor at Athens, is said to have given instruc- 
tions to Demosthenes in the art of giving 
full effect to his speeches by appropriate 
action. 

SATO (-onis : Saone), a river in Campania, 
which flows into the sea S. of Sinuessa. 

SAYUS (-i : Save or Sau), a navigable 
tributary of the Danube, which rises in the 
Carnic Alps, forms first the boundary between 
Noricum and Italy, and afterwards between 
Pannonia and Illyria, and falls into the 
Danube near Singidunum. 

SAXA (-ae), DECIDIUS, a native of Cel- 
tiberia, and originally one of Caesar's common 
soldiers, eventually accompanied Antony to 
the East, and was made by him governor 
of Syria. Here he was defeated by the 
younger Labienus and the Parthians, and 
was slain in the flight after the battle (40). 

SAXA (-ae), Q.YOCOXIUS, tribune of the 
plebs, B.C. 169, proposed the Yoconia lex, 
respecting which see Diet, of Antiq, v. 
SAXA. RUBRA. [Rube a Saxa.] 
SAXONES (-um), a powerful people in 
Germany, who originally dwelt in the S. part 
of the Cimbric Chersonesus, between the 
rivers Albis [Elbe] and Chalusus(2Wa-e), conse- 
quently in the modern Holstein. The Saxones 
first occur in history in a.d. 286, and after- 
wards appear at the head of a powerful 
confederacy of German peoples, who became 
united under the general name of Saxons, 
and who eventually occupied the country 
between the Elbe, the Rhine, the Lippe, and 
the German ocean. A portion of the Saxons, 
in conjunction with the Angli, conquered 
Britain about the middle^ of the 5th century. 

SCAEVA (-ae), CASSIUS, a centurion in 
Caesar's army, who distinguished himself by 
his extraordinary feats of valour at the battle 
t of Dyrrhachium. 

j SCAEYOLA (-ae), the name of a distin- 

B B 2 



S CAE VOL A. 



SCAKFHE. 



guished family of the Mueia Gens. (1) 
C. Mrcrcs Scaevola. When King Porsenna 
was blockading Rome, C. Mucius went out 
of the city with the intention of killing 
him, bat by mistake stabbed the king's 
secretary instead of Porsenna himself. The 
king in his passion and alarm ordered him to 
be burnt alive, upon which Mucius thrust 
his right hand into a fire which was already 
lighted for a sacrifice, and held it there 
without flinching. The king amazed at his 
firmness, ordered him to be remoTed from 
the altar, and bade him go away free and 
uninjured. To make some return for his 
generous behaviour, Mucius told him that 
there were 300 of the first youths of Pome 
who had agreed with one another to kill the 
king, that the lot fell on him to make the 
first attempt, and that the rest would do the 
same when their turn came. Porsenna being 
alarmed for his life, which he could not 
secure against so many desperate men, made 
proposals of peace to the Romans, and 
evacuated the territory. Mucius received 
the name of Scaevola, or left-handed, from 
the circumstance of the loss of his right hand. 
— (2) P. Mrcius Scaevola, tribune of the 
plebs 141 ; praetor 136 ; and consul 133, the 
year in which Tib. Gracchus lost his life. 
In 131 he succeeded his brother Mucianus 
as pontifex maxim us. Scaevola was distin- 
guished for his knowledge of the Jus Fonti- 
f.cium. His fame as a lawyer is recorded by 
Cicero in several passages. — (3) Q. Mrcrcs 
Scaevola, the augur, married the daughter 
of C. Laelius, the friend of Scipio Africanus 
the younger. He was tribune of the plebs 
128, plebeian aedile 125, and as praetor was 
governor of the province of Asia in 121, the 
year in which C. Gracchus lost his life. He 
was prosecuted after his return from his 
province for the offence of repetundae, in 
120, by T. Albucius but was acquitted. He 
was consul 117. He lived at least to the 
tribunate of P. Sulpicius Rufus 88. Cicero, 
who was born 106, informs us, that after he 
had put on the toga virilis, his father took 
him to Scaevola, who was then an old man, 
and that he kept as close to him as he could, 
in order to profit by his remarks. After his 
death Cicero became a hearer of Q. Mucius 
Scaevola, the pontifex. The augur was 
distinguished for his knowledge of the law ; 
but none of his writings are recorded. He 
is one of the speakers in the treatise Be 
Oratore, in the Laelius, and in the de Me- 
jmhUea (i. 12). — (4) Q. Mrcrcs Scaevola, 
pontifex maximus, son of No. 2, was tribune 
of the plebs in 106, curule aedile in 104, and 
consul 95, with Licinius Crassus, the orator, 
as his colleague. After his consulship Scae- 



I vola was proconsul of Asia, in which capacity 
i he gained the esteem of the people under his 
j government. Subsequently he was made 
pontifex maximus. He lost his life in the 
i consulship of C. Marius the younger and On. 
Papirius Carbo (S2), having been proscribed 
by the Marian party. The virtues of Scaevola 
are recorded by Cicero, who, after the death 
of the augur, became an attendant auditor) 
of the pontifex. The purity of his moral 
character, his exalted notions of equity and 
fair dealing, his abilities as an administrator, 
an orator, and a jurist, place him among the 
first of the illustrious men of all ages and 
countries. He is the first Roman to whom 
we can attribute a scientific and systematic 
handling of the Jus Civile, which he accom- 
j plished in a work in 18 books. 

SC'ALDIS (-is: Scheldt), an important 
river in the N, of Gallia Relgica, flowing 
into the ocean, but which Caesar erronec v.sly 
makes a tributary of the Mosa. 

SCAMANDER* (-dri). (1) A river in the 
TN~. part of the X. coast of Sicily, falling into 
the sea near Segesta. — (2) The celebrated 
river of the Troad. [Thoas.J As a mytho- 
logical personage, the river-god was called 
Xanthus by the gods. 

S G AMANDRIL" S (-i), son of Hector and 
I Andromache, whom the people of Troy called 
: Astyanax, because his father was the pro- 
tector of the city of Troy. 
SCANDEA. ~Ctthe£A.] 
SCANDIA or SCAXDlNAYIA [-aej, the 
name given by the ancients to Norway, 
Sweden, and the surrounding islands. 

SCANDILA (-ae: Scandole), a small 
island in the N.E. of the Aegaean sea, be- 
tween Peparethos and Scyros. 

SCANT IA SIETA (-ae), a wood in Cam- 
pania. 

SCAPTE HTLE (-es), also called, but less 
j correctly, Scaptesyte, a small town on the 

coast of Thrace, opposite the island of Thasos. 

It contained celebrated gold mines, which 
| were originally worked by the Thasians. 
j Thucydides here arranged the materials for 
\ his history. 

I SCAPTIA (-ae), an ancient town in Larium, 
| which gave its name to a Roman tribe, but 
j which disappeared at an early period. 

SCAPULA (-ae), P. OSTORIUS, governor 
j of Britain about a.d. 50, defeated the power- 
| ful tribe of the Silures, took prisoner their 
I king Caractacus, and sent him in chains to 
Rome. 

SCARDTJS or SCORDUS MOXS (-i\ a 
; range of lofty mountains, forming the boun- 
| darv betveen Moesia and Macedonia. 

SCARPHE (-es) SCARPHEA or SCAR- 
PHI A (-ae), a town of the Epicnemidii Locri, 



SCAURUS. 



373 



SCIPIO. 



at which the roads leading through Thermo- 
pylae united. 

SCAURUS (-i), the name of a family of 
the Aemilia gens. (1) M. Aemilius Scaurus, 
raised his family from obscurity to the 
highest rank among the Roman nobles. He 
was born in b.c. 163. Notwithstanding his 
patrician descent, he at first thought of 
carrying on some mean trade, like his father, 
but finally resolved to devote himself to the 
study of eloquence, with the hope of rising to 
the honours of the state. He likewise served 
in the army, where he appears to have 
gained some distinction. He was curule j 
aedile in 12 3. He obtained the consulship ! 
in 115, when he carried on war with success 
against several of the Alpine tribes. In 112 
he was sent at the head of an embassy to I 
Jugurtha ; and in 111 he accompanied the 
consul L. Calpurnius Bestia, as one of his j 
legates, in the war against Jugurtha. Both 
he and the consul took large bribes from the 
Numidian king to obtain for him a favourable 
peace, for which offence an indictment was 
brought forward by C. Mamilius, the tribune 
of the plebs ; but though Scaurus had been J 
one of the most guilty, such was his influence 
in the state, that he contrived to be appointed j 
one of the three quaesitores, who were elected 
under the bill, for the purpose of prosecuting j 
the criminals. He thus secured himself, but 
was unable to save any of his accomplices. 
In 109, Scaurus was censor with M. Livius I 
Drusus. In his consulship he restored the 
Milvian bridge, and constructed the Aemilian J 
road. In 107 he was elected consul a second i 
time, in place of L. Cassius Longinus. In ' 
the struggles between the aristocratical and 
popular parties, Scaurus was always a warm 
supporter of the former. He died about 89. j 
— (2) M. Aemilius Scaurus, eldest son of ■ 
the preceding, and stepson of the dictator 
Sulla, served under Pompey as quaestor in 
the third Mithridatic war. After this he 
commanded an army in the East. He was 
curule aedile in 58, when he celebrated the 
public games with extraordinary splendour. | 
In 56 he was praetor, and in the following I 
year governed the province of Sardinia, J 
which he plundered without mercy. On his I 
return to Rome he was accused of the crime ! 
of repetundae. He was defended by Cicero, I 
Hortensius, and others, and was acquitted, | 
notwithstanding his guilt. He was accused j 
again in 52, under Pompey's new law against j 
ambitus, and was condemned. — (3) M. Ae- 
milius Scaurus, son of No. 2, and Mucia, 
the former wife of Pompey the triumvir, and 
consequently the half-brother of Sex. Pompey. 
He accompanied the latter into Asia, after j 
the defeat of his fleet in Sicily, but betrayed 



him into the hands of the generals of HT. An- 
tonius, in 35. — (4) Mamercus Aemilius 
Scaurus, son of No. 3, was a distinguished 
orator and poet, but of a dissolute character. 
Being accused of majestas under Tiberius, 
a.d. 34, he put an end to his own life. 

SCELERATUS CAMPUS (-i), a place in 
Rome, close to the Porta Collina, where ves- 
tals who had broken their vows were en- 
tombed alive. 

SCEXITAE (-arum) (i.e. dwellers in tents^, 
the general name used by the Greeks for the 
Bedawee (Bedouin) tribes of Arabia De- 
serta. 

SCEPSIS (prob. Eski-Vpshi, or JSsku 
Shupshe, Ru.\ an ancient city in the interior 
of the Troad, S.E. of Alexandria, in the 
mountains of Ida. 

SCHERIA. ^Phaeaces.] 

SCTATHUS (-i : Skiatho), a small island in 
the Aegaean sea, X. of Euboea and E. of the 
Magnesian coast of Thessaly, with a town of 
the same name upon it. 

SCILIXS (-imtis), a town of Elis in the 
district Triphylia, on the river Selinus, 20 
stadia S. of Olympia. 

SCIONE (-es), the chief town in the 
Macedonian peninsula of Pallene, on the W. 
coast. 

SCIPIO (-dins); the name of an illustrious 
patrician family of the Cornelia gens, said to 
have been given to the founder of the family, 
because he served as a staff in directing his 
blind father. This family produced some of 
the greatest men in Rome, and to them she 
was more indebted than to any others for the 
empire of the world.' The family tomb of 
the Scipios was discovered in 1780, and the 
inscriptions and other curiosities are now 
deposited in the Museo Pio-Clementino, at 
Rome. — (1) P. Cornelius Scipio, magister 
equitum, b.c 396, and consular tribune 395, 
and 394. — '2) L. Corn. Scipio, consul 350. 
— (3) P. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, consul 
328, and dictator, 306. He was also pontifex 
maximus. — (4) L. Corn. Scipio Barbatus, 
the great great-grandfather of the conqueror 
of Hannibal, consul 298, when he carried on 
war against the Etruscans, and defeated them 
near Yolaterrae. — (5) Cn. Corn. Scipio 
Asina, son of No. 4, was consul 260, in the 
1st Punic war, and a 2nd time in 254. — (6) 
L. Corn. Scipio, also son of No. 4, was consul 
259. He drove the Carthaginians out of 
Sardinia and Corsica, defeating Hanno, the 
Carthaginian commander. He was censor in 
258. — (7) P. Corn. Scipio Asina, son of No. 
5, was consul 221, and carried on war, with 
his colleague M. Minucius Rufus, against the 
Istri, who were subdued by the consuls. — 
(8) P. Corn. Scipio, son of No. 6, was consul, 



* SCIPIO. 



37- 



4 



SCIPIO. 



"with Ti. Sempronius Longus, in 218, the 1st 
year of the 2nd Punic war. He encountered 
Hannibal, on his march into Italy, in Cisal- 
pine Gaul ; but the Romans were defeated, the 
consul himself received a severe wound, and 
was only saved from death by the courage of 
his young son, Publius, the future conqueror 
of Hannibal. Scipio now retreated across the 
Ticinus, crossed the Po also, first took up his 
quarters at Placentia, and subsequently with- 
drew to the hills on the left bank of the 
Trebia, where he was joined by the other 
consul, Sempronius Longus. The latter re- 
solved upon a battle, in opposition to the 
advice of his colleague. The result was the 
complete defeat of the Roman army, which 
was obliged to take refuge within the walls 
of Placentia. In the following year 217, 
Scipio, whose imperium had been prolonged, 
crossed over into Spain ; where, with his 
brother Cneius, he made head against the 
Carthaginians till 211, when they were de- 
feated and slain. — (9) Ok. Corn. Scipio 
Calvus, son of No. 6, and brother of No. 8, 
was consul 222, with M. Claudius Marcellus. — 
(10) P. Corn. Scipio Africanus Major, son 
of No. 8, was born in 234. He was unques- 
tionably one of the greatest men of Rome, 
and he acquired at an early age the confi- 
dence and admiration of his countrymen. 
His enthusiastic mind led him to believe that 
he was a special favourite of the gods ; and 
he never engaged in any public or private 
business without first going to the Capitol, 
where he sat some time alone, enjoying com- 
munication from the gods. He is first men- 
tioned in 218 at the battle of the Ticinus, 
when he saved the life of his father as has 
been already related. He fought at Cannae 
two years afterwards (216), when he was 
already a tribune of the soldiers, and was one 
of the few Roman officers who survived that 
fatal day. He was chosen along with Appius 
Claudius to command the remains of the 
army, which had taken refuge at Canusium ; 
and it was owing to his youthful heroism and 
presence of mind that the Roman nobles, 
who had thought of leaving Italy in despair, 
were prevented from carrying their rash 
project into effect. He had already gained 
the favour of the people to such an extent, 
that he was elected aedile in 212, although 
he had not yet reached the legal age. In 
210, after the death of his father and uncle 
in Spain, Scipio, then barely 24, was chosen 
with enthusiasm to take the command in. 
that country. His success was striking and 
rapid. In the first campaign (210) he took 
the important city of Carthago Nova, and in 
the course of the next 3 years he drove the 
Carthaginians entirely out of Spain. He 



returned to Rome in 206, and was elected 
consul for the following year (205), although 
he had not yet filled the office of praetor, and 
was only 30 years of age. He was anxious 
to cross over at once to Africa, and bring the 
contest to an end at the gates of Carthage ; 
and, after much opposition, obtained a fleet 
and army for that purpose. After spending 
the winter in Sicily, and completing all his 
preparations for the invasion of Africa, he 
crossed over to the latter country in the 
course of the following year. Success again 
attended his arms. The Carthaginians and 
their ally Syphax were defeated with great 
slaughter ; and the former were compelled to 
recall Hannibal from Italy as the only hope of 
saving their country. The long struggle 
between the 2 peoples was at length brought 
to a close by the battle fought near the city of 
Zama on the 19th of October, 202, in which 
Scipio gained a decisive and brilliant victory 
over Hannibal. Carthage had no alternative 
but submission ; but the final treaty was not 
concluded till the following year (201). 
Scipio returned to Italy in 201, and entered 
Rome in triumph. He was received with 
universal enthusiasm, and the surname of 
Africanus was conferred upon him. He took 
no prominent part in public affairs during 
the next few years. He was censor in 199 with* 
P. Aelius Paetus, and consul a second time 
in 194 with Ti. Sempronius Longus. In 193, 
he was one of the 3 commissioners who were 
sent to Africa to mediate between Masinissa 
and the Carthaginians ; and in the same 
year he was one of the ambassadors sent to 
Antiochus at Ephesus, at whose court Han- 
nibal was then residing. In 190 Africanus 
served as legate under his brother Lucius in 
the war against Antiochus the Great. After 
their return, Lucius and subsequently Afri- 
canus himself, were accused of having 
received bribes from Antiochus to let the 
monarch off too leniently, and of having 
appropriated to their own use part of the 
money which had been paid by Antiochus to 
the Roman state. The successful issue of the 
prosecution of Lucius emboldened his enemies 
to bring the great Africanus himself before 
the people. His accuser was M. Naevius, 
the tribune of the people, and the accusation 
was brought in 185. When the trial came 
on, and Africanus was summoned, he proudly 
reminded the people that this was the anni- 
versary of the day on which he had defeated 
Hannibal at Zama, and called upon them to 
follow him to the Capitol, in order there to 
return thanks to the immortal gods, and to 
pray that they would grant the Roman state 
other citizens like himself. Scipio struck a 
chord which vibrated en every heart, and was 



SCIPIO. 



375 



SCIPIO. 



followed by crowds to the Capitol. Having 
thus set all the laws at defiance, Scipio imme- 
diately quitted Rome, and retired to his country 
seat at Liturnum. The tribunes wished to 
renew the prosecution ; but Gracchus wisely 
persuaded them to let it drop. Scipio never 
returned to Rome. The year of his death is 
uncertain; but he probably died in 183. — 
(11) L. Corn. Scipio Asiaticus, also called 
Asiagenes or Asiagenus, was the son of No. 
8, and the brother of the great Africanus. 
He served under Ms brother in Spain ; was 
praetor in 193, when he obtained the pro- 
vince of Sicily ; and consul in 190, with C. 
Laelius. He defeated Antiochus at Mt. 
Sipylus, in 190, entered Rome in triumph in 
the following year, and assumed the surname 
of Asiaticus. His accusation and condemna- 
tion have been already related in the life 
of his brother. — (12) P. Corn. Scipio Afri- 
canus, elder son of the great Africanus, was 
prevented by his weak health from taking 
any part in public affairs. — (13) L. or Cn. 
Corn. Scipio Africanus, younger son of the 
great Africanus. He accompanied his father 
into Asia in 190, and was taken prisoner by 
Antiochus. This Scipio was a degenerate 
son of an illustrious sire. — (14) L. Corn. 
Scipio Asiaticus, a descendant of No. 11, 
belonged to the Marian party, and was consul 
83 with C. Norbanus. — (15) P. Corn. Scipio 
Aemilianus Africanus Minor, was the 
younger son of L. Aemilius Paulus, the con- 
queror of Macedonia, and was adopted by P. 
Scipio [No. 12], the son of the conqueror of 
Hannibal. He was born about 185. In his 
17 th year he accompanied his father Paulus 
to Greece, and fought under him at the battle 
of Pydna, 168. Scipio devoted himself with 
ardour to the study of literature, and formed 
an intimate friendship with Polybius and 
Panaetius. He likewise admitted the poets 
Lucilius and Terence to his intimacy, and is 
said to have assisted the latter in the com- 
position of his comedies. His friendship 
with Laelius, whose tastes and pursuits were 
so congenial to his own, has been immortal- 
ised by Cicero's celebrated treatise entitled 
" Laelius, sive de Amicitia." xUthough thus 
devoted to the study of polite literature, 
Scipio is said to have cultivated the virtues 
which distinguished the older Romans, and 
to have made Cato the model of his conduct. 
Scipio first served in Spain with great dis- 
tinction as military tribune under the consul 
L. Lucullus in 151. On the breaking out of 
the 3rd Punic war in 149 he accompanied 
the Roman army to Africa, again with the 
rank of military tribune. Here he gained 
still more renown. By his personal bravery 
and military skill he repaired, to a great 



extent, the mistakes of the consul Manilius, 
whose army on one occasion he saved from 
destruction. He returned to Rome in 148, 
and had already gained such popularity that 
when he became a candidate for the aedileship 
for the following year (147) he was elected 
consul, although he was only 37, and had 
not therefore attained the legal age. The 
senate assigned to him Africa as his province, 
to which he forthwith sailed. He prosecuted 
the siege of Carthage with the utmost vigour ; 
and, in spite of a desperate resistance, cap- 
tured it in the spring of 146. After reducing 
Africa to the form of a Roman province, 
Scipio returned to Rome in the same year, 
and celebrated a splendid triumph on account 
of his victory. The surname of Africanus, 
which he had inherited by adoption from the 
conqueror of Hannibal, had been now ac- 
quired by him by his own exploits. In 142 
Scipio was censor, and in the administration 
of the duties of his office he attempted to 
repress the growing luxury and immorality 
of his contemporaries. In 139 Scipio was 
accused by Ti. Claudius Asellus of majestas, 
but acquitted. The speeches which he de- 
livered on the occasion obtained great cele- 
brity, and were held in high esteem in a 
later age. It appears to have been after this 
event that Scipio was sent on an embassy to 
Egypt and Asia to attend to the Roman 
interests in those countries. The long con- 
tinuance of the war in Spain again called 
Scipio to the consulship. He was appointed 
consul in his absence, and had the province 
of Spain assigned to him in 134. His opera- 
tions were attended with success ; and in 
133 he brought the war to a conclusion by 
the capture of the city of Numantia after a 
long siege. He now received the surname 
of Numantinus in addition to that of Afri- 
canus. During his absence in Spain Tib. 
Gracchus had been put to death. Scipio was 
married to Sempronia, the sister of the fallen 
tribune, but he had no sympathy with his 
reforms, and no sorrow for his fate. Upon 
his return to Rome in 1 32, he took the lead in 
opposing the popular party, and endeavoured 
to prevent the agrarian law of Tib. Gracchus 
from being carried into effect. In the disputes 
that arose in consequence, he was accused by 
Carbo with the bitterest invectives as the 
enemy of the people, and upon his again 
expressing his approval of the death of Tib. 
Gracchus, the people shouted out, " Down 
with the tyrant." In the evening he went 
home with the intention of composing a 
speech for the following day ; but next day he 
was found dead in his room. He is supposed 
to have been murdered, and Cicero mentions 
Carbo as his assassin. — (16) P. Corn*. 



SCIRITIS, 



376 



SCOTI. 



Scipio Nasica, that is, " Scipio with the 
pointed nose," was the son of Cn. Scipio 
Calms, who fell in Spain in 211. [No. 9.] 
He is first mentioned in 204 as a yonng man 
who was judged by the senate to be the best 
citizen in the state, and was therefore sent to 
Ostia along with the Roman matrons to 
receive the statue of the Idaean Mother, 
which had been brought from Pessinus. He 
was curule aedile 196 ; praetor in 194, when 
he fought with success in Farther Spain ; and 
consul 191, when he defeated the Boii, and 
triumphed oyer them on his return to Rome. 
Scipio Nasica was a celebrated jurist, and a 
house was given him by the state in the Via 
Sacra, in order that he might be more easily 
consulted. — (17) P. Corn. Scipio Nasica 
Corculum, son of No. 16, inherited from his 
father a love of jurisprudence, and became 
so celebrated for his discernment and for his 
knowledge of the pontifical and civil law, 
that he received the surname of Corculum. 
He was elected pontifex maximus in 150. — 

(18) P. Corn. Scipio Nasica Seeapio, son of 
No. 17, is chiefly known as the leader of the 
senate in the murder of Tib. Gracchus. In 
consequence of his conduct on this occasion 
Nasica became an object of such detestation 
to the people, that the senate found it advi- 
sable to send him on a pretended mission to 
Asia, although he was pontifex maximus, 
and ought not, therefore, to have quitted 
Italy. He did not venture to return to Rome, 
and after wandering about from place to 
place, died soon afterwards at Pergamum. — 

(19) P. Corx. Scipio Nasica, son of No. 18, 
was consul 111, and died during his consul- 
ship. — (20) P. Corn. Scipio Nasica, son of 
No. 19, praetor 94, This Scipio became the 
father-in-law of Cn. Pompey the triumvir, 
and fell in Africa in 46. His life is given 
under Metelltts. — (21) Cx. Corx. Scipio 
Hispallus, son of L. Scipio who is only 
known as a brother of the 2 Scipios who 
fell in Spain. Hispallus was praetor 17 9, 
and consul 171. — (22) Cx. Corx. Scipio 
Hispallus, son of No. 21, was praetor 139, 
when he published an edict that all Chal- 
daeans (i. e. astrologers) should leave Rome 
and Italy within 10 days. 

SCIRTTIS, a wild and mountainous district 
in the N. of Laconia, on the borders of 
Arcadia, with a town called Scirus. 

SCIRON (-onis), a famous robber who 
infested the frontier between Attica and 
Megaris. He not only robbed the travellers 
who passed through the country, but com- 
pelled them on the Scironian rock to wash 
his feet, and kicked them into the sea, while 
they were thus employed. At the foot of the 
rock there was a tortoise, which devoured 



the bodies of the robber's victims. He was 
slain by Theseus. 

SCIRONIA SAXA(-5rum: Berveni Boimo), 
large rocks on theE. coast of Megaris, between 
which and the sea there was only a narrow 
dangerous pass, called the Scironian road. The 
name of the rocks was derived from the 
celebrated robber Sciron. 

SCODRA (-ae : Scodar or Scutari), one of 
the most important towns in Illyricum, cn 
the left bank of the river Barbae a, at the 
S.E. corner of the Lacus Labeatis, and about 
1 7 miles from the coast. 

SCODRTJS. [Scardus.] 

SCOMIUS (-i) MONS, a mountain in Mace- 
donia, which runs E. of Mt. Scardus, in the 
direction of N. to S. towards Mt. Haemus. 

SCOPAS (-ae). (1) An Aetolian, who held 
a leading position among his countrymen at 
the period of the outbreak of the war with 
Philip and the Achaeans, e.c. 220 ; in the 
first year of which he commanded the Aeto- 
lian army. After the close of the war with 
Philip, he withdrew to Alexandria. Here 
he was received with the utmost favour by 
the ministers of the young king, Ptolemy Y., 
and was appointed to the chief command of 
the army against Antiochus the Great, but 
was ultimately unsuccessful. Notwithstand- 
ing this he continued in high favour at the 
Egyptian court ; but having formed a plot in 
196 to obtain by force the chief administra- 
tion of the kingdom, he was arrested and put 
to death. — (2) A distinguished sculptor and 
architect, was a native of Paros, and appears 
to have belonged to a family of artists in that 
island. He flourished from b.c. 395 to 350. 
He was the architect of the temple of Athena 
Alea, at Tegea, in Arcadia, which was 
commenced soon after b.c 394. He was one 
of the artists employed in executing the bas- 
reliefs, which decorated the- frieze of the 
mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Caria, a 
portion of which is now deposited in the 
British Museum. Among the single statues 
and groups of Scopas, the best known in 
modern times is his group of figures repre- 
senting the destruction of the sons and 
daughters of Niobe. But the most esteemed 
of all the works of Scopas, in antiquity, was 
his group representing Achilles conducted to 
the island of Leuce by the divinities of the sea. 

SCORDISCI (-orum), a people in Pannonia 
Superior, are sometimes classed among the 
Illyrians, but were the remains of an ancient 
and powerful Celtic tribe. They dwelt 
between the Savus and Dravus. 

SCOTI (-6mm), a people mentioned to- 
gether with the Picti, by the later Roman 
writers as one of the cbief tribes of the 
ancient Caledonians. They dwelt in the S. 



SCOTUSSA. 



377 



SCYROS. 



of Scotland and in Ireland ; and from them 
the former country has derived its name. 

SCOTUSSA (-ae), a very ancient town of 
Thessaly, in the district Pelasgiotis, near the 
source of the Onchestus. 

SCRIBOXIA (-ae), wife of Octavianus, 
afterwards the emperor Augustus, had been 
married twice before. By one of her former 
husbands, P. Scipio, she had two children, 
P. Scipio, who was consul, b.c. 16, and a 
daughter, Cornelia, who was married to 
Paulus Aemilius Lepidus, censor b.c. 22. 
Scribonia was the sister of L. Scribonius 
Libo, who was the father-in-law of Sex. 
Pompey. Augustus married her in 40, on 
the advice of Maecenas, because he was then 
afraid that Sex. Pompey would form an 
alliance with Antony to crush him ; but 
having renewed his alliance with Antony, 
Octavian divorced her in the following year 
(39), on the very day on which she had 
borne him a daughter, Julia, in order to marry 
Livia. Scribonia long survived her separation 
from Octavian. In a.d. 2 she accompanied, 
of her own accord, her daughter Julia into 
exile to the island of Pandataria. 

SCRIBONIUS CURIO. [Curio.] 

SCRIBONIUS LIBO. [Libo.] 

SCRIBONIUS PROCULUS. [Procuetjs.] 

SCULTENNA (-ae : Panaro), a river in 
Gallia Cispadana, rising in the Apennines, 
and flowing to the E. of Mutina into the Po. 

SCYLACIUM, also SCYLACEUM, or 
SCYLLETIUM (-i : SqidUace), a Greek town 
on the E. coast of Bruttium, was situated on 
2 adjoining hills at a short distance from the 
coast, between the rivers Caecinus and Car- 
cines. From this town the Scyl actus or 
ScvLLETicrs Sintts, derived its name. 

SCYLAX (-acis). (1) Of Caryanda in 
Caria, was sent by Darius Hystaspis on a 
voyage of discovery down the Indus. Setting 
out from the city of Caspatyrus and the 
Pactyican district, Scylax reached the sea, 
and then sailed W. through the Indian 
Ocean to the Red Sea, performing the whole 
voyage in 30 months. There is still extant 
a Periplus bearing the name of Scylax, but 
which could not have been written by the 
subject either of this or of the following 
article. — (2) Of Halicarnassus, a friend of 
Panaetius, distinguished for his knowledge 
of the stars, and for his political influence in 
his own state. 

SCYLLA (-ae) and CHARYBDIS (-fs), the 
names of two rocks between Italy and Sicily. 
In the one nearest to Italy was a cave, in 
which dwelt Scylla, a daughter of Crataeis, 
a fearful monster, barking like a dog, with 
1 2 feet, and six long necks and heads, each 
of which contained 3 rows of sharp teeth, j 



The opposite rock, which was much lower, 
contained an immense fig-tree, under which 
dwelt Charybdis, who thrice every day swal- 
lowed down the waters of the sea, and thrice 
threw them up again. This is the Homeric 
account ; but later traditions give different 
accounts of Scylla's parentage. Hercules is 
said to have killed her, because she stole 
some of the oxen of Geryon ; but Phorcys is 
said to have restored her to life. Yirgil 
(Aen., vi. 286) speaks of several Scyllae, and 
places them in the lower world. Charybdis 
is described as a daughter of Poseidon (Xep- 
tune) and Gaea (Tellus), and as a voracious 
woman, who stole oxen from Hercules, and 
was hurled by the thunderbolt of Zeus (Ju- 
piter) into the sea. 




Scylla. (From a Coin of Agrigentum.) 



SCYLLA (-ae), daughter of king Xisus of 
Megara, who fell in love with Minos. [Xisus, 
and Minos.] 

SCYLLAEUM (-i). (1) {Scigilo), a pro- 
montory on the coast of Bruttium, at the X. 
entrance to the Sicilian straits, where the 
monster Scylla was supposed to live. [Scylla.] 
— (2) {Scilla or Sciglio), a town in Bruttium, 
on the above-named promontory. There are 
still remains of the ancient citadel. — (3) A 
promontory in Argolis, on the coast of 
Troezen, forming, with the promontory of 
Sunium in Attica, the entrance to the Saronic 
gulf. 

SCYLLETICUS SIXUS. [Scylacium.] 
SCYLLETIUM. [Scylacium.] 
SCYMX'US (-i), of Chios, wrote a Pericgesis, 
or description of the earth, in prose, and 
which is consequently different from the 
Periegesis in Iambic metre, which has come 
down to us. 

SCYROS (-i : Scgro), an island in the 
Aegaean sea, E. of Euboea, and one of the 
Sporades. Here Thetis concealed her son 
Achilles in woman's attire among the daugh- 
ters of Lycomedes, and here also Pyrrhus, 
| the son of Achilles by Deidamla, was brought 



SCYTHIA. 



3' 



7S 



SEDUSII. 



up. According to another tradition, the 
island was conquered by Achilles, in order 
to revenge the death of Theseus, who is said 
to have been treacherously destroyed in 
Scyros by Lycomedes. The bones of Theseus 
were discovered by Cimon in Scyros, after 
his conquest of the island in b.c. 476, and 
were conveyed to Athens, where they were 
preserved in the Theseum. From this time 
Scyros continued subject to Athens till the 
period of the Macedonian supremacy ; but 
the Romans compelled the last Philip to 
restore it to Athens, b.c. 196. 

SCYTHIA (-ae : Scythes, Scytha -ae, pi. 
Scythae -arum ; fern. Scythis -idis, Scy- 
thissa), a name applied to very different 
countries at different times. The Scythia of 
Herodotus comprises, to speak generally, the 
S.E. parts of Europe, between the Carpathian 
mountains and the river Tanai's {Don). The 
people who inhabited this region were called 
by the Greeks Sxvdott, a word of doubtful 
origin, which first occurs in Hesiod; but, in 
their own language, IxoXoro^ i.e. Slavonians. 
They were believed by Herodotus to be of 
Asiatic origin ; and his account of them, 
taken in connexion with the description given 
by Hippocrates of their physical peculiarities, 
leaves no doubt that they were a part of the 
great Mongol race, who have wandered, from 
unknown antiquity, over the steppes of Cen- 
tral Asia. Herodotus says further that they 
were driven out of their abodes in Asia, N. 
of the Araxes, by the Massagetae ; and that, 
migrating into Europe, they drove out the 
Cimmerians. The Scythians were a nomad 
people, that is, shepherds or herdsmen, who 
had no fixed habitations, but roamed over a 
vast tract of country at their pleasure, and 
according to the wants of their cattle. They 
lived in a kind of covered waggons, which 
Aeschylus describes as "lofty houses of 
wicker-work, on well-wheeled chariots." 
They kept large troops of horses, and were 
most expert in cavalry exercises and archery ; 
and hence, as the Persian king Darius found, 
when he invaded their country (b.c. 507), it 
was almost impossible for an invading army 
to act against them. They simply retreated, 
waggons and all, before the enemy, harassing 
him with their light cavalry, and leaving 
famine and exposure, in their bare steppes, 
to do the rest. An important modification 
of their habits had, however, taken place, to 
a certain extent, before Herodotus described 
them. The fertility of the plains on the N. 
of the Euxine, and the influence of the Greek 
settlements at the mouth of the Borysthenes, 
and along the coast, had led the inhabitants 
of this part of Scythia to settle down as cul- 
tivators of the soil, and had brought them 



into commercial and other relations with the 
Greeks. Accordingly, Herodotus mentions 2 
classes or hordes of Scythians who had thus 
abandoned their nomad life and turned hus- 
bandmen. In later times the Scythians were 
gradually overpowered by the neighbouring 
people, especially the Sarmatians, who gave 
their name to the whole country. [Sarmatia.] 
In writers of the time of the Roman empire, 
the name of Scythia denotes the whole of N. 
Asia, from the river Rha ( Volga) on the W., 
which divided it from Asiatic Sarmatia, to 
Serica on the E., extending to India on the 
S. It was divided, by Mt. Imaus, into 2 
parts, called respectively Scythia intra Imaum, 
i.e. on the N.W. side of the range, and 
Scythia extra Imaum, on its S.E. side. Of 
the people of this region nothing was known 
except some names ; but the absence of know- 
ledge was supplied by some marvellous and 
not uninteresting fables. 

SCYTHINI (-orum), a people on the YV. 
border of Armenia, through whose country 
the Greeks under Xenophon marched 4 days' 
journey. 

SCYTHOPOLIS (-is: 0. T. Bethshan : 
Beisan, Ru.), an important city of Palestine, 
in the S.E. of Galilee, according to the usual 
division, but sometimes also reckoned to 
Samaria, sometimes to Decapolis, and some- 
times to Coele-Syria. It is often mentioned 
in O. T. history, in the time of the Macca- 
bees, and under the Romans. It had a mixed 
population of Canaanites, Philistines, and 
Assyrian settlers. Under the late Roman 
empire, it became the seat of the archbishop 
of Palestina Seeunda, and it continued a 
nourishing city to the time of the first Cru- 
sade. 

SEBASTE (-es : = Augusta). (1) [Ay ash, 
Ru.), a city on the coast of Cilicia Aspera, — 
(2) [Segikler), a city of Phrygia, N.\V. of 
Eumenia. — (3) A city in Pontus, also called 
Cabira. [Cabira.] — (4) [Samaria.] 

SEBENNYTUS (km Semennout, Ru.), a 
considerable city of Lower Egypt, in the 
Delta, on the AY. side of the branch of the 
Nile, called after it the Sebennytic Mouth. 
It was the capital of the Nomos Sebennytes 
or Sebennyticus. 

SEBETHUS (-i : Maddalena), a small river 
in Campania, flowing round Vesuvius, and 
falling into the Sinus Puteolanus at the E. 
side of Neapolis. 

SEDETANI, [Edetani.] 

SEDUNI (-orum), an Alpine people in 
Gallia Belgica, E. of the lake of Geneva, in 
the valley of the Rhone, in the modern 
VaUais. 

SEDUSII (-orum), a German people, form- 
i ing part of the army of Ariovistus, when he 



SEGESTA. 



379 



SELEUCIA. 



invaded Gaul, b.c. 58. Their site cannot be 
determined. 

SEGESTA (-ae: nr. Alcamo, Ru.), the 
later Roman form of the town called by the 
Greeks Egesta or Aegesta, in Virgil Acf.sta ; 
situated in the N. W. of Sicily, near the coast 
between Panormus and Drepanum. It is said 
to hare been founded by the Trojans on 2 I 
small rivers, to which they gave the names \ 
of Simois and Scamander ; hence the Romans I 
made it a colony of Aeneas. 

SEGESTES (-is), a Cheruscan chieftain, ! 
the opponent of Arminius. 

SEGNI (-orunr, a German people in Gallia I 
Belgica, between the Treveri and Eburones, 
the name of whom is still preserved in the 
town of Sinei or Signei. 

SEGOBRIGA (-ae), the chief town of the | 
Celtiberi, in Hispania Tarraconensis, S.Y\\ of 
Caesaraugrusta. 

SEGOXTLA or SEGUXTIA (-ae), a town 
of the Celtiberi, in Hispania Tarraconensis, 
16 miles from Caesaraugusta. 

SEGOVIA (-ae). (1) {Segovia), a town of 
the Arevaci, on the road from Emerita to 
Caesaraugusta. A magnificent Roman aque- 
duct is still extant at Segovia. — 2 A town 
in Hispania Baetica on the Elumen Silicense, 
near Sacili. 

SEGUSIANI (-omm), one of the most im- 
portant peoples in Gallia Lugdunensis, bounded 
by the Allobroges on the S., by the Sequani 
on the E., by the Aedui on the X., and by the 
Arverni on the W. In their territory was I 
the town of Lugdunum, the capital of the 
modern province. 

SEGCSIO (-onis : Susa), the capital of the 
Segusini and the residence of king Cottius, 
was situated in Gallia Transpadana, at the I 
foot of the Cottian Alps. The triumphal arch ; 
erected at tbis place by Cottius in honour of j 
Augustus is still extant. 

SEJAXrS 4)i AELIUS, was born at Yul- 
sinii, in Etruria, and was the son of Seius 
Strabo, who was commander of the praetorian 
troops at the close of the reign of Augustus. 
a.d. 14. He succeeded his father in the com- 
mand of these bands, and ultimately gained 
such influence over Tiberius that he made 
him his confidant. For many years he go- j 
verned Tiberius : but not content with this ! 
high position, he formed the design of obtain- \ 
ing the imperial power. With this view he j 
sought to make himself popular with the sol- 
diers, and procured the poisoning of Drusus, j 
the son of Tiberius by his wife Livia, whom j 
he had seduced. After Tiberius had shut 
himself up in the island of Capreae, Sejanus 
had full scope for his machinations ; and the I 
death of Livia, the mother of Tiberius (29), i 
was followed by the banishment of Agrippina : 



and her sons Nero and Drusus. Tiberius at 
last began to suspect the designs of Sejanus, 
and sent Sertorius Macro to Rome, with a 
commission to take the command of the prae- 
torian cohorts. Macro, after assuring him- 
self of the troops, and depriving Sejanus of 
his usual guard, produced a letter from Tibe- 
rius to the senate, in which the emperor ex- 
pressed his apprehensions of Sejanus. The 
senate decreed his death, and he was imme- 
diately executed. His body was dragged 
about the streets, and finally thrown into the 
Tiber. Many of the friends of Sejanus pe- 
rished at the same time ; and his son and 
daughter shared his fate. 

SELEUCIA (-ae), and rarely SELEUCEA, 
the name of several cities in different parts 
of Asia, built by Seleucus I., king of Syria. 

(1) S. ad Tigrex, also called S. Babylonia, 
S. Assyriae, and S. Pahthop.em, a great 
city on the confines of Assyria and Baby- 
lonia, and for a long time the capital of W. 
Asia, until it was eclipsed by Ctesiphox. Its 
exact site has been disputed ; but the most 
probable opinion is that it stood on the W. 
bank of the Tigris, X. of its junction with the 
Royal Canal, opposite to the mouth of the 
river Delas or Silla (Diala), and to the spot 
where Ctesiphon was afterwards built by the 
Parthians. It was a little to the S. of the 
modern city of Bagdad. It was built in the 
form of an eagle with expanded wings, and 
was peopled by settlers from Assyria, Meso- 
potamia, Babylonia, Syria, and Judaea. It 
rapidly rose, and eclipsed Babylon in wealth 
and splendour. Even after the Parthian 
kings had become masters of the banks of the 
Tigris, and had fixed their residence at Ctesi- 
phon, Seleucia, though deprived of much of 
its importance, remained a very considerable 
city. In the reign of Titus, it had, according 
to Pliny, 600,000 inhabitants. It declined 
after its capture by Severus, and in Julian's 
expedition it was found entirely deserted. — 

(2) S. Pieria (called Seleukeh or Kepse, near 
Suadeiah, Ru.), a great city and fortress of 
Syria, founded by Seleucus in April, b.c. 300. 
It stood on the site of an ancient fortress, on 
the rocks overhanging the sea, at the foot of 
Mt. Pieria, about 4 miles X. of the Orontes, 
and 12 miles W. of Antioch. Its natural 
strength was improved by every known art 
of fortification. In the war with Egypt, 
which ensued upon the murder of Antiochus 
II., Seleucia surrendered to Ptolemy III. 
Euergetes (b.c 246). It was afterwards re- 
covered by Antiochus the Great (219). In 
the war between Antiochus Till, and IX. the 
people of Seleucia made themselves inde- 
pendent (109 or 108). The city had fallen 
entirely into decay by the 6th century of our 



SELEUCIS. 



380 



SELEUCUS. 



era. There are considerable ruins of the 
harbour and mole, of the walls of the city, 
and of its necropolis. The surrounding dis- 
trict was called Seleucis. — (3) S. ad Beltjm, 
a city of Syria, in the valley of the Orontes, 
near Apamea. Its site is doubtful. — (4) S. 
Tracheotis [Selefkeh, Bu.), an important city 
of Cilicia Aspera, was built by Seleucus I. on 
the W. bank of the river Calycadnus, about 
4 miles from its mouth, and peopled with 
the inhabitants of several neighbouring cities. 
It had an oracle of Apollo, and annual games 
in honour of Zeus Olympius (the Olympian 
Jupiter) . It was the birthplace of the philo- 
sophers Athenaeus and Xenarchus, and of 
other learned men. — (5) S. m Mesopotamia 
(Bir), on the left bank of the Euphrates, 
opposite to the ford of Zeugma, was a for- 
tress of considerable importance in ancient 
military history. — (6) A considerable city of 
Margiana, built by Alexander the Great, 
in a beautiful situation, and called Alex- 
andria ; destroyed by the barbarians, and 
rebuilt by Antiochus I., who named it Se- 
leucia after his father. — (7) S. eh Caria 
[Tralles]. — There were other cities of the 
name, of less importance, in Pisidia, Pam- 
phylia, Palestine, and Elymai's. 

SELEUCIS, the most beautiful and fertile 
district of Syria, containing the N.W. part 
of the country, between Mt, Amanus on the 
N., the Mediterranean on the W., the dis- 
tricts of Cyrrhestice and Chalybonitis on the 
N.E., the desert on the E., and Coele-Syria 
and the mountains of Lebanon on the S. 

SELEUCUS (-i), the name of several 
kings of Syria. I. Surnamed Xicator, the 
founder of the Syrian monarchy, reigned b.c. 
312 — 280. He was the son of Antiochus, a 
Macedonian of distinction among the officers 
of Philip II., and was born about 358. He 
accompanied Alexander on his expedition to 
Asia, and distinguished himself particularly 
in the Indian campaigns. After the death of 
Alexander (323) he espoused the side of 
Perdiccas, whom he accompanied on his 
expedition against Egypt ; but he took a 
leading part in the mutiny of the soldiers, 
which ended in the death of Perdiccas (321). 
In the 2nd partition of the provinces which 
followed, Seleucus obtained the wealthy and 
important satrapy of Babylonia ; but it is 
not till his recovery of Babylon from Anti- 
gonus, in 312,. that the Syrian monarchy is 
commonly reckoned to commence. He after- 
wards conquered Susiana and Media, and 
gradually extended his power over all the 
eastern provinces which had formed part of 
the empire of Alexander, from the Euphrates 
to the banks of the Oxus and the Indus. In 
306 Seleucus formally assumed the regal 



title and diadem. Having leagued himself 
with Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Cassander 
against Antigonus, he obtained, by the 
defeat and death of that monarch at Ipsus 
(301), a great part of Asia Minor, as well as 
the whole of Syria, from the Euphrates to 
the Mediterranean. Seleucus appears to have 
felt the difficulty of exercising a vigilant 
control over so extensive an empire, and 
accordingly, in 293, he consigned the govern- 
ment of all the provinces beyond the Eu- 
phrates to his son Antiochus, upon whom he 
bestowed the title of king, as well as the 
hand of his own youthful wife, Stratonice, 
for whom the prince had conceived a violent 
attachment. In 286, with the assistance of 
Ptolemy and Lysimachus, he defeated and 
captured Demetrius, king of Macedonia, who 
had invaded Asia Minor. Eor some time 
jealousies had existed between Seleucus and 
Lysimachus ; but the immediate cause of the 
war between the 2 monarchs, which termi- 
nated in the defeat and death of Lysimachus 
(281), is related in the life of the latter. 
Seleucus now crossed the Hellespont in order 
to take possession of the throne of Mace- 
donia, which had been left vacant by the 
death of Lysimachus ; but he had advanced 
no farther than Lysimachia, when he was 
assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, to whom, 
as the son of his old friend and ally, he had 
extended a friendly protection. His death 
took place in the beginning of 280, only 7 
months after that of Lysimachus, and in the 
32nd year of his reign. He was in his 78th 
year. Seleucus appears to have carried out, 
with great energy and perseverance, the 
projects originally formed by Alexander 
himself, for the Hellenisation of his Asiatic 
empire ; and we find him founding, in 
almost every province, Greek or Macedonian 
colonies, which became so many centres of 
civilisation and refinement. — II. Surnamed 
Callinicus (246 — 226), was the eldest son of 
Antiochus II. by his first wife Laodice. The 
first measure of his administration, or rather 
that of his mother, was to put to death his 
stepmother, Berenice, together with her 
infant son. To avenge his sister, Ptolemy 
Euergetes, king of Egypt, invaded the do- 
minions of Seleucus, and not only made 
himself master of Antioch and the whole of 
Syria, but carried his arms unopposed beyond 
the Euphrates and the Tigris. During these 
operations Seleucus kept wholly aloof ; but 
when Ptolemy had been recalled to his own 
dominions by domestic disturbances, he re- 
covered possession of the greater part of the 
provinces which he had lost. Seleucus next 
became involved in a dangerous war with 
his brother, Antiochus Hierax, and after- 



SELGE. 



381 



SEMIRAMIS, 



wards undertook an expedition to the East, ; taken by the Carthaginians in 409, when 
with the view of reducing the revolted I most of its inhabitants were slain or sold as 
provinces of Parthia and Bactria. He was, j slaves, and the greater part of the city 
however, defeated by Arsaces, king of Par- j destroyed. — (6) (Selenti), a town in Cilicia, 
thia, in a great battle, which was long after situated onjthe coast. 

celebrated by the Parthians as the foundation , SELL ASIA (-ae), a town inLaconia, W. of 
of their independence. Seleucus appears to > Sparta, near the river Oenus. 
have been engaged in an expedition for the j SELLEIS. (1) A river in Elis, on which 
recovery of his provinces in Asia Minor, the Homeric Ephyra stood, rising in Mt. 
which had been seized by Attalus, when he j Pholoe, and falling into the sea, S. of the 
was accidentally killed by a fall from his | Peneus. — (2) A river near Sicyon. — ('3) A 
horse, in the 21st year of his reign, 226. — - j river in Troas, near Arisbe, and a tributary 
III. Surnamed CERAUNrs (226 — 223), eldest : of the Rhodius. 
son and successor of Seleucus II., was assas- SELLI or Helli. JDoboxa.] 
sinated by 2 of his officers, after a reign of j SELYMBRIAor SELYBRIA (-ae: Selivria), 
only 3 years, and was succeeded by his : an important town in Thrace, situated on the 
brother, - Antiochus the Great. — IY. Sur- j Propontis. It was a colony of the Megarians, 
named Philopator (187 — 175), was the son j and was founded earlier than Byzantium, 
and successor of Antiochus the Great. The i SEMELE (-es), daughter of Cadmus and 
reign of Seleucus was feeble and inglorious. Harmonia, at Thebes, and accordingly sister 
He was assassinated in 175 by one of his ; of Ino, Agave, Autonoe, and Polydorus. She 
own ministers. — Y. Eldest son of Demetrius was beloved by Zeus (Jupiter). Hera (Juno) 
II., assumed the royal diadem on learning ; stimulated by jealousy, appeared to her in 
the death of his father, 125; but his mother, the form of her aged nurse Beroe, and in- 
Cleopatra, who had herself put Demetrius to duced her to ask Zeus to visit her in the 
death, was indignant at hearing that her son j same splendour and majesty with which he 
had ventured to take such a step without her appeared to Hera. Zeus warned her of the 
authority, and caused Seleucus also to be danger of her request ; but as he had sworn 
assassinated. — YI. Surnamed Epiphaxes, and to grant whatever she desired, he was 
also Nicator (95 — 93), was the eldest of the I obliged to comply with her prayer. He 
5 sons of Antiochus VIII. Grypus. On the j accordingly appeared before her as the god 
death of his father, in 95, he ascended the , of thunder, and Semele was consumed by the 
throne, and defeated and slew in battle his , lightning ; but Zeus saved her child Dionysus 
uncle, Antiochus Cyzicenus, who had laid j (Bacchus), with whom she was pregnant, 
claim to the kingdom, But shortly after j Her son afterwards carried her out of the 
Seleucus was in his turn defeated by Antio- lower world, and conducted her to Olympus, 
chus Eusebes, the son of Cyzicenus, and ; where she became immortal under the name 
expelled from Syria. He took refuge in of Thyone. 

the city of Mopsuestia, in Cilicia; but in i SEMIRAMIS (-idis) and NINUS r -i), the 
consequence of his tyranny, was burned to mythical founders of the Assyrian empire of 
death by the inhabitants. j Ninus or Nineveh. Ninus was a great war- 

SELGE (-es : Siirk? Ru.), one of the ■ rior, who built the town of Ninus or Nineveh, 
chief of the independent mountain cities of about b.c. 2182, and subdued the greater part 
Pisidia, stood on the S. side of Mt. Taurus, ; of Asia. Semiramis was the daughter of 
on the Eurymedon, just where the river j the fish-goddess Derceto of Ascalon in Syria 
breaks through the mountain chain. by a Syrian youth. Derceto being ashamed 

SELINUS (-untis). (1) A small river on j of her frailty, made away with the youth, 
the S.\Vv coast of Sicily, flowing by the town and exposed her infant daughter ; but the 
of the same name. — (2> {Crest e?ia), a river of j child was miraculously preserved by doves, 
Elis, in the district Triphylia, near Scillus, ; who fed her till she was discovered, by the 
flowing into the Alpheus W. of Olympia. — , shepherds of the neighbourhood. She was 
(3) (Vostitza), a river of Achaia, rising in j then brought up by the chief shepherd of the 
Mt. Erymanthus. — (4) A tributary of the j roy&l herds, whose name was Simmas, from 
Caicus, in Mysia, flowing by the town of whom she derived the name of Semiramis. 
Pergamam. — (5) {Cast el vetrano, Ru.), one Her surpassing beauty attracted the notice of 
of the most important towns in Sicily, Onnes, one of the king's friends and generals, 
situated upon a hill on the S.TY coast, and who married her. At the siege of Bactra. 
upon a river of the same name. It was \ Semiramis planned an attack upon the citadel 
founded by the Dorians from Megara Hy- of the town, mounted the walls with a few 
blaea, on the E. coast of Sicily, b.c 628. It brave followers and obtained possession of 
soon attained great prosperity ; but it was the place. Ninus was so charmed by her 



SEMNONES. 



382 



SENECA. 



bravery and beauty, that he resolved to make 
her his wife, whereupon her unfortunate 
husband put an end to his life. By Ninus 
Semiramis had a son, Ninyas, and on the 
death of Ninus she succeeded him on the 
throne. Her fame threw into the shade that 
of Ninus ; and later ages loved to tell of her 
marvellous deeds and her heroic achieve- 
ments. She built numerous cities, and 
erected many wonderful buildings. In 
Nineveh she erected a tomb for her husband 
9 stadia high, and 10 wide; she built the 
city of Babylon with all its wonders ; and she 
constructed the hanging gardens in Media, of 
which later writers give us such strange 
accounts. Besides conquering many nations of 
Asia, she subdued Egypt and a great part of 
Ethiopia, but was unsuccessful in an attack 
which she made upon India. After a reign of 
42 years she resigned, the sovereignty to her 
son Ninyas, and disappeared from the earth, 
taking her night to heaven in the form of a 
dove. The fabulous nature of this narrative 
is apparent. It is probable that Semiramis 
was originally a Syrian goddess, perhaps the 
same who was worshipped at Ascalon under 
the name of Astarte, or the Heavenly Aphro- 
dite, to whom the dove was sacred. Hence 
the stories of her voluptuousness, which were 
current even in the time of Augustus. 

SEMNONES, more rarely SENNONES 
(.urn), a German people, described by Tacitus 
as the most powerful tribe of the Suevic race, 
dwelt between the rivers Viadus (Oder) and 
Albis [Elbe], from the Riesengebirge in the 
S. as far as the country around Frankfurt on 
the Oder and Potsdam in the N. 
SEMO SANCTIS. [Sanctis.] 
SEMPRONIA(-ae). (1) Daughter of Tib. 
Gracchus, censor b.c 169, and sister of the 2 
celebrated tribunes, married Scipio Africanus 
minor. — (2) Wife of D. Junius Brutus, consul 
77, was a woman of great personal attractions 
and literary accomplishments, but of a pro- 
fligate character. She took part in Catiline's 
conspiracy, though her husband was not privy 
to it. 

SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. [Gracchus.] 
SENA (-ae). (1) (Senigaglia), surnamed 
Gallica, and sometimes called Senogallia, 
a town on the coast of Umbria, at the mouth 
of the small river Sena, founded by the 
Senones. — (2) [Siena) , a town in Etruria and 
a Roman colony, on the road from Clusium 
to Florentia. 

SENECA (-ae). (1) M. Annaeus, the rhe- 
torician, was born at Corduba (Cordova) in 
Spain, about b.c 61. Seneca was at Rome in 
the early period of the power of Augustus. 
He afterwards returned to Spain, and married 
Helvia, by whom he had 3 sons, L. Annaeus 



Seneca, L. Annaeus Mela or Mella, the father 
of the poet Lucan, and M. Novatus. Seneca 
was rich, and belonged to the equestrian 
class. At a later period he returned to 
Rome, where he resided till his death, which 
probably occurred near the end of the reign 
of Tiberius. Two of Seneca's works have 
come down to us. 1. Controversiarum Libri 
decern, of which the 1st, 2nd, 7th, 8th, and 
10th books only are extant, and these are 
somewhat mutilated. 2. Siiasoriartim Liber, 
which is probably not complete. Seneca's 
works are for the most part commonplace and 
puerile, though now and then interspersed 
with some good ideas and apt expressions. — 
(2) L. Annaeus, the philosopher, the son of 
the preceding, was born at Corduba, probably 
a few years b.c, and brought to Rome by 
his parents when he was a child. Though 
he was naturally of a weak body, he was a 
hard student from his youth, and devoted 
himself with great ardour to rhetoric and 
philosophy. He also soon gained distinc- 
tion as a pleader of causes, and excited the 
jealousy and hatred of Caligula by the ability 
with which he conducted a case in the senate 
before the emperor. In the first year of the 
reign of Claudius (a. d. 41), Seneca was 
banished to Corsica, on account of his in- 
timacy with Julia, the niece of Claudius, of 
whom Messalina was jealous. After 8 years' 
residence in Corsica, Seneca was recalled (49) 
by the influence of Agrippina, who had just 
married her uncle the emperor Claudius. 
He now obtained a praetorship, and was 
made the tutor of the young Domitius, 
afterwards the emperor Nero, who was the 
son of Agrippina by a former husband. On 
the accession of his pupil to the imperial 
throne (54) after the death of Claudius, Seneca 
became one of the chief advisers of the young 
emperor. He exerted his influence to check 
Nero's vicious propensities, but at the same 
time he profited from his position to amass an 
immense fortune. He supported Nero in his 
contests with his mother Agrippina, and was 
not only a party to the death of the latter 
(60), but he wrote the letter which Nero ad- 
dressed to the senate in justification of the 
murder. After the death of his mother, Nero 
abandoned himself without any restraint to 
his vicious propensities ; and the presence of 
Seneca soon became irksome to him, while 
the wealth of the philosopher excited the 
emperor's cupidity. Seneca saw his danger, 
asked the emperor for permission to retire, 
and offered to surrender all that he had. 
Nero affected to be grateful for his past ser- 
vices, refused the proffered gift, and sent 
him away with perfidious assurances of his 
respect and affection. Seneca now altered 



SENONES. 



383 



SERDICA. 



his mode of life, saw little company, and 
seldom visited the city, on the ground of 
feeble health, or being occupied with his 
philosophical studies. But this did not save 
him. After the conspiracy of Piso (65) Nero 
sent a tribune to him with the order of death. 
Without showing any sign of alarm, Seneca 
cheered his weeping friends by reminding 
them of the lessons of philosophy. Em- 
bracing his wife Pompeia Paulina, he prayed 
her to moderate her grief, and to console her- 
self for the loss of her husband by the reflec- 
tion that he had lived an honourable life. But 
as Paulina protested that she would die with 
him, Seneca consented, and the same blow 
opened the veins in the arms of both. Seneca's 
body was attenuated by age and meagre diet ; 
the blood would not flow easily, and he 
opened the veins in his legs. But even this 
did not suffice ; and after enduring much 
torture he was taken into a vapour stove, 
where he was quickly suffocated. Seneca 
died, as was the fashion among the Romans, 
with the courage of a stoic, but with some- 
what of a theatrical a eetation which detracts 
from the dignity of the scene. Seneca's fame 
rests on his numerous writings, which are 
chiefly on moral and philosophical subjects. 
The most important is the Be Beneficiis, in 7 
books. He was also the author of ten 
tragedies ; which, however, seem more 
adapted for recitation than for the stage. Yet 
they contain many striking passages, and 
have some merit as poems. That Seneca 
possessed great mental powers cannot be 
doubted. He had seen much of human life, 
and he knew well what man was. His phi- 
losophy, so far as he adopted a system, was 
the stoical, but it was rather an eclecticism 
of stoicism than pure stoicism. His style is 
antithetical, and apparently laboured ; and 
where there is much labour, there is generally 
affectation. Yet his language is clear and 
forcible ; it is not mere words : there is 
thought always. 

SENONES (-um), a powerful people in 
Gallia Lugdunensis, dwelt along the upper 
course of the Sequana (Seine). Their chief 
town was Agendicum, afterwards called Se- 
jion.es (Sens). A portion of this people crossed 
the Alps about b.c. 400, in order to settle in 
Italy, and took up their abode on the Adriatic 
sea between the rivers Utis and Aesis (be- 
tween Ravenna and Ancona), after expelling 
the Umbrians. In this country they founded 
the town of Sena. They not only extended 
their ravages into Etruria, but marched 
against Rome and took the city, b.c. 390. 
From this time we find them engaged in con- 
stant hostilities with the Romans, till they 
were at length completely subdued, and the 



greater part of them destroyed by the consul 
Dolabella, 283. 

SENTINUM (-i : nr. Sassoferrato, Ru.), a 
fortified town in Umbria, not far from the 
river Aesis. 

SEPIAS (-adis : St. George), a promontory 
in the S.E. of Thessaly in the district Mag- 
nesia, on which a great part of the fleet of 
Xerxes was wrecked. 

SEPLASIA (-orum), one of the principal 
streets in Capua, where perfumes and luxuries 
of a similar kind were sold. 

SEPPHORIS (Sefurieh), a city of Palestine, 
in the middle of Galilee, was an insignificant 
place, until Herod Antipas fortified it, and 
made it the capital of Galilee, under the 
name of Diocaesarea. 

SEPTEM AQUAE, a place in the territory 
of the Sabini, near Reate. 

SEPTEMPEDA (San Severino), a munici- 
pium in the interior of Picenum, on the road 
from Auximum to Urbs Salvia. 

SEPTIMIUS GETA. [Geta.] 

SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, [Severus.] 

SEPTIMIUS TITIUS (-i), a Roman poet, 
spoken of by Horace. 

SEQUANA (-ae : Seine), one of the prin- 
cipal rivers of Gaul, rising in the central 
parts of that country, and flowing through 
the province of Gallia Lugdunensis into the 
ocean opposite Britain. It is 346 miles in 
length. Its principal affluents are the Ma- 
trona (Marne), Esia (Oise) with its tributary 
the Axona (Aisne), and Incaunus (Tonne), 
This river has a slow current, and is navi- 
gable beyond Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris). 

SEQUANI (-5rumj, a powerful Celtic 
people in Gallia Belgica, inhabiting the 
country since called Franche Compte and 
Burgundy. In the later division of the pro- 
vinces of the empire, the country of the 
Sequani formed a special province under the 
name of Maxima Sequanorum. They derived 
their name from the river Sequana, which 
had its source in the N.AY. frontiers of their 
territory. Their chief town was Yesontio 
(Besancon). 

SEQUESTER (-tri or -tris) YIBIUS, the 
name attached to a glossary which professes 
to give an account of the geographical names 
contained in the Roman poets. 

SERA. ^ [Serica.] 

SERAPION (-onis), a physician of Alex- 
andria, who lived in the 3rd century, b.c. 

SERAPIS or SARAPIS (-is or -idis), an 
Egyptian divinity, whose worship was In- 
troduced into Greece in the time of the 
Ptolemies. His worship was introduced into 
Rome together with that of Isis. [Isis.] 
SERDICA or SARDICA (-ae), an impor- 
| tant town in Upper Moesia, and the capital 



SEBrENUS. 



3S4 



SESOSTRIS. 



of Dacia Interior, derived its name from the 
Thracian people Serdi. It bore in the middle 
ages the name of Triaditza. Its extensive 
ruins are to be seen S. of Sophia. 

SERENUS (-i), Q., SAMMONICUS (or 
Samonicus), a man of high reputation at Rome 
for taste and learning, murdered by command 
of Caracalla,A.D.212. He left behind him many 
"works. 

SERES. [Serica.] 

SERGIUS. [Catilixa.] 

SEEICA (-ae) ; (Seres; also rarely in the 
sing. Ser), a country in the extreme E. of 
Asia, famous as the native region of the silk- 
worm, which was also called r«§ ; and hence 
the adjective ' sericus ' fov silken. The name 
was known to the W. nations at a very early 
period, through the use of silk, first in W. 
Asia, and afterwards in Greece. It is clear, 
however, that until some time after the com- 
mencement of our era, the name had no dis- 
tinct geographical signification. The Serica 
of Ptolemy corresponds to the X. W. part of 
China, and the adjacent portions of Thibet and 
Chinese Tartarij. The capital, Sera, is sup- 
posed by most to be Singan, on the Hoang-ho, 
but by some Peking. The Great "Wall of 
China is mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus 
under the name of Aggeres Serium. 

SERIPHUS (-i : Serpho), an island in the 
Aegaean sea, and one of the Cyclades. It is 
celebrated in mythology as the island where 
Danae and Perseus landed after they had been 
exposed by Acrisius, where Perseus was 
brought up, and where he afterwards turned 
the inhabitants into stone with the Gorgon's 
head. Seriphus was colonised by Ionians 
from Athens, and it was one of the few islands 
which refused submission to Xerxes. The 
island was employed by the Roman emperors 
as a place of banishment for state criminals. 

SERRAXUS. [Regvlvs.] 

SERTORIUS (-i), Q., one of the most ex- 
traordinary men in the later times of the 
republic, was a native of Xursia, a Sabine 
village, and was born of obscure but respect- 
able parents. He served under Marius in 
the Avar against the Teutones ; and before the 
battle of Aquae Sextiae (Aix), B.C. 102, he 
entered the camp of the Teutones in disguise 
as a spy, for which hazardous undertaking 
his intrepid character and some knowledge of 
the Gallic language well qualified him. He 
also served as tribunus militum in Spain 
under T. Didius (97). He was quaestor in 
91, and had before this time lost an eye in 
battle. On the outbreak of the civil war in 
88, he declared himself against the party of 
the nobles, and commanded one of the 4 
armies which besieged Rome under Marius 
and Cinna. He was however opposed to the 



bloody massacre which ensued after Marius 
and Cinna entered Rome. In 83 Sertorius 
was praetor, and either in this year or the 
following he went into Spain ; whence he 
crossed over to Mauretania, and gained a vic- 
tory over Paccianus, one of Sulla's generals. 
After this, at the request of the Lusitanians, 
he became their leader ; and for some years 
successfully resisted all the power of Rome. 
He availed himself of the superstitious cha- 
racter of that people to strengthen his autho- 
rity over them. A fawn was brought to him 
by one of the natives as a present, which 
soon became so tame as to accompany him 
in his walks, and attend him on all occasions. 
After Sulla had become master of Italy, Ser- 
torius was joined by many Romans, and 
among the rest by M. Perperna, with 53 co- 
horts [Perperna]. To give some show of 
form to his formidable power, Sertorius esta- 
blished a senate of 300, into which no provin- 
cial was admitted. The continued want of 
success on the part of Metellus, who had been 
sent against Sertorius in 79, induced the 
Romans to send Pompey to his assistance, 
but with an independent command. Pompey 
arrived in Spain in 76, with a large force, 
but was unable to gain any decisive advan- 
tages. Eor the next 5 years Sertorius kept 
both Metellus and Pompey at bay, and cut to 
pieces a large number of their forces. Ser- 
torius was at length assassinated in 72 by 
Perperna and some other Roman officers, 
who had long been jealous of his authority. 

SERYILIA (-ae). (1) Daughter of Q. Ser- 
vilius Caepio and the daughter of Livia, the 
sister of the celebrated M. Livius Drusus, 
tribune of the plebs, b.c. 91. Servilia was 
married twice ; first to M. Junius Brutus, by 
whom she became the mother of the murderer 
of Caesar, and secondly to D. Junius Silanus, 
consul 62. — (2) Sister of the preceding, was 
the 2nd wife of L. Lucullus, consul 74. 
SERYILIUS AHALA. [Ahala.] 
SERYILIUS CAEPIO. [CAEno.] 
SERYILIUS CASCA. [Casca.] 
SERYILIUS RULLUS. [Rullts.] 
SERYIUS MAURUS HOXORATUS (-i), 
or SERYIUS MARIUS HOXORATUS, a cele- 
brated Latin grammarian, contemporary with 
Macrobius, who introduces him among the 
dramatis personae of the Saturnalia. His 
most celebrated production was an elaborate 
commentary upon Virgil. 

SERYIUS TULLIUS. [Tullius.] 
SESOSTRIS (-is or -idis), the name given 
by the Greeks to the great king of Egypt, who 
is called in Manetho and on the monuments 
Ramses or Ramesses. Ramses is a name 
common to several kings of the 18th, 19th, 
and 20th dynasties ; but Sesostris must be 



SESTINUM. 



355 



SEVERUS. 



identified with Ramses, the 3rd king of the 
19th dynasty, the son of Seti, and the father 
of Menephthah. Sesostris was a great con- 
queror. He is said to have subdued Ethiopia, 
the greater part of Asia, and the Thracians 
in Europe. He returned to Egypt after an 
absence of 9 years, and the countless captives 
■whom he brought back with him were em- 
ployed in the erection of numerous public 
works. Memorials of Ramses-Sesostris still 
exist throughout the whole of Egypt, from 
the mouth of the Nile to the south of Nubia. 

SESTINUM (-i : Sestino), a town in Umbria 
on the Apennines, near the sources of the 
Pisaurus. 

SESTIUS. [Sexties.] 

SESTES (-i : Ialova), a town in Thrace, 
situated at the narrowest part of the Helles- 
pont, opposite Abydos in Asia, from which it 
was only 7 stadia distant. It was founded 
by the Aeolians. It was celebrated in Grecian 
poetry on account of the loves of Leander and 
Hero [Leander], and in history on account 
of the bridge of boats which Xerxes here 
built across the Hellespont. 

SETABIS. [Saetabts.] 

SETHON, a priest of Hephaestus, made 
himself master of Egypt after the expulsion 
of Sabacon, king of the Ethiopians, and was 
succeeded by the Dodecarchia, or government 
of the 1 2 chiefs, which ended in the sole sove- 
reignty of Psammitichus. 

SETIA (-ae : Sezza or Sesse), an ancient 
town of Latium in the E. of the Pontine 
Marshes. It was celebrated for the excellent 
wine grown in its neighbourhood, which was 
reckoned in the time of Augustus the finest 
wine in Italr. 

SEVERUS (-i), M. AURELIUS ALEX- 
ANDER, usually called ALEXANDER SE- 
YERUS, Roman emperor, a.d. 222 — 235, the 
son of Gessius Marcianus and Julia Mamaea, 
and first cousin of Elagabalus, was born at Arce, 
in Phoenicia, the 1st of October, a.d. 205. In 
221 he was adopted by Elagabalus and created 
Caesar ; and on the death of that emperor, 
on the 11th of March, a.d. 222, Alexander 
ascended the throne. After reigning in 
peace some years, during which he re- 
formed many abuses in the state, he was 
involved in a war with Artaxerxes, king of 
Persia, and gained a great victory over him 
in 232 ; but was unable to prosecute his ad- 
vantage in consequence of intelligence having 
reached him of a great movement among the 
German tribes. He celebrated a triumph at 
Rome in 233, and in the following year (234) 
set out for Gaul, which the Germans were 
devastating ; bnt was waylaid by a small band 
of mutinous soldiers, instigated, it is said, by 
Maximinus, and slain, in the 30th year of his 



t age, and the 14th of his reign. Alexander 
| Severus was distinguished by justice, wisdom, 
I and clemency in all public transactions, and 
I bv the shnplicitv and puritv of his private 
I life. 

SEVERUS, A. CAECINA. r CAECiXA.] 
SEVERUS (-i), FLAVIUS VALERIUS, 
Roman emperor, a.d. 306 — 307. He was pro- 
1 claimed Caesar by Galerius in 306, and was 
j soon afterwards sent against Maxentius, who 
had assumed the imperial title at Rome. The 
I expedition however was unsuccessful ; and 
! Severus having surrendered at Ravenna, was 
I taken as a prisoner to Rome and compelled to 
I put an end to his life. 

SEVERUS (-i), LIBIUS, Roman emperor 
j a.d. 461 — 465, was a Lucanian by birth, and 
owed his accession to Ricimer, who placed 
| him on the throne after the assassination of 
! Majorian. During his reign the real govern - 
| ment was in the hands of Ricimer. Severus 
died a natural death. 

SEVERUS (-i), L. SEPTIMIUS, Roman 
emperor a.d. 193 — 211, was born 146, near 
Leptis in Africa. After holding various im- 
portant military commands under M. Aurelius 
and Commodus, he was at length appointed 
commander-in-chief of the army in Pannonia 
and Hlyria. By this army he was proclaimed 
emperor after the death of Pertinax (193). 
He forthwith marched upon Rome, where 
Julianus had been made emperor by the 
praetorian troops. Julianus was put to death 
upon his arrival before the city. [Jeliaxes.] 
! Severus then turned his arms against Pescen- 
I nius Niger, who had been saluted emperor by 
the eastern legions, defeated him in a battle 
near Issus, and shortly afterwards put him to 
death (194). Severus next laid siege to 
Byzantium, which refused to submit to him 
even after the death of Niger, and which was 
not taken till 196. During the continuance 
of this siege, Severus had crossed the Eu- 
phrates (195). and subdued the Mesopotamian 
Arabians. He returned to Italy in 196, and 
in the same year proceeded to Gaul to oppose 
Albinus, who had been proclaimed emperor 
by the troops in that country. Albinus was 
defeated and slain in a terrible battle fought 
near Lyons on the 19th of February, 197. 
Severus returned to Rome in the same year ; 
but after remaining a short time in the 
capital, he set out for the East in order to repel 
the invasion of the Parthians, who were 
ravaging Mesopotamia. After spending 3 
years in the East, where he met with the most 
brilliant success, Severus returned to Rome 
in 202. For the next 7 years he remained 
tranquilly at Rome ; but in 2 OS he went to 
Britain with his sons Caracalla and Geta. 
Here he carried on war against the Caledo- 

c c 



SEXTIAE AQUAE. 



3S6 



SICILIA. 



nians, and erected the celebrated wall, which 
bore his name, from the Solway to the mouth 
of the Tyne, After remaining 2 years in 
Britain he died at Eboracum (York) on the 
4th of February, 211, in the 65 th year of his 
age, and the 18th of his reign. 

SEXTIAE AQUAE. [Aquae Sextiae.] 

SEXTIUS or SESTIUS (-i), P., quaestor b.c. 
63, and tribune of the plebs 57. Like Milo, 
he kept a band of armed retainers to oppose 
P. Clodius and his partisans ; and in the 
following year (56) he was accused of Vis on 
account of his violent acts during his tri- 
bunate. He was defended by Cicero in an 
oration still extant, and was acquitted on the 
14th of March, chiefly in consequence of the 
powerful influence of Pompey. On the break- 
ing out of the civil war in 49, Sextius first 
espoused Pompey's party, but he afterwards 
joined Caesar. 

SEXTUS EMPIRICUS (-i), a physician, 
was a contemporary of Galen, and lived in 
the first half of the 3rd century of the 
Christian era. Two of his works are extant. 

SEXTUS RUFUS (-i). (1) The name pre- 
fixed to a work entitled Be Regionibus Vrbis 
Romae, — ,2) Sextus Bx'ftjs is also the name 
prefixed to an abridgment of Roman History 
in 28 short chapters, entitled Breviarium de 
Tictoriis et Brovinciis Bopuli Romani, and 
executed by command of the emperor Yalens, 
to whom it is dedicated. 

SIBYLLAE (-arum), the name by which 
several prophetic women are designated. 
The first Sibyl, from whom all the rest are 
said to have derived their name, is called a 
daughter of Dardanus and Neso. Some 
authors mention only 4 Sibyls, but it was 
more commonly believed that there were 10. 
The most celebrated of them is the Cumaean, 
who is mentioned under the names of Hero- 
phile, Demo, Phemonoe, Deiphobe, Demo- 
phile, and Amalthea. She was consulted by 
Aeneas before he descended into the lower 
world. She is said to have come to Italy 
from the East, and she is the one who, 
according to tradition, appeared before king 
Tarquinius, offering him the Sibylline books 
for sale. Respecting the Sibylline books, see 
Bid. of Antiq., art. Sibyliini Bibri. 

SICAMBRI. [Sygambri.] 
SICAXI, SICELI, SICELIOTAE. [Si- 
cilia.] 

SICCA YENERIA (prob. Al-Kaff), a con- 
siderable city of N. Africa, on the frontier of 
Numidia and Zeugitana, built on a hill near 
the river Bagradas. 

SICHAEUS, also called Acerbas. [Acer- 
bas.1 

SiCILIA (-ae : Sicily), one of the largest 
islands in the Mediterranean Sea. It was 



supposed by the ancients to be the same as 
the island named Thrinacia by Homer, and 
it was therefore frequently called Thrinacia, 
Trinacia, or Trixacris, a name which was 
believed to be derived from the triangular 
figure of the island. For the same reason 
the Roman poets called it Triqeetra. Its 
more usual name came from its later inhabit- 
ants, the Siceli, whence it was called Sicelia, 
which the Romans changed into Sicilia. As 
the Siceli also bore the name of Sicani, the 
island was also called Sicaxia. Sicily is 
separated from the S. coast of Italy by a 
narrow channel called Fretum Sicultjji, 
sometimes simply Frettjm, and also Scyl- 
eaeum Fretem, of which the modern name is 
Faro di Messina. The sea on the E. and S. 
of the island was also called Mare Sicelem. A 
I range of mountains, which are a continuation 
of the Apennines, extends throughout the 
island from E. to Yv. Of these the most 
important were, the celebrated volcano Aetna 
on the E. side of the island, Eryx [St. Giu- 
lano), in the extreme W. near Drepanum, 
and the Heraei Montes [Monti Sori) in the 
S., running down to the promontory Pachy- 
nus. A large number of rivers flow down 
from the mountains, but most of them are 
dry, or nearly so, in the summer. The soil 
of Sicily was very fertile, and produced in 
antiquity an immense quantity of wheat, on 
which the population of Rome relied to a 
great extent for their subsistence. So cele- 
brated was it, even in early times, on account 
of its corn, that it was represented as sacred 
to Demeter (Ceres), and as the favourite 
abode of this goddess. Hence it was in this 
island that her daughter Persephone (Proser- 
pina) was carried away by Pluto. Besides 
corn, the island produced excellent wine, 
saffron, honey, almonds, and the other 
southern fruits. The earliest inhabitants of 
Sicily are said to have been the savage Cy- 
clopes and Laestrygones ; but these are 
fabulous beings, and the first inhabitants 
mentioned in history are the Sicaxi, or 
Siceli, who crossed over into the island 
from Italy. The next immigrants into the 
island were Cretans ; but these, if, indeed, 
they ever visited Sicily, soon became incor- 
porated with the Siculi. The Phoenicians, 
likewise, at an early period, formed settle- 
ments, for the purposes of commerce, on all 
the coasts of Sicily, but more especially on 
the N. and N.YV. parts. But the most im- 
portant of all the immigrants into Sicily were 
the Greeks, who founded a number of very 
flourishing cities, such as Naxos, e.c 735, 
Syracuse in 734, Leontini and Catana in 730, 
Megara Hyblaea in 726, Gela in 690, Selinus 
| in 626, Agrigentum in 579, etc. The Greeks 



SICIXIUS. 



387 



STDOX. 



soon became the ruling race in the island, 
and received the name of Siceliotae to dis- 
tinguish them from the earlier inhabitants. 
At a later time the Carthaginians obtained a 
firm footing in Sicily. After taking Agri- 
gentum in 405, the Carthaginians became 
the permanent masters of the AV. part of the 
island, and were engaged in frequent wars 
with Syracuse and the other Greek cities. 
The struggle between the Carthaginians and 
Greeks continued, with a few interruptions, 
down to the 1st Punic war ; at the close of 
which (241) the Carthaginians were obliged 
to evacuate the island, the AY. part of which 
now passed into the hands of the Eomans, 
and was made a Roman province. The E. 
part still continued under the rule of Hieron 
of Syracuse as an ally of Eome ; but after 
the revolt of Syracuse in the 2nd Punic war, 
and the conquest of that city by Marcellus, 
the whole island was made a Roman province, 
and was administered by a praetor. On the 
downfal of the Poman empire, Sicily formed 
part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths ; but 
it was taken from them by Belisarius in 
A.n. 5 36, and annexed to the Byzantine em- 
pire. It continued a province of this empire 
till 828, when it was conquered by the Sara- 
cens. 

SICIXIUS (-i). (1) L. SiciNrus Bel- 
lutus, the leader of the plebeians in their 
secession to the Sacred Mount in b.c. 494. 
He was chosen one of the first tribunes. — 
(2) L. Sicixirs Dextatvs, called bv some 
writers the Roman Achilles, from his per- 
sonal prowess. He was tribune of the plebs 
in 454. He was put to death by the decem- 
virs in 450, because he endeavoured to per- 
suade the plebeians to secede to the Sacred 
Mount. The persons sent to assassinate him 
fell upon him in a lonely spot, but he killed 
most of them before they succeeded in dis- 
patching him. 

SICIXUS (-i : Sifcino), a small island in 
the Aegaean sea, one of the Sporades, be- 
tween Pholegandrus and Ios, with a town of 
the same name. 

SICORIS (-is : Segre), a river in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, which had its source in 
the territory of the Cerretani, and fell into 
the Iberus, near Octogesa. 

SICULI. [Sicilia.] 

SICULOI FRETUM, SICELEM MARE. 
[Sicilia.] 

SICULUS FLACCUS. [FLACcrs.] 
SICYOXIA (-ae), a small district in the 
X.E. of Peloponnesus, bounded on the E. by 
the territory of Corinth, on the AV. by 
Achaia, on the S. by the territory of Phlius 
and Cleonae, and on the N. by the Corin- 
thian gulf. Its area was about 100 square 



miles. The land was fertile, and produced 
excellent oil. Its almonds and its fish were 
also much prized. Its chief town was 
Sictox, which was situated a little to the 
AV. of the river Asopus, and at the distance 
of 20, or, according to others, 12 stadia 
from the sea. Sicyon was one of the most 
ancient cities of Greece. It is said to have 
been originally called Aegialea or Aegiali, 
after an ancient king, Aegialeus ; to have 
been subsequently named Mecone, and finally 
Sicyon, from an Athenian of this name. 
Sicyon is represented by Homer as forming 
part of the empire of Agamemnon ; but on 
the invasion of Peloponnesus it became sub- 
ject to Phalces, the son of Temenus, and was 
henceforward a Dorian state. Sicyon, on 
account of the small extent of its territory, 
never attained much political importance, 
and was generally dependent either on Argos 
or Sparta. At the time of the 2nd Messenian 
war it became subject to a succession of 
tyrants, who administered their power with 
moderation and justice for 100 years. On 
the death of Clisthenes, the last of these, 
about 576, a republican form of government 
was established. Sicyon was for a long time 
the chief seat of Grecian art. It gave its 
name to one of the great schools of painting, 
which was founded by Eupompus, and which 
produced Pamphilus and Apelles. It is also 
said to have been the earliest school of 
statuary in Greece ; but its earliest native 
artist of celebrity was Canachus. Lysippus 
was also a native of Sicyon. The town was 
likewise celebrated for the taste and skill 
displayed in the various articles of dress 
made by its inhabitants, among which we 
find mention of a particular kind of shoe, 
which was much prized in all parts of 
Greece. 

SID A, SIDE(-ae or -es). (1) (Eski Ad a Ma, 
Ru.), a city of Pamphylia, on the coast, a 
I little AV. of the river Melas. It was an 
Aeolian colony from Cyme in Aeolis. and 
was a chief seat of the worship of Athena 
(Minerva), who is represented on its coins 
holding a pomegranate (<rfir^ as the emblem 
of the city. — (2) The old name of Pole- 
jioxilm. 

SIDICINT (-orum), an Ausonian people in 
the X.AV. of Campania and on the borders of 
Samnium, who, being hard pressed by the 
Samnites, united themselves to the Canipa- 
nians. Their chief town was Teanum. 

SIDOX (-onis and -onis), (O. T. Tsidon or, 
in the English form, Zidon: Saida, Ru.), 
for a long time the most powerful, and 
probably the most ancient, of the cities of 
Phoenice. It stood in a plain about a mile 
wide, on the coast of the Mediterranean, 200 
c c 2 



SIDONIUS. 



383 



SILENUS. 



stadia (20 geog. miles) N. of Tyre, 400 stadia 
(40 geog. miles) S. of Berytus, 66 miles W. 
of Damascus, and a day's journey N.W. of 
the source of the Jordan at Paneas. It had 
a fine double harbour, now almost filled with 
sand ; and was strongly fortified. It was 
the chief seat of the maritime power of 
Phoenice, until eclipsed by its own colony, 
Tyre [Tykus] ; and its power on the land 
side seems to have extended over all Phoenice, 
and at one period (in the time of the Judges) 
over at least a part of Palestine. In the 
time of David and Solomon, Sidon appears 
to have been subject to the king of Tyre. 
It probably regained its former rank, as the 
first of the Phoenician cities, by its submission 
to Shalmanezer at the time of the Assyrian 
conquest of Syria, for we find it governed by 
its own king under the Babylonians and the 
Persians. In the expedition of Xerxes 
against Greece, the Sidonians furnished the 
best ships in the whole fleet, and their king 
obtained the highest place, next to Xerxes, 
in the council, and above the king of Tyre. 
Sidon received the great blow to her pros- 
perity in the reign of Artaxerxes III. Ochus, 
when the Sidonians, having taken part in the 
revolt of Phoenice and Cyprus, and being 
betrayed to Ochus by their own king, Tennes, 
burnt themselves with their city, b.c. 351. 
In addition to its commerce, Sidon was famed 
for its manufactures of glass. 

SIDONIUS (-i) APOLLINARIS (-is), was 
born at Lugdunum {Lyons) about a.d. 431. 
He was raised to the senatorial dignity by 
the emperor Avitus, whose daughter he had 
married. After the downfal of Avitus he lived 
some time in retirement ; but in 467 appeared 
again in Pome as ambassador from the 
Arverni to Anthemius. He gained the favour 
of that prince by a panegyric ; was made a 
patrician, and prefect of the city ; and soon 
afterwards, though not a priest, bishop of 
Clermont in Auvergne. His extant works 
are some poems, and 9 books of letters. 

SIGA, a considerable sea-port town of 
Mauretania Caesariensis. 

SIGEUM (-i : Ye?iisheri), the N."W. pro- 
montory of the Troad, and the S. headland 
at the entrance of the Hellespont. It is here 
that Homer places the Grecian fleet and camp 
during the Trojan war. Near it was a seaport 
town of the same name. 

SIGNIA (-ae : Seyni), a town in Latium 
on the E. side of the Yolscian mountains, 
founded by Tarquinius Priscus. It was cele- 
brated for its temple of Jupiter Urius, for its 
astringent wine, for its pears, and for a par- 
ticular kind of pavement for the floors of 
houses, called opus Signinum. 

SILA SILYA (-ae : &ila), a large forest in 



Bruttium on the Apennines, extending S. of 
Consentia^to the Sicilian straits. 

SILANION, an Athenian, a distinguished 
statuary in bronze, was a contemporary of 
Lysippus, and flourished b.c. 324. His statue 
of Sappho, which stood in the prytaneum at 
Syracuse in the time of Yerres, is alluded to 
by Cicero in terms of the highest praise. 

SILANUS (-i), JUNIUS. (1) M., was 
praetor b.c. 212. In 210 he accompanied P. 
Scipio to Spain, and served under him with 
great distinction during the whole of the war 
in that country. He fell in battle against 
the Boii in 196*. — (2) M., consul 109, fought 
in this year against the Cimbri in Transalpine 
Gaul, and was defeated. He was accused 
in consequence, in 104, by the tribune Cn. 
Domitius Ahenobarbus, but acquitted. — 
(3) D., stepfather of M. Brutus, the murderer 
of Caesar, having married his mother Servilia. 
He was consul 62, with L. Licinius Murena, 
along with whom he proposed the Eex Licinia 
Julia. — (4) M., son of No. 3 and of Servilia, 
served in Gaul as Caesar's legatus in 53. 
After Caesar's murder in 44, he accompanied 
M. Lepidus over the Alps ; and in the fol- 
lowing year Lepidus sent him with a detach- 
ment of troops into Cisalpine Gaul, where 
he fought on the side of Antony. He was 
consul in 25. 

SILARUS (-i : Silaro), a river in lower 
Italy, forming the boundary between Lu- 
cania and Campania, rises in the Apennines, 
and falls into the Sinus Paestanus a little to 
the N. of Paestum. 

SILENUS (-i). It is remarked in the 
article Satyri that the older Satyrs were ge- 
nerally termed Sileni ; but one of these Sileni 
is commonly the Silenus, who always accom- 
panies Dionysus (Bacchus), whom he is said 
to have brought up and instructed. Like the 
other Satyrs, he is called a son of Hermes 
(Mercury) ; but some make him a son of Pan 
by a nymph, or of Gaea (Tellus). Being the 
constant companion of Dionysus, he is said, 
like the god, to have been born at Nysa. 
Moreover, he took part in the contest with 
the Gigantes, and slew Enceladus. He is de- 
scribed as a jovial old man, with a bald head, 
a puck nose, fat and round like his wine-bag, 
which he always carried with him, and gene- 
rally intoxicated. As he could not trust his 
own legs, he is generally represented riding 
on an ass, or supported by other Satyrs. In 
every other respect he is described as re- 
sembling his brethren in their love of sleep, 
wine, and music. He is mentioned along 
with Marsyas and Olympus as the inventor 
of the flute, which he is often seen playing ; 
and a special kind of dance was called after 
I him, Silenus, while he himself is designated 



SILIUS ITALICTJS. 



389 



SIMONIDES. 



as the dancer. But it is a peculiar feature 
in his character that he was an inspired 
prophet ; and when he was drunk and asleep 




Silenus. (From a Bronze Statue found at Pompeii.) 

he was in the power of mortals who might 
compel him to prophesy and sing by sur- 
rounding him with chains of flowers. 

SILIUS ITALICUS (4), C, a Roman poet, 
was born about a.d. 25. He acquired great 
reputation as an advocate, and was afterwards 
one of the Centumviri. He was consul in 
68, the year in which Xero perished ; he was 
admitted to familiar intercourse with Yitel- 
lius, and was subsequently proconsul of Asia. 
In his 7 5th year, in consequence of the pain 
caused by an incurable disease, he starved 
himself to death, in the house once occupied 
by Virgil. The great work of Silius Itaiicus 
was an heroic poem in 17 books, entitled 
Funica, which has descended to us entire. 

SLLURES (-urn), a powerful people in 
Britain, inhabiting South Wales, long offered 
a formidable resistance to the Romans, and 
afterwards to the Saxons. 

SILYAXUS (-i), a Latin divinity of the 
fields and forests. He is also called the 
protector of the boundaries of fields. In 
connexion with woods (syluestris deus), he 
especially presided over plantations, and 
delighted in trees growing wild ; whence he 
is represented as carrying the trunk of a 
cypress. Silvanus is further described as 
the divinity protecting herds of cattle, pro- 
moting their fertility, and driving away 
wolves. Later writers identified Silvanus 
with Pan, Faunus, Inuus, and Aegipan. In 
the Latin poets, as well as in works of art, 
he always appears as an old man, but cheerful 



and in love with Pomona. The sacrifices 
offered to him consisted of grapes, ears of 
corn, milk, meat, wine, and pigs. 

SILYIUM (-i), a town of the Peucetii in 
Apulia on the borders of Lucania, 20 miles 
S.E. of 3'enusia. 

SILYIUS (-i), the son of Ascanius, is said 
to have been so called because he was born 
in a wood. All the succeeding kings of Alba 
bore the cognomen Silvius. 

SIMMIAS (-ae). (1) Of Thebes, first the dis- 
ciple of the Pythagorean philosopher Philo- 
laiis, and afterwards the friend and disciple of 
Socrates, at whose death he was present. Sim- 
mias wrote 23 dialogues on philosophical sub- 
jects, all of which are lost. 

SIMOIS (-entis). [Troas.] As a mytho- 
logical personage, the river-god Simois is the 
son of Oceanus and Tethys, and the father of 
Astyochus and Hieromneme. 

SIMON (-orris), one of the disciples of 
Socrates, and by trade a leather-cutter. 

SIMOXIDES (-is.) (1) Of Amorgos, was 
the 2nd, both in time and in reputation, of 
the 3 principal iambic poets of the early 
period of Greek literature, namely, Arehilo- 
chus, Simonides, and Hipponax. He was 
a native of Samos, whence he led a colony to 
the neighbouring island of Amorgos. He 
flourished about b.c. 664. — (2) Of Ceos, one 
of the most celebrated lyric poets of Greece, 
was born at Iulis, in Ceos, b.c 556, and was 
the son of Leoprepes. He appears to have 
been brought up to music and poetry as a 
profession. From his native island he pro- 
ceeded to Athens, and thence into Thessaly, 
where he lived under the patronage of the 
Aleuads and Scopads. He afterwards re- 
turned to Athens, and in 489 conquered 
Aeschylus in the contest for the prize which 
the Athenians offered for an elegy on those 
who fell at Marathon. He composed several 
other works of the same description ; and in 
his 80th year his long poetical career at 
Athens was crowned by the victory which he 
gained with the dithyranibic chorus (447), 
being the 56th prize which he had carried 
off. Shortly after this he was invited to 
Syracuse by Hiero, at whose court he lived 
till his death in 467. He still continued, 
when at Syracuse, to employ his muse oc- 
casionally in the service of other Grecian 
states. He made literature a profession, and 
is said to have been the first who took money 
for his poems. The chief characteristics of 
the poetry of Simonides were sweetness 
(whence his surname of Melicertes) and ela- 
borate finish, combined with the truest poetic 
conception and perfect power of expression ; 
though in originality and fervour he was far 
inferior, not only to the early lyric poets, 



SDIPLICirS, 



3?0 



siphxes. 



such as Sappho and Alcaeus, but also to his 
contemporary Pindar. 

SIMPLICIUS y±h one of the last philo- 
sophers of the Xeo-Platonic school, was a 
native of Cilicia and a disciple of Amnionius 
and Daniascius. In consequence of the per- 
secutions, to which the pagan philosophers 
were exposed in the reign of Justinian, 
Shnplicius was one of the 7 philosophers 
who took refuge at the court of the Persian 
king Chosroes. He returned home about 
543. Simplicius wrote commentaries on 
several of Aristotle's works, which are 
marked by sound sense and real learning. 
He also wrote a commentary on the Enchi- 
ridion of Epictetus, which is likewise extant. 

SIXAE (-arum), the E.-most people of 
Asia. Ptolemy describes their country as 
bounded on the X. by Serica, and on the S. 
and \V. by India extra Gangem, It cor- 
responded to the S. part of China and the E. 
part of the Burmese peninsula. 

SINAI or SIX A [JeoeJ-et-Tur ), a cluster 
of dark, lofty, rocky mountains in the S. 
angle of the triangular peninsula enclosed 
between the 2 heads of the Red Sea, and 
bounded on the X. by the deserts on the 
borders of Egypt and Palestine. The name, 
which signifies a region of broken and cleft 
rocks, is used in a wider sense for the whole pe- 
ninsula, which formed a part of Arabia Petraea, 
and was peopled, at the time of the Exodus, 
by the Amalekites and MicUanites, and after- 
wards by the Xabathaean Arabs. Sinai and 
Horeb in the 0. T. are both general names 
for the whole group, the former being used 
in the first 4 books of Moses, and the latter 
in Deuteronomy. The summit on which the 
law was given was probably that on the X., 
or the one usually called Horeb. 

SIXDI (-oruni). (1) A people of Asiatic 
Sarmatia, on the E. coast of the Euxine, and 
at the foot of the Caucasus. They are also 
mentioned by the names of Sexdoxes and 
Sixdiaxa. — ^2) A people on the E. coast of 
India extra Gangeni (in Cochin China], also 
called Sixdae, and with a capital city, Sixda. 

SIXDICE. ~Sixdi.] 

SIXGARA (-orum : Si)ijar ?), a strongly 
fortified city and Roman colony in the in- 
terior of Mesopotamia, 84 Roman miles S. of 
Xisibis. 

SIXGITICUS SIXES. ;Srxars.] 
SIXGUS (-i), a town in Macedonia on the 
E. coast of the peninsula Sithonia, which gave 
its name to the Sinus Singiticus. 

SIXIS or SIXXIS (-is), son of Polypemon, 
Pemon or Poseidon (Xeptune), by Sylea, the 
daughter of Corinthus. He was a robber, 
who frequented the isthmus of Corinth, and 
killed the travellers whom he captured, by 



fastening them to the top of a fir-tree, which 
he bent, and then let spring up again. He 
himself was killed in this manner by Theseus. 

SIXOX (-onis), son of Aesimus, or, ac- 
cording to Yirgil {Aen., ii. 79), of Sisyphus, 
and grandson of Autolycus, was a relation of 
Elysses, whom he accompanied to Troy. He 
allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the 
Trojans, and then persuaded them to admit 
into their city a wooden horse filled with 
armed men, which the Greeks had constructed 
as a pretended atonement for the Palladium. 
The Trojans believed the deceiver, and 
dragged the horse into the city ; whereupon 
Sinon in the dead of night let the Greeks out 
of the horse, who thus took Troy. 

SIXOPE (-es : Sinope, Sinoub, ; Ru.), the 
most important of all the Greek colonies 
on the shores of the Euxine, stood on the 
X. coast of Asia Minor, on the W. head- 
land of the great bay of which the delta of 
the river Halys forms the E. headland, and 
a little E. of the X.-most promontory of Asia 
Minor. It appears in history as a very 
early colony of the Milesians. Having been 
destroyed in the invasion of Asia by the 
' Cimmerians, it was restored by a new colony 
' from Miletus, b.c. 632, and soon became the 
| greatest commercial city on the Euxine. Its 
territory, called Sixopis, extended to the 
i banks of the Halys. It was the birthplace 
j and residence of Mithridates the Great, who 
: enlarged and beautified it. Shortly before 
the murder of Julius Caesar, it was colonised 
by the name of Julia Caesarea Eelix Sinope, 
and remained a nourishing city, though it 
never recovered its former importance. At 
the time of Constantine it had declined so 
; much as to be ranked second to Amasia. It 
was the native city of the renowned cynic 
philosopher Diogenes, of the comic poet 
Diphilus, and of the historian Baton. 

SIXTICA, a district in Macedonia, inha- 
bited by the Thracian people Sixti, extended 
E. of Crestonia and X. of Bisaitia as far as 
■ the Strymon and the lake Prasias. Its chief 
town was Heraclea Sintica. 

SIXUESSA (-ae : Bocca di ITandragone) , 
the last city of Barium on the confines of 
Campania, to which it originally belonged, 
was situated on the sea-coast and on the 
Via Appia. It was colonised by the Romans, 
! together with the neighbouring town of 
' Minturnae, b.c. 296. It possessed a good 
harbour, and was a place of considerable 
commercial importance. In its neighbour- 
hood were celebrated warm baths, called 
Aquae Sextessaxae. 
SIOX. [Jerusalem.] 
SIPHXUS (-i : Siphno), an island in the 
Aegaean sea, forming one of the Cyclades, 



SIPOXTUM. 



391 



SISYGAMBIS. 



S.E. of Seriphus. It is of an oblong form, 
and about 40 miles in circumference. Its 
original name was Merope ; and it was colo- 
nised by Ionians from Athens. In conse- 
quence of their gold and silver mines, of 
which the remains are still visible, the 
Siphnians attained great prosperity, and 
were regarded in the time of Herodotus as 
the wealthiest of the islanders. Siphnus was 
one of the few islands which refused tribute 
to Xerxes ; and one of its ships fought on 
the side of the Greeks at Salamis. The moral 
character of the Siphnians stood low, and 
hence to act like a Siphnian 0tifyjK<Zut) be- 
came a term of reproach. 

SIPONTUM or SIPUXTUM [A: Siponto), 
called by the Greeks Sipus (-untis), an ancient 
town in Apulia, in the district of Daunia, 
on the S. slope of Mt. Garganus, and on the 
coast. It is said to have been founded by 
Dioniede, and was of Greek origin. It was 
colonised by the Romans, under whom it 
became a place of some commercial im- 
portance. 

SIPYLUS (-i : Sipuli-Dagh), a mountain 
of Lydia, in Asia Minor. It is a branch of 
the Tmolus, from the main chain of which it 
proceeds X.W. along the course of the river 
Hermus, as far as Magnesia and Sipylum. 
It is mentioned by Homer. The ancient 
capital of Maeonia was said to have been 
situated in the heart of the mountain chain, 
and to have been called by the same name ; 
but it was early swallowed up by an earth- I 
quake, and its site became a little lake called 
Sale or Saloe, near which was a tumulus, 
supposed to be the grave of Tantalus. The 
mountain was rich in metals, and many mines 
were- worked in it. 

SIRBOXIS LACUS (Sabakat BardowaT), a | 
large and deep lake on the coast of Lower j 
Egypt, E. of Mt. Casius. Its circuit was 
1000 stadia. It was strongly impregnated 
with asphaltus. 

SIREXES (-urn), sea-nymphs who had the 
power of charming by their songs all who 
heard them. "When Ulysses came near the 
island, on the beach of which the Sirens were 
sitting, and endeavouring to allure him and 
his companions, he stuffed the ears of his 
companions with wax, and tied himself to 
the mast of his vessel, until he was so far off 
that he could no longer hear the Sirens' song. 
According to Homer, the island of the Sirens 
was situated between Aeaea and the rock of i 
Scylla, near the S.W. coast of Italy ; but the 
Roman poets place them on the Campanian 
coast. Some state that they were 2 in 
number, Aglaopheme and ThelxiepTa ; and 
others, that there were 3, Pisinoe, Aglaope, 
and Thelxiepla, or Parthenope, Ligla, and ! 



Leucosia. They are called daughters of 
Phorcus, of Achelous and SterSpe, of Terpsi- 
chore, of Melpomene, of Calliope, or of Gaea. 
The Sirens are also connected with the 
legends of the Argonauts and the rape of 
Persephone. When the Argonauts sailed by 
the Sirens, the latter began to sing, but in 
vain, for Orpheus surpassed them ; and as it 
had been decreed that they should live only 
till some one hearing their song should pas3 
by unmoved, they threw themselves into the 
sea, and were metamorphosed into rocks. 

SIREXCSAE (-arum), called by Virgil 
{Aen. v. 864) Sirexum Scopttli, 3 small unin- 
habited and rocky islands near the S. side of 
the Prom. Misenum, off the coast of Campania, 
which were, according to tradition, the abode 
of the Sirens. 

SIRIS (-is). (1) {Siimo), a river in Lucania 
flowing into the Tarentine gulf. — (2) {Torre 
di Senna), an ancient Greek town in Lucania 
at the mouth of the preceding river. 

SIRMIO (-onis : Sirndone), a beautiful 
promontory on the S. shore of the Lacus 
Benacus [Logo di Garda), on which Catullus 
had an estate. 

SIRMIUM (-1 : Miirovitz), an important 
city in Pannonia Inferior, was situated on 
the left bank of the Savus. It was founded 
by the Taurisci, and under the Romans 
became the capital of Pannonia, and the 
head-quarters of all their operations in their 
wars against the Dacians and the neighbour- 
ing barbarians. 

SISAPOX (-dnis : AJmaden in the Sierra 
Morena), an important town in Hispania 
BaeticaJS". of Corduba. 

SISCIA (-ae : Sissek), called Segesta by 
Appian, an important town in Pannonia 
Superior, situated upon an island formed by 
the rivers Savus, Colapis, and Odra, and on 
the road from Aemona to Sh-mium. 

SISEXXA (-ae), L. CORNELIUS, a Roman 
annalist, was praetor in the year when Sulla 
died (b.c. 78), and probably obtained Sicily 
for his province in 7 7. During the piratical 
war (67) he acted as the legate of Pompey, 
and having been despatched to Crete in com- 
mand of an army, died in that island at the 
age of about 52. His great work was a 
history of his own time, but he also translated 
the Milesian fables of Aristides, and composed 
a commentary upon Plautus. 

SISYGAMBIS (-is), mother of Darius 
Codomannus, the last king of Persia, fell into 
the hands of Alexander, after the battle of 
Issus, b.c 333, together with the wife and 
daughters of Darius. Alexander treated 
these captives with the greatest generosity 
and kindness, and displayed towards Sisy- 
gambis, in particular, a reverence and deli- 



SISYPHUS. 



392 



SMERDIS. 



cacy of conduct, which is one of the brightest 
ornaments of his character. After his death 
she put an end to her life by voluntary 
starvation. 

SISYPHUS (-i), son of Aeolus andEnarete, 
whence he is called Aeolides. He was 
married to Merope, a daughter of Atlas or a 
Pleiad, and became by her the father of 
Glaucus, Ornytion (or Porphyrion), Thersan- 
der and Halmus. In later accounts he is 
also called a son of Autolycus, and the father 



of Ulysses by Anticlea [Anticlea] ; whence 
we find Ulysses sometimes called SisypMdes. 
He is said to have built the town of Ephyra, 
afterwards Corinth. As king of Corinth he 
promoted navigation and commerce, but he 
was fraudulent, avaricious, and deceitful. 
His wickedness during life was severely 
punished in the lower world, where he had 
to roll up hill a huge marble block, which as 
soon as it reached the top always rolled down 
again. 




Sisyphus, Ixion, and Tantalus. (Bartoli, Sepolc. Ant., tav. 56.) 



S1TACE or SITTACE (-es : EsH-Bagdad, 
Eu.), a great and populous city of Babylonia, 
near but not on the Tigris, and 8 parasangs 
within the Median wall. Its probable site is 
marked by a ruin called the Tower of Nimrod. 
It gave the name of Sittacene to the district 
on the lower course of the Tigris, E. of 
Babylonia and N.W. of Susiana. 

SITHONIA (-ae), the central one of the 3 
peninsulas running out from Chalcidice in 
Macedonia, between the Toronaic and Singitic 
gulfs. The Thracians were originally spread 
over the greater part of Macedonia ; and the 
ancients derived the name of Sithonia from 
a Thracian king, Sithon. We also find men- 
tion of a Thracian people, Sithonii, on the 
shores of the Pontus Euxinus ; and the poets 
frequently use Sitho?iis and Sithonius in the 
general sense of Thracian. 

SITONES (-um), a German tribe in Scan- 
dinavia, belonging to the race of the Suevi. 

SITTIUS or SITIUS (-i), P., of Nuceria 
in Campania, was connected with Catiline, 
and went to Spain in b.c. 64, from which 
country he crossed over into Mauretania in 
the following year. He joined Caesar when 
the latter came to Africa, in 46, to prosecute 



the war against the Pompeian party. He 
was of great service to Caesar, in this war, 
and at its conclusion was rewarded by him 
with the western part of Numidia, where he 
settled, distributing the land among his 
soldiers. After the death of Caesar, Arabio, 
the son of Masinissa, returned to Africa, and 
killed Sittius by stratagem. 

SMARAGDUS MONS (Jehel Zaburah), a 
mountain of Upper Egypt, near the coast of 
the Red Sea, N. of Berenice. It obtained its 
name from its extensive emerald mines. 

. SMERDIS, the son of Cyrus, was mur- 
dered by order of his brother Cambyses. A 
Magian, named Patizlthes, who had been 
left by Cambyses in charge of his palace and 
treasures, availed himself of the likeness of 
his brother to the deceased Smerdis, to pro- 
claim this brother as king, representing him 
as the younger son of Cyrus. Cambyses 
heard of the revolt in Syria, but he died of 
an accidental wound in the thigh, as he was 
mounting his horse to march against the 
usurper. The false Smerdis was acknow- 
ledged as king by the Persians, and reigned 
for 7 months without opposition. The fraud 
was discovered by Phaedima, who had been 



SMINTHETJS. 



393 



SOCRATES. 



one of the wives of Cambyses, and had been 
transferred to his successor, She com- 
municated it to her father, Otanes, who 
thereupon formed a conspiracy, and in con- 
junction with 6 other noble Persians, 
succeeded in forcing his way into the palace, 
where they slew the false Smerdis and his 
brother Patizithes in the 8th month of their 
reign, 521. 

SMINTHETJS (-eos, el, or ei), a surname 
of Apollo, which is derived by some from 
c-p'ivSos, a mouse, and by others from the town 
of Sminthe in Troas. The mouse was re- 
garded by the ancients as inspired by the 
vapours arising from the earth, and as the 
symbol of prophetic power. 
* SMYRNA, orMYRRHA. [Adonis.] 

SMYRNA and in many MSS. ZMYRNA 
(-ae : Smyrna, Turk. Izmir), one of the 
most ancient and nourishing cities of Asia 
Minor, and the only one of the great cities 
on its AY. coast which has survived to this 
day, stood in a position alike remarkable 
for its beauty and for other natural advan- 
tages. Lying just about the centre of the 
W. coast of Asia Minor ; on the banks of the 
little river Meles, at the bottom of a deep 
bay, the Sinus Hermaeus or Smyrnaeus (G. 
of Smyrna), which formed a safe and immense 
harbour for the largest ships up to the very 
walls of the city; at the foot of the rich 
slopes of Tmolus and at the entrance to the 
great and fertile valley of the Hermus, in 
which lay the great and wealthy city of 
Sardis ; and in the midst of the Greek 
colonies on the E. shore of the Aeagean; it 
was marked out by nature as one of the 
greatest emporiums for the trade between 
Europe and Asia, and has preserved that 
character to the present day. There are 
various accounts of its origin. The most 
probable is that which represents it as an 
Aeolian colony from Cyme. At an early period 
it fell, by a stratagem, into the hands of the 
Ionian s of Colophon, and remained an Ionian 
city from that time forth : this appears to 
have happened before 01. 23. (b.c. 688). Its 
early history is very obscure. This much is 
clear, however, that, at some period the old 
city of Smyrna, which stood on the N.E. side 
of the Hermaean Gulf, was abandoned ; and 
that it was succeeded by a new city on the 
S.E. side of the same gulf (the present site), 
which is said to have been built by Antigonus, 
and which was enlarged and beaut.iied by 
Lysimachus. This new city stood partly on 
the sea-shore and partly on a hill called 
Mastusia. The city soon became one of the 
greatest and most prosperous in the world. 
It was especially favoured by the Romans on 
account of the aid it rendered them in the 



Syrian and Mithridatic wars. It was the 
seat of a conventus juridicus. In the Civil 
wars it was taken and partly destroyed by 
Dolabella, but it soon recovered. It occupies 
a distinguished place in the early history of 
Christianity, as one of the only two among 
the 7 churches of Asia which St. John ad- 
dresses, in the Apocalypse, without any 
admixture of rebuke, and as the scene of the 
labours and martyrdom of Polycarp. There 
are but few ruins of the ancient city. In 
addition to all her other sources of renown, 
Smyrna stood at the head of the cities which 
claimed the birth of Homer. The poet 
was worshipped as a hero in a magnificent 
building called the Homereum. 

SMYRNAEUS SINUS (G. of Ismir or 
Smyrna), the great gulf on the W. coast of 
Asia Minor, at the bottom of which Smyrna 
stands. 

SOCRATES (-is). (l) The celebrated 
Athenian philosopher, was born in the demus 
Alopece, in the immediate neighbourhood of 
Athens, b.c. 469. His father Sophroniscus 
was a statuary ; his mother Phaenarete was 
a midwife. In his youth Socrates followed the 
profession of his father, and attained suf- 
ficient proficiency to execute the group of 
clothed Graces which was preserved in the 
Acropolis, and was shown as his work down 
to the time of Pausanias. The personal 
qualities of Socrates were marked and striking. 
His physical constitution was healthy, robust, 
and enduring to an extraordinary degree. 
He was capable of bearing fatigue or hard- 
ship, and indifferent to heat or cold, in a 
measure which astonished all his companions. 
He went barefoot in all seasons of the year, 
even during the winter campaign at Potidaea, 
under the severe frosts of Thrace ; and the 
same homely clothing sufficed for him in 
winter as well as in summer. His ugly 
physiognomy excited the jests both of his 
friends and enemies, who inform us that he 
had a flat nose, thick lips, and prominent 
eyes, like a satyr or Silenus. Of the circum- 
stances of his life we are almost wholly 
ignorant : he served as an hoplite at Potidaea, 
Delium, and Amphipolis, with great credit to 
himself. He seems never to have filled any 
political office until 406, in which year he 
was a member of the senate of Five Hundred, 
and one of the Prytanes, when on the occasion 
of the trial of the 6 generals, he refused, in 
spite of all personal hazard, to put an uncon- 
stitutional question to the vote. He displayed 
the same moral courage in refusing to obey 
the order of the Thirty Tyrants for the ap- 
prehension of Leon the Salaminian. — At what 
time Socrates relinquished his profession as a 
statuary we do not know ; but it is certain 



SOCRATES. 



394 



SOGDIANA. 



that at least all the middle and later part 
of his life was devoted to the self-imposed 
task of teaching, to the exclusion of all 
other business, public or private, and to the 
neglect of all means of fortune. But he never 
opened a school, nor did he, like the sophists 
of his time, deliver public lectures. He was 
persuaded that he had a special religious 
mission, and that he constantly heard the 
monitions of a divine or supernatural voice. 
Everywhere, in the market-place, in the 
gymnasia and in the workshops, he sought 
and found opportunities for awakening and 
guiding, in boys, youths, and men, moral 
consciousness and the impulse after know- 
ledge respecting the end and value of our 
actions. His object, however, was only 
to aid them in developing the germs of 
knowledge ; to practise a kind of mental mid- 
wifery, just as his mother Phaenarete exer- 
cised the corresponding corporeal art ; and he 
therefore fought unweariedly against all false 
appearance and conceit of knowledge. This 
was probably the reason why he was selected 
for attack by Aristophanes and the other 
comic writers. Attached to none of the pre- 
vailing parties, Socrates found in each of 
them his friends and his enemies. Hated 
and persecuted by Critias, Charicles, and 
others among the Thirty Tyrants, who had 
him specially in view in the decree which 
they issued, forbidding the teaching of the 
art of oratory, he was impeached after their 
banishment and by their opponents. An 
orator named Lycon, and a poet (a friend 
of Thrasybulus) named Meletus, united in 
the impeachment with the powerful dema- 
gogue Anytus, an embittered antagonist of 
the sophists and their system, and one of the 
leaders of the band which, setting out from 
Phyle, forced their way into the Piraeus, 
and drove out the Thirty Tyrants. The 
judges also are described as persons who had 
been banished, and who had returned with 
Thrasybulus. The chief articles of impeach- 
ment were, that Socrates was guilty of cor- 
rupting the youth, and of despising the 
tutelary deities of the state, putting in their 
place other new divinities ; but the accusation 
was doubtless also dictated by political 
animosity. The substance of the speech 
which Socrates delivered in his defence is 
probably preserved by Plato in the piece 
entitled the " Apology of Socrates." Being 
condemned by a majority of only 6 votes, 
he refused to acquiesce in any greater 
punishment than a fine of 60 minae, on 
the security of Plato, Crito, and other friends. 
Incensed by this speech, the judges con- 
demned him to death by a majority of 80 
votes. The sentence could not be carried 



into execution until after the return of the 
vessel which had been sent to Delos on the 
periodical Theoric mission. The 30 days 
which intervened between its return and the 
execution of Socrates were devoted by him 
to poetic attempts (the first he had made 
in his life), and to his usual conversation 
with his friends. One of these conversations, 
on the duty of obedience to the laws, Plato 
has reported in the Crito, so called after the 
faithful follower of Socrates, who had endea- 
voured without success to persuade him to 
make his escape. In another, imitated or 
worked up by Plato in the Phaedo, Socrates, 
immediately before he drank the cup of hem- 
lock, developed the grounds of his immovable 
conviction of the immortality of the soul. He 
died with composure and cheerfulness in his 
70th year, b.c. 399. He must be considered 
as having laid the foundation of formal logic. 
— (2) The ecclesiastical historian, was born 
at Constantinople about a.d. 379. He was a 
pupil of Ammonius and Helladius, and fol- 
lowed the profession of an advocate in his 
native city, Whence he is surnamed Scholas- 
ticus. The Ecclesiastical History of Socrates 
extends from the reign of Constantine the 
Great, 306, to that of the younger Theodosius, 

SQDOMA (-orum and -ae ; also -urn, gen. 
-i ; and -i, gen. -orum), a very ancient 
city of Canaan, in the beautiful valley of 
Siddim, closely connected with Gomorrha, 
over which and the other 3 " cities of 
the plain," the king of Sodom seems to 
have had a sort of supremacy. In the 
book, of Genesis we find these cities as sub- 
ject, in the time of Abraham, to the king 
of Elam and his allies (an indication of the 
early supremacy in W. Asia of the masters 
of the Tigris and Euphrates valley), and 
their attempt to cast oif the yoke was the 
occasion of the first war on record. (Gen. 
xiv.) Soon afterwards, the abominable sins 
of these cities called down the divine ven- 
geance, and they were all destroyed by fire 
from heaven, except Zoar, which was spared 
at the intercession of Lot. 

SOEMIS or SOAEMIAS, JULIA, daughter 
of Julia Maesa, and mother of Elagabalus, 
became the chosen counsellor of her son and 
encouraged and shared his follies and enor- 
mities. She was slain by the praetorians on 
the 11th of March, a.d. 222. 

SOGDIANA (-ae), (Old Persian, Sughda : 
parts of Turkestan and Bokhara, including 
the district still called Sogd), the N.E. pro- 
vince of the ancient Persian Empire, separated 
on the S. from Bactriana and Margiana by 
the upper course of the Oxus (Jihoim) ; on 
the E. and N. from Scythia by the Sogdii 



SOGDIANUS. 



395 



SOLON. 



Comedarum and Oscii M. (Kara-Dagh, Alatan 
and Ak Tagli) and by the upper course of 
the Jaxartes (Sihoun) ; and bounded on the 
N.W. by the great deserts E. of the Sea of 
Aral. 

SOGDIANUS (-i), one of the illegitimate 
sons of Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, acquired 
the throne on the death of his father b.c. 425, 
by the murder of his legitimate brother 
Xerxes II. Sogdianus, however, was mur- 
dered in his turn, after a reign of 7 months, 
by his brother Ochus. 

SOGDII MONTES. [Sogdiaxa.] 

SOL. [Helios.] 

SOLI (-orum), or SOLOE. (1) Mezetlu, 
Ru.), a city on the coast of Cilicia, between 
the rivers Lamus and Cydnus, said to have 
been colonised by Argives and Lydians from 
Rhodes. Pompey restored the city which 
had been destroyed by Tigranes, and peopled 
it with the survivors of the defeated bands 
of pirates ; and from this time forth it was 
called Pompeiopolis. It was celebrated in 
literary history as the birthplace of the 
Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, of the comic 
poet Philemon, and of the astronomer and 
poet Aratus. — (2) [Aligora, in the valley of 
Solea, B,u.), a considerable sea-port town in 
the W. part of the N. coast of Cyprus. 

SOLINUS (-i), C. JULIUS, the author of 
a geographical compendium, divided into 57 
chapters, containing a brief sketch of the 
world as known to the ancients, diversified 
by historical notices, remarks on the origin, 
habits, religious rites and social condition of 
various nations enumerated. It displays but 
little knowledge or judgment. Solinus may 
perhaps be placed about a.d. 238. 

SOLISFONS. [Oasis, No. 3.] 

SOLOE. [Soli.] 

SOLOIS (C. Ca?itin, Arab. Ras el Houdik), 
a promontory running far out into the sea, 
in the S. part of the W. coast of Mauretania. 

SOLON (-onis), the celebrated Athenian 
legislator, was born about b.c. 638. His 
father Execestides was a descendant of 
Codrus, and his mother was a cousin of the 
mother of Pisistratus. Execestides had 
seriously crippled his resources by a too 
prodigal expenditure ; and Solon consequently 
found it either necessary or convenient in 
his youth to betake himself to the life of a 
foreign trader. It is likely enough that 
while necessity compelled him to seek a live- 
lihood in some mode or other, his active and 
inquiring spirit led him to select that pursuit 
which would furnish the amplest means for 
its gratification. Solon early distinguished 
himself by his poetical abilities. His first 
effusions were in a somewhat light and 
amatory strain, which afterwards gave way 



to the more dignified and earnest purpose of 
inculcating profound reflections or sage 
advice. So widely indeed did his reputation 
spread, that he was ranked as one of the 
famous 7 sages. The occasion which first 
brought Solon prominently forward as an 
actor on the political stage, was the contest 
between Athens and Megara respecting the 
possession of Salamis. Indignant at the dis- 
honourable renunciation of their claims by 
the Athenians, he feigned madness, rushed 
into the agora, and there recited a short 
elegiac poem of 100 lines, in which he called 
upon the Athenians to retrieve their disgrace 
and reconquer the lovely island. The pusil- 
lanimous law was rescinded ; war was 
declared ; and Solon himself appoint ed to 
conduct it. The Megarians were driven out 
of the island, but a tedious war ensued, which 
was finally settled by the arbitration cf 
Sparta. Both parties appealed, in support of 
their claim, to the authority of Homer ; and 
it was currently believed in antiquity that 
Solon had surreptiously inserted the line (II. 
ii. 558) which speaks of Ajax as ranging his 
ships with the Athenians. The Spartans 
decided in favour of the Athenians, about 
b.c. 596. Solon himself, probably, was one 
of those who received grants of land in 
Salamis, and this may account for his being 
termed a Salaminian. Soon after these 
events (about 595) Solon took a leading part 
in promoting hostilities on behalf of Delphi 
against Cirrha, and was the mover of the 
decree of the Amphictyons by which war 
was declared. It was" about the time of the 
outbreak of this war, that, in consequence of 
the distracted state of Attica, which was rent 
by civil commotions, Solon was called upon 
by all parties to mediate between them, and 
alleviate the miseries that prevailed. He 
was chosen archon 594, and under that legal 
title was invested with unlimited power for 
adopting such measures as the exigencies of 
the state demanded. In fulfilment of the 
task entrusted to him, Solon addressed him- 
self to the relief of the existing distress ; 
which he effected by his celebrated disbnr- 
dening ordinance (<ru<r&%8;iec). This measure 
was framed to relieve the debtors with as 
little infringement as possible on the claims 
of the wealthy creditors ; and seems prin- 
cipally to have consisted of a depreciation of 
the coinage. The success of the Seisachtheia 
procured for Solon such confidence and popu- 
larity that he was further charged with the 
task of entirely remodelling the constitution. 
He repealed all the laws of Draco except 
those relating to bloodshed, and introduced a 
great many reforms by a new distribution of 
the different classes of citizens, by enlarging 



SOLYMA. 



396 



SOPHOCLES, 



the functions of the Ecclcsia, or popular 
assembly, and by instituting the Boirfe or 
senate of 400. Besides the arrangement of 
the general political relations of the people, 
Solon was the author of a great variety of 
special laws, which do not seem to have been 
arranged in any systematic manner. The 
laws of Solon were inscribed on wooden rollers 
(a^evs?) and triangular tablets and 
were &et up at first in the Acropolis, 
afterwards in the Prytaneum. The Athenians 
were also indebted to Solon for some rec- 
tification of the calendar. It is said that 
Solon exacted from the people a solemn oath, 
that they would observe his laws without 
alteration for a certain space, and then 
absented himself from Athens for 10 years. ' 
He first visited Egypt ; and from thence 
proceeded to Cyprus, where he was received | 
with great distinction by Philocyprus, king 
of the little town of Aepea. Solon persuaded 
the king to remove from the old site, and 
build a new town on the plain. The new 
settlement was called Soli, in honour of the 
illustrious visitor. He is further said to 
have visited Lydia ; and his interview with 
Croesus was one of the most celebrated stories 
in antiquity. [Croesus.] During the absence j 
of Solon the old dissensions were renewed, : 
and shortly after his arrival at Athens, the 
supreme power was seized by Pisistratus. 
The tyrant, after his usurpation, is said to 
have paid considerable court to Solon, and 
on various occasions to have solicited his 
advice, which Solon did not withhold. Solon 
probably died about 558, two years after the 
overthrow of the constitution, at the age of 80. I 
Of the poems of Solon several fragments 
remain. They do not indicate any great 
degree of imaginative power, but their style 
is vigorous and simple. 

SOLYMA (-ormn). (1) {TaktahcDagh), 
the mountain range which runs parallel to 
the E. coast of Lycia, and is a S. continuation 
of Mt. Climax. — (2 ) Another name for Jeru- 
salem. 

SOLYMI. [Lycia.] 

SOMXL'S (-i), the personification and god 
of sleep, is described as a brother of Death, 
and as a son of Night. In works of art, 1 
Sleep and Death are represented alike as two 
youths, sleeping or holding inverted torches j 
in their hands. [Mors.] 

SOXTIUS (-i : Isonzo), a river in Yenetia, 
in the X. of Italy, rising in the Carnic Alps, 
and falling into the Sinus Tergestinus, E. of 
Aquileia. 

SOPHEXE (-es), a district of Armenia 
Major, lying between the ranges of Anti- 
taurus and Masius ; separated from Melitene, 
in Armenia Minor, by the Euphrates, from | 



Mesopotamia by the Antitaurus, and from the 
E. part of Armenia Major by the river 
Xymphius. 

'SOPHOCLES (-is). CD The celebrated 
tragic poet, was born at Colonus, a village 
little more than a mile to the N.W. 
of Athens, B.C. 495. He was 30 years 
younger than Aeschylus, and 15 years older 
than Euripides. His father's name was 
Sophilus, or Sophillus, of whose condition in 
life we know nothing for certain ; but it is 
clear that Sophocles received an education 
not inferior to that of the sons of the most 
distinguished citizens of Athens. In both 
of the leading branches of Greek education, 
music and gymnastics, he was carefully 
trained, and in both he gained the prize of a 
garland. Of the skill which he had attained 
in music and dancing in his lGth year, and 
of the perfection of his bodily form, we have 
conclusive evidence in the fact that, when 
the Athenians were assembled in solemn 
festival around the trophy which they had 
set up in Salamis to celebrate their victory 
over the fleet of Xerxes, Sophocles was 
chosen to lead, naked, and with lyre in 
hand, the chorus which danced about the 
trophy, and sang the songs of triumph, 480. 
His first appearance as a dramatist took 
place in 463, under peculiarly interesting 
circumstances ; not only from the fact that 
Sophocles, at the age of 2 7, came forward as 
the rival of the veteran Aeschylus, whose 
supremacy had been maintained during an 
entire generation, but also from the character 
of the judges. The solemnities of the Great 
Dionysia were rendered more imposing by 
the occasion of the return of Cimon from his 
expedition to Scyros, bringing with him the 
bones of Theseus. Public expectation was so 
excited respecting the approaching dramatic 
contest, and party feeling ran so high, that 
Apsephion, the Archon Eponymus, whose 
duty it was to appoint the judges, had not 
yet ventured to proceed to the final act of 
drawing the lots for their election, when 
Cimon, with his 9 colleagues in the com- 
mand, having entered the theatre, the Ar- 
chon detained them at the altar, and 
administered to them the oath appointed for 
the judges in the dramatic contests. Their 
decision was in favour of Sophocles, who 
received the first prize ; the second only 
being awarded to Aeschylus, who was so 
mortified at his defeat, that he left Athens, 
and retired to Sicily. Erom this epoch 
Sophocles held the supremacy of the Athenian 
stage, until a formidable rival arose in Eu- 
ripides, who gained the first prize for the first 
time in 441. In the spring of 440 Sophocles 
brought out the Antigone, a play which gave 



SOPHONISBA. 



397 



SOSTRATUS. 



the Athenians such satisfaction, that they 
appointed him one of the ten strategy of 
■whom Pericles was the chief, in the war 
against Samos. In his last years his son 
Iophon, jealous of his father's love for his 
grandson Sophocles, and apprehending that 
he purposed to bestow upon this grandson a 
large proportion of his property, is said to 
have summoned his father before the Phra- 
tores, on the charge that his mind was 
affected by old age. As his only reply, 
Sophocles exclaimed, " If I am Sophocles, 
I am not beside myself ; and if I am beside 
myself, I am not Sophocles ;" and then read 
from his Oedipus at Colonus, which was 
lately written, hut not yet brought out, the 
magnificent parodos, beginning — 

whereupon the judges at once dismissed the 
case, and rebuked Iophon for his undutiful 
conduct. Sophocles died soon afterwards, in 
406, in his 90th year. The manner of his 
death is variously and fictitiously related. 
Less heroic than those of Aeschylus, less 
homely and familiar than those of Euripides, 
the tragedies of Sophocles are the perfection 
of the Greek drama. The number of plays 
ascribed to him was 130 ; and it is remark- 
able, as proving his growing activity and suc- 
cess, that of these 81 were brought out after 
Ms 54th year. Only 7 are extant. — (2) Son 
of Ariston and grandson of the elder Sophocles, 
was also an Athenian tragic poet. In 401 he 
brought out the Oedipus at Colonus of his 
grandfather ; but he did not begin to exhibit 
his own dramas till 396. 

SOPHONISBA (-ae), daughter of the Car- 
thaginian general Hasdrubal, the son of 
Gisco. She had been betrothed by her father, 
at a very early age, to the Numidian prince 
Masinissa, but at a subsequent period Has- 
drubal being desirous to gain over Syphax, 
the rival monarch of Numidia, to the Cartha- 
ginian alliance, gave her in marriage to that 
prince. After the defeat of Syphax, and the 
capture of his capital city of Cirta by Masi- 
nissa, Sophonisba fell into the hands of the 
conqueror, upon whom her beauty exercised 
so powerful an influence, that he determined 
to marry her himself. Their nuptials were 
accordingly celebrated without delay, but 
Scipio (who was apprehensive lest she should 
exercise the same influence over Masinissa 
which she had previously done over Syphax) 
refused to ratify this arrangement, and up- 
braiding Masinissa with his weakness, in- 
sisted on the immediate surrender of the 
princess. Unable to resist this command, 
the Numidian king spared her the humiliation 
of captivity, by sending her a bowl of poison, 



which she drank without hesitation, and thus 
put an end to her own life. 

SOPHPON (-onis). of Syracuse, was the 

I principal writer of that species of composition 

I called the Jfime [fuftos), which was one of the 
numerous varieties of the Dorian Comedy. 
He nourished about b.c. 460 — 420. When 
Sophron is called the inventor of Mimes, the 
meaning is, that he reduced to the form of a 
literary composition a species of amusement 

I which the Greeks of Sicily, who were pre- 
eminent for broad humour and merriment, 
had practised from time immemorial at their 

j public festivals. Plato was a great admirer 
of Sophron ; and the philosopher is said to 

I have been the first who made the Mimes 
known at Athens. The serious purpose which 
was aimed at in the works of Sophron was 
always, as in the Attic Comedy, clothed under 
a sportive form. 

SOPHPOXISCUS. [Socrates.] 

SOPA (-ae). (1) (So?^a), a town in Latium, 

! on the right bank of the river Liris and N. 

I of Arpinum, with a strongly fortified citadel. 
— (2) A town in Paphlagonia." 

SOPACTE (-is : Monte di S. Oreste), a cele- 
brated mountain in Etruria, in the territory 

! of the Falisci, near the Tiber, about 24 miles 
from Pome, but the summit of which, fre- 

I quently covered with snow, was clearly visible 
from the city. (Hor. Carm. i. 9.) The whole 
mountain was sacred to Apollo, and on its 

! summit was a temple of this god. 

SOEANUS (-i). (1) A Sabine divinity, 

I usually identified with Apollo, worshipped on 

; Mt. Soracte. — (2) A physician, a native of 
Ephesus, practised his profession first at Alex- 
andria, and afterwards at Pome, in the reigns 
of Trajan and Hadrian, a.d. 98 — 138. There 
are several medical works still extant under 
the name of Soranus, but whether they were 

i written by the native of Ephesus cannot be 

| determined. 

SOSIGEXES (-is), the peripatetic philoso- 
pher, was the astronomer employed by Julius 
Caesar to superintend the correction of the 
calendar (b.c. 46). 

SOSIUS (-i). (1) C, quaestor b.c 66, and 
praetor 49. He was afterwards one of An- 
tony's principal lieutenants in the East, and 
in 37 placed Herod upon the throne of Jeru- 
salem. — (2) The name of two brothers (Sosii), 
booksellers at Pome in the time of Horace. 
SOSPITA (-ae), that is, the "saving god- 

| dess," was a surname of Juno at Lanuvium 

I and at Pome, in both of which places she had 
a temple. 

SOSTRATUS [4) s the son of Dexiphanes, 
j of Cnidus, was one of the great architects who 
| flourished during and after the life of Alex- 
i ander the Great. 



SOTER. 



39S 



SPARTA. 



SOTER (-oris), i.e., "the Saviour," (Lat. 
Senator or Sospes), occurs as the surname of 
several divinities, especially of Zeus (Jupiter), 
It was also a surname of Ptolemaeus I., king 
of Egypt, as well as of several of the other 
later Greek kings. 

SOTTIATES or SOTIATES (-urn), a power- 
ful and warlike people in Gallia Aquitanica, 
on the frontiers of Gallia Xarbonensis, 
were subdued by P. Crassus, Caesar's le- 
gate. 

SPARTA (-ae : Spartifvtes, Spartanus), also 
called LACEDAEMON (Lacedaemonius), the 
capital of Laconia and the chief city of Pelo- 
ponnesus, was situated on the right bank of 
the Eurotas (Iri), about 20 miles from the sea. 
It stood on a plain which contained within it 
several rising grounds and hills. It was 
bounded on the E. by the Eurotas, on the 
N.W. by the small river Oenus (Kelesina), 
and on the S.E. by the small river Tisia 
QIagula), both of which streams fell into the 
Eurotas. The plain in which Sparta stood 
was shut in on the E. by Mt. Menelaium, and 
on the W. by Mt. Taygetus ; whence the city 
is called by Homer " the hollow Lacedaemon." 
It was of a circular form, about 6 miles in 
circumference, and consisted of several dis- 
tinct quarters, which were originally separate 
villages, and which were never united into 
one regular town. Its site is occupied by 
the modern villages of JIagula and Psykhiko ; 
and the principal modern town in the neigh- 
bourhood is Jlistra, which lies about 2 miles 
to the Wi on the slopes of Mt. Taygetus. 
During the flourishing times of Greek inde- 
pendence, Sparta was never surrounded by 
walls, since the bravery of its citizens, and the 
difficulty of access to it, were supposed to ren- 
der such defences needless. It was first fortified 
by the tyrant Xabis ; but it did not possess 
regular walls till the time of the Romans. 
Sparta, unlike most Greek cities, had no pro- 
per Acropolis, but this rjame was only given 
to one of the steepest hills of the town, on the 
summit of which stood the temple of Athena 
(Minerva) Poliuchos, or Chalcioecus. Sparta 
is said to have been founded by Lacedaemon, 
a son of Zeus (Jupiter) and Taygete, who 
married Sparta, the daughter of Eurotas, and 
called the city after the name of his wife. 
In the mythical period, Argos was the chief 
city in Peloponnesus, and Sparta is repre- 
sented as subject to it. Here reigned Mene- 
laus, the younger brother of Agamemnon ; 
and by the marriage of Orestes, the son of 
Agamemnon, with Hermione, the daughter of 
Menelaus, the two kingdoms of Argos and 
Sparta became united. The Dorian conquest 
of Peloponnesus, which, according to tradi- 
tion, took place 80 years after the Trojan war, 



made Sparta the capital of the country. 
I Laconia fell to the share of Eurysthenes and 
Procles, the 2 sons of Aristodemus, who took 
up their residence at Sparta, and ruled over 
the kingdom conjointly. After the complete 
subjugation of the country, we find three dis- 
I tinct classes in the population : the Dorian 
| conquerors, who resided in the capital, and 
; ^vho were called Spartiatae or Spartans : the 
| Perioeci or old Achaean inhabitants, who be- 
came tributary to the Spartans, and possessed 
1 no political rights ; and the Helots, who were 
j also a portion of the old Achaean inhabitants, 
| but were reduced to a state of slavery. Erorn 
i various causes the Spartans became distracted 
j by intestine quarrels, till at length Lyeurgus, 
; who belonged to the royal family, was selected 
: by ail parties to give a new constitution to 
the state. The constitution of Lyeurgus, 
! which is described in a separate article 
[LvcmGrs], laid the foundation of Sparta's 
greatness. In b.c. 743 the Spartans attacked 
Messenia, and after two wars conquered it, and 
made it an integral portion of Laconia. [Mes- 
sexia.] After the close of the 2nd Messenian 
war the Spartans continued their conquests 
in Peloponnesus. At the time of the Persian 
invasion, they obtained by unanimous consent 
the chief command in the war. Rut after the 
final defeat of the Persians the haughtiness of 
Pausanias disgusted most of the Greek states, 
particularly the Ionians, and led them to 
transfer the supremacy to Athens (477). The 
Spartans, however, regained it by the over- 
throw of Athens in the Peloponnesian war 
(404). But the Spartans did not retain this 
supremacy more than 30 years. Their deci- 
sive defeat by the Thebans under Epaminon- 
das at the battle of Leuctra (371), gave the 
Spartan power a shock from which it never 
recovered ; and the restoration of the Mes- 
senians to their country 2 years afterwards 
completed the humiliation of Sparta. About 
30 years afterwards the greater part of Greece 
was obliged to yield to Philip of Macedon. 
The Spartans, however, kept haughtily aloof 
from the Macedonian conqueror, and refused 
to take part in the Asiatic expedition of his 
son Alexander the Great. Lnder the later 
Macedonian monarchs the power of Sparta 
still further declined. Agis endeavoured to 
restore the ancient institutions of Lyeurgus ; 
but he perished in the attempt (240). Cleo- 
menes III., who began to reign 236, was 
more successful. His reforms infused new 
blood into the state ; and for a short time 
he carried on war with success against the 
Achaeans. But his defeat in 221 was fol- 
lowed by the capture of Sparta, which now 
sank into insignificance, and was at length 
compelled to join the Achaean league. Shortly 



SPARTACUS. 



STAGIEUS. 



afterwards it fell, "vrith the rest of Greece, 
under the Roman power. 

SPAETACTS (-i), by birth a Thracian, was 
successiTely a shepherd, a soldier, and a chief 
of banditti. On one of his predatory expe- j 
ditions he was taken prisoner, and sold to a > 
trainer of gladiators. In 7 3 he was a mem- j 
ber of the company of Lentulus, and was de- j 
tained in his school at Capua, in readiness | 
for the games at Eome. He persuaded his j 
fellow-prisoners to make an attempt to gain ! 
their freedom. About 7 of them broke out 
of the school of Lentulus, and took refuge in ' 
the crater of Vesuvius. Spartacus was chosen 
leader, and was soon joined by a number of ! 
runaway slaves. They were blockaded by 
C. Claudius Pulcher at the head of 3000 men, J 
but Spartacus attacked the besiegers and put j 
them to flight. His numbers rapidly in- 
creased, and for 2 years (b.c. 7 3 — 71] he de- 
feated one Eonian army after another, and ; 
laid waste Italy, from the foot of the Alps to j 
the southernmost corner of the peninsula, j 
After both the consuls of 72 had been defeated I 
by Spartacus, M. Licinius Crassus, the prae- 
tor, was appointed to the command of the 
war, which he terminated by a decisive battle 
near the river Silarus, in which Spartacus j 
was defeated and slain. 

SPARTI (-dram), the Sown-Men, is the ' 
name given to the armed men who sprang ! 
from the dragon's teeth sown by Cadmus. 

SPARTIA>~US (-i), AELIUS, one of the 
Scriptures Historiae Augustae, lived in the ! 
time of Diocletian and Constantine, and wrote 
the biographies of several emperors. 

SPEECHEUS C-i : ZUadha), a river in the 
S. of Thessaly, which rises in Alt. Tyniphres- j 
tus, runs in an E.-ly direction through the 
territory of the Aenianes and through the j 
district Malis, and falls into the innermost 
corner of the Sinus Maliacus. As a river-god 
Spercheus is a son of Oceanus and Ge, and 
the father of Menesthius by Polydora, the 
daughter of Peleus. 

SPES (-ei), the personification of Hope, 
was worshipped at Eome, where she had 
several temples, the most ancient of which 
had been built in b.c. 354, by the consul 
Atilius Calatinus, near the Porta Carmentalis. 
The Greeks also worshipped the personifica- 
tion of Hope, Elpis, and they relate the 
beautiful allegory, that when Epinietheus 
opened the vessel brought to him by Pandora, 
from which all kinds of evils were scattered 
over the earth, Hope alone remained behind. 
Hope was represented in works of art as a 
youthful figure, lightly walking in full attire, 
holding in her right hand a flower, and with 
the left lifting up her garment. 

SPEUSIPPUS (-i), "the philosopher, was a 



native of Athens, and the son of Eurymedon 
and Potone, a sister of Plato. He succeeded 
Plato as president of the Academy, but was 
at the head of the school for only 8 years 
(b.c 347— 339). 

SPHACTEEIA. rp YL05 .] 

SPHAEEIA {-ae : Faros), an island off 
the coast of Troezen in Argolis, and between 
it and the island of Calauria. 

SPHINX (-gis), a she-monster, born in the 
country of the Arimi, daughter- of Orthus and 
Chimaera, or of Typhon and Echidna, or 
lastly of Typhon and Chimaera. She Is said 
to have proposed a riddle to the Thebans, 
and to have murdered all who were unable 
to guess it. Oedipus solved it, whereupon 
the Sphinx slew herself. [OEDirrs.] The 
legend appears to have come from Egypt, but 
the figure of the Sphinx is represented 
somewhat differently in Greek mythology 
and an. The Egyptian Sphinx is the figure 
of a lion without wings, in a lying attitude, 
the upper part of the body being that of a 
human being. The common idea of a Greek 
Sphinx, on the other hand,- is that of a 
winged body of a lion, the breast and upper 
pan being the figure of a woman. 

SPINA (-ae). (1) (Spinazzino), a town 
in Gallia Cispadana, in the territory of the 
Lingones, on the most S.-ly of the mouths of 
the Po, which was called after it Ostium 
Spineticum. — (2; (Spi?w) t a town in Gallia 
Transpadana. on the river Addua. 

SPOLATOI. ;Sai.oxa.] 

SPOLETIUM or SPOLETOI (-i : Spoleto), 
a town in Cnibria, on the Via Flaminia, colo- 
nised by the Eomans b.c 242. It suffered se- 
verely in the wars between Marius and Sulla. 

SPORADES (-um), a group of scattered 
islands in the Aegaean sea, off the island of 
Crete and the W* coast of Asia Minor, so 
called in opposition to the Cyclades, which 
lay in a circle around Delos. 

'SPEEINXA -ae; YESTRITIUS, the harus- 
pex who warned Caesar to beware of the Ides 
of March. 

STABIAE (-arum : Castell aMaredi Stabia), 
an ancient town in Campania, between Pom- 
peii and Surrentiun, which was destroyed 
by Sulla in the Social war, but which con- 
tinued to exist down to the great eruption 
of Vesuvius in a.d. 79, when it was over- 
whelmed along with Pompeii and Hercu- 
laneum. It was at Stabiae that the elder 
Pliny perished. 

ST AGIEUS (-1), subsequently STAG IE A 
(-ae : Stavro), a town of Macedonia, in Chal- 
cidice, on the Strymonic gulf, and a little ff. 
of the isthmus which unites the promontory 
of Athos to Chaleidice. It was a colony of 
| Andros, was founded b.c. 656, and was 



STASIXL'S. 



~L o o 



STILICHO. 



originally called Orthagoria. It is celebrated 
as the birthplace of Aristotle. 

STASIXUS (-i), of Cyprus, an epic poet, 
to whom some of the ancient writers attri- 
buted the poem of the Epic Cycle, entitled 
Cypria, and embracing the period antecedent 
to the Iliad. 

STATIELLI (-oruni), STATIELLATES, or 
STATIELLEXSES (-ium), a small tribe in 
Liguria, S. of the Po, whose chief town was 
Statiellae Aquae [Acqui), on the road from 
Genoa to Placentia. 

STATILIA MESSALIXA. [aLessalixa.I 
STATILiUS TAURUS. [Taurus.] 
STATIRA (-ae). (1) Wife of Artaxerxes 
II., king of Persia, was poisoned by Pary- 
satis, the mother of the king. — (2) Sister and 
wife of Darius III., celebrated as the most 
beautiful woman of her time. She was taken 
prisoner by Alexander, together with her 
mother-in-law Sisygambis, and her daughters, 
after the battle of Issus, b.c 333. They were 
all treated with the utmost respect by the 
conqueror ; but Statira died shortly before 
the battle of Arbela, 331 — (3) Also called 
Barsixe, elder daughter of Darius III. 
[Baesine.1 

ST AT IE S (-L, P. PAPIXIUS, was born 
at Xeapolis, about a.d. 61, and was the son 
of a distinguished grammarian. He accom- 
panied his father to Rome, where the latter 
acted as the preceptor of Domitian, who held I 
him in high honour. Under the skilful 
tuition of Ms father, the young Statius 
speedily rose to fame, and became peculiarly j 
renowned for the brilliancy of his extempo- 
raneous effusions, so that he gained the prize 
three times in the Alban contests ; but 
haTing, after a long career of popularity, 
been vanquished in the quinquennial games, J 
he retired to Xeapolis, the place of his na- 
tivity, along with his wife Claudia, whose 
virtues he frequently commemorates. He 
died about a.d. 96. His chief work is the ! 
Tneba'is, an heroic poem, in 12 books, on the 
expedition of the Seven against Thebes. 
There is also extant a collection of his miscel- j 
laueous poems, in 5 books, under the title of 
SHvae ; and an unfinished poem called the i 
Achilleis. Statius may justly claim the j 
praise of standing in the foremost rank 
among the heroic poets of the Silver Age. 

STAToXIA (-ae), a town in Etruria, and a 
Roman Praefectura, on the river Aibinia, and j 
on the Lacus Statoniensis. 

STAT OP (-oris), a Koman surname of 
Jupiter, describing him as staying the j 
Pomans in their flight from an enemy, and 
generally as preserving the existing order of 
things. 

STEXTOR (-oris), a herald of the Greeks j 



in the Trojan war, whose voice was as loud 
as that of 50 other men together. 

STEXToPIS LACUSs [Hebkus.] 

STEXYCLERUS [-i), a town in the X". of 
Messenia, which was the residence of the 
Dorian kings of the country. 

STEPHAXUS (-i), of' Byzantium, the 
author of the geographical lexicon, entitled 
Ethnica (of which, unfortunately, we pos- 
sess only an epitome. Stephanus was a 
grammarian at Constantinople, and lived 
after the time of Arcadius and Honorius, and 
before that of Justinian II. His work w;,s 
reduced to an epitome by a certain Hernio- 
laus, who dedicated his abridgment to the 
emperor Justinian II. 

STEROPE [-esj, one of the Pleiads, wife 
of Oenomaus, and daughter of Hippodamia. 

STEROPES. [Cyclopes.] 

STESICHORUS r i\ of Hiniera. in Sicily, 
a celebrated Greek poet, contemporary with 
Sappho, Alcaeus, Pittacus, and Phalaris, is 
said to have been born b.c. 632, to have 
flourished about 605, and to have died in 
552, at the age of 80. Stesichorus was one 
of the 9 chiefs of lyric poetry recognised by 
the ancients. He stands, with Alcman, at 

STESIMBROTUS [4), of Thasos, a rhap- 
sodist and historian in the time of Cimon 
and Pericles, who is mentioned with praise 
by Plato and Xenophon. 

' STHEXEBOEA (-ae), called AXTEA by 
many writers, was a daughter of the Lycian 
king Iobates, and the wife of Proetus. "Belee- 
rophoxtes.] 

STHENELUS -i' . (1) Son of Persens 

band of Xicippe, by whom he became the 
father of Alcinoe, Medusa, and Eurystheus. 
— (2) Son of Androgeos, and grandson of 
Minos. He accompanied Hercules from 
Paros on his expedition against the Amazons, 
and together with his brother Alcaeus, he 
was appointed by Hercules ruler of Thasos. — 
(3) Son of Actor, likewise a companion of Her- 
cules in his expedition against the Amazons. — 
— (4) Son of Capaneus and Evadne, was one 
of the Epigoni, by whom Thebes was taken, 
and commanded the Argives under Diomedes, 
in the Trojan war, being the faithful friend 
and companion - of Diomedes. — (5) Father of 
Cycnus. who was metamorphosed into a s^van. 
Hence we find the swan called by Ovid 
Siheneleis volucris and Stheneleia proles. — (6) 
A tragic poet, contemporary with Aristopha- 
nes, Avho attacked him in the Wasps. 

STHEXO. [Goegoxes.] 

STILICHO (-onis), son of a Tandal cap- 
tain, became one of the most distinguished 



STILO. 



401 



STBOPHIUS, 



generals of Theoclosius I., on whose death he 
became the real ruler of the West under the 
emperor Honorius. He was put to death at 
Ravenna in 408. 

_STILO (-onis), L. AELIUS PRAECO- 
XIXUS, a celebrated Roman grammarian, 
one of the teachers of Varro and Cicero. 

STILPO (-onis), a celebrated philosopher, 
was a native of Megara, and taught philoso- 
phy in his native town. He is said to have 
surpassed his contemporaries in inventive 
power and dialectic art, and to have inspired 
almost all Greece with a devotion to the 
Megarian philosophy. 

STIMULA '-ae;, the name of Semele, 
according to the pronunciation of the Ro- 
mans. 

STOBAEUS (-i) JOAXXES, derived his 
surname apparently from being a native of 
Stobi, in Macedonia. Of his personal history 
we know nothing. Stobaeus was a man of 
extensive reading, in the course of which he 
noted down the most interesting passages ; 
and to him we are indebted for a large pro- 
portion of the fragments that remain of the 
lost works of poets. 

STOBI f-orum}, a town of Macedonia, and 
the most important place in the district 
Paeonia, was probably situated on the river 
Erigon, X. of Thessalonica, and X.E. of 
Heraclea. It was made a Roman colony and 
a municipium, and under the later emperors 
was the capital of the province Macedonia II. 
or Salutaris. 

STOECHADES (-urn; IXSULAE (J. 
d' Hit res), a group of 5 small islands in the 
Mediterranean, off the coast of Gallia Xar- 
bonensis, and E. of Massilia. 

STOEXI (-orum), a Eigurian people, in 
the Maritime Alps, conquered by Q. Marcius 
Rex b.c. 118. 

STRABO (-onis), a cognomen in many 
Roman gentes, signified a person who 
squinted, and is accordingly classed with 
Paetus, though the latter word did not indi- 
cate such a complete distortion of vision as 
Strabo. 

STRABO, the geographer, was a native of 
Amasia, in Pontus. The date of his birth is 
unknown, but may perhaps be placed about 
b.c. 54. He lived during the whole of the 
reign of Augustus, and during the early part, 
at least, of the reign of Tiberius. He is sup- 
posed to have died about a.d. 24. He lived 
some years at Rome, and also travelled much 
in various countries. We learn from his 
own work that he was with his friend 
Aelius Gallus in Egypt in b.c. 24. He wrote 
an historical work in 43 books, which is lost. 
It began where the history of Polybius ended, 
and was probably continued to the battle of 



j Actium. He also wrote a work on Geography 
(Yiuiyoatpxa,), in 17 books, which has come 

| down to us entire, with the exception of the 

[ 7 th, of which we have only a meagre 

I epitome. Strabo's work, according to his 
own expression, was not intended for the 

\ use of all persons. It was designed for ail 
who had had a good education, and par- 
ticularly for those who were engaged in the 
higher departments of administration. His 

I work forms a striking contrast with the 
geography of Ptolemy, and the dry list of 

1 names, occasionally relieved by something 

! added to them, in the geographical portion of 
the Xatural History of Pliny. 
STRABO SEIUS. [Sejantjs.] 
STRATOX (-onis), son of Arcesilaus, of 
Lampsacus, was a distinguished peripatetic 
philosopher, and the tutor of Ptolemy Phi- 
ladelphus. He succeeded Theophrastus as 
head of the school in b.c 288, and, after 
presiding over it 18 years, was succeeded by 
Lyeon. He devoted himself especially to the 
study of natural science, whence he obtained 
the appellation of Physicus, 

STRATOXICE (-es), daughter of Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes and Phila, the daughter of 
Antipater. In b.c 300, at which time she 

i could not have been more than 1 7 years of age, 
she was married to Seleueus, king of Syria. 
Xotwithstanding the disparity of their ages, 
she lived in harmony with the old king for 

j some years, when it was discovered that her 
step-son Antiochus was deeply enamoured of 
her, and Seleueus, in order to save the life of 

; his son, which was endangered by the vio- 

! lence of his passion, gave up Stratonice in mar- 
riage to the young prince. 

STRATOXICE A (-ae : Eshi-Hisar, Ru.), 
one of the chief inland cities of Caria, built 

'j by Antiochus I. Soter, who fortified it 

I strongly, and named it in honour of his 
wife Stratonice. It stood E. of Mylasa and 

1 S. of Alabanda, near the river Marsyas, a S. 

| tributary of the Maeander. Under the Ro- 

! mans it was a free city. 

STRATUS (-i : Nr. Lepenu or Zepanon, 
Ru.), the chief town in Acarnania, 10 stadia 

■ W. of the Achelous. Its territory was called 

| Stkatice. 

STROPHADES (-urn) IXSULAE, formerly 
I called Plotae {Strofadia and Strirali), 2 
j islands in the Ionian sea, off the coast of 
• Messenia and S. of Zacynthus. The Harpies 
were pursued to these islands by the sons of 
Boreas ; and it was from the circumstance of 
the latter returning from these islands after 
the pursuit that they are supposed to have 
obtained the name of Strophades. 

STROPHIUS (-i), king of Phocis, son of 
I Crissus and Antiphatia, and husband of 

D D 



STBYMOX. 



402 



SUETONIUS. 



Cydragora, Anaxibia or Astyochia, by whom, 
he became the father of Astydamia and Py- 
lades. [Orestes.] 

STBYMOX (-onis : Struma, called by the 
Turks Karasti), an important river in Macedo- 
nia, forming the boundary between that coun- 
try and Thrace down to the time of Philip. It 
rose in Mt. Scomius, flowed first S. and then 
S.E., passed through the lake Prasias, and, 
immediately S. of Amphipolis, fell into a 
bay of the Aegaean Sea, called after it Stey- 
moxicus Sims. 

STYMPElALIDES. [Stymphaixs.] 

STYMPHALUS (-i), a town in the N.E. of 
Arcadia, the territory of which was bounded 
on the N. by Achaia, on the E. by Sicyonia 
and Phliasia, on the S. by the territory of 
Mantinea, and on the W. by that of Orcho- 
menus and Pheneus. The town itself was 
situated on a mountain of the same name, 
and on the X. side of the lake Stymphalis 
[Zaraka], on which dwelt, according to 
tradition, the celebrated birds, called Stym- 
pealides, destroyed by Hercules. 

STYBA (-orum : Stura), a town in Euboea 
on the S.W. coast, not far from Carystus, and 
nearly opposite Marathon in Attica. 

STYX (-ygis), connected with the verb 
irrvyico, to hate or abhor, is the name of the 
principal rirer in the nether world, around 
which it flows 7 times. Styx is described as 
a daughter of Oceanus and Tethys. As a 
nymph she dwelt at the entrance of Hades, 
in a lofty grotto which was supported by 
silver columns. As a river Styx is described 
as a branch of Oceanus, flowing from its 10th 
source ; and the river Cocytus again is a 
branch of the Styx. By Pallas Styx became 
the mother of Zelus (zeal), Nice (victory), 
Bia (strength), and Cratos (power). She was 
the first of all the immortals who took her 
children to Zeus (Jupiter), to assist him 
against the Titans ; and, in return for this, 
her children were allowed for ever to live 
with Zeus, and Styx herself became the 
divinity by whom the most solemn oaths were 
sworn. When one of the gods had to take 
an oath by Styx, Iris fetched a cup full of 
water from the Styx, and the god, while 
taking the oath, poured out the water. 

STYX [Marra-neria). a river in the N. of 
Arcadia, near Xonacris, descending from a 
high rock, and falling into the Crathis. 

SUADA (-ae), the Boman personification 
of persuasion, the Greek PUho (UiiOai), also 
called by the diminutive Saadela. 

SUBLAQUEUM (-i : SuMaco), a small town 
of the Aequi in Latium, on the Anio near its 
source. 

SUBLICIUS PONS, the oldest of the 
bridges at Borne, said to have been built by 



Ancus Martius. It was of wood (Sublicae : 
piles) ; and being often carried away by the 
floods, was always to the latest period rebuilt 
of that material, from a feeling of religious 
respect. 

SUEUBA or SUBUBBA (-ae), a populous 
district of Borne, comprehending the valley 
between the Esquiline, Quirinal, andYiminal. 

SUCBO (-onis). (1) {Xucar), a river in 
Hispania Tarraconensis, rising in a S, branch 
of Mt. Idubeda in the territory of the Celti- 
; beri, and falling S. of Yalentia into a gulf of 
; the Mediterranean called after it Sinus Suero- 
nensis {Gulf of Valencia). — (2) [Cullera), a 
town of the Edetani in Hispania Tarraco- 
nensis, on the preceding river, and between 
the Iberus and Carthago Xova. 

SUESSA AUBUXCA (-ae : Sessa), a town 
of the Aurunci in Latium, E. of the Yia 
Appia, between Minturnae and Teanum, on 
the W. slope of Mt. Massicus. It was the 
birthplace of the poet Lucilius. 

_SUESSA POMETIA (-ae), also called 
POMETIA simply, an ancient and important 
town of the Yolsci in Latium, S. of Eorum 
Appii, taken by Tarquinius Priscus. It was 
one of the 23 cities situated in the plain 
afterwards covered by the Pomptine Marshes, 
which are said indeed to have derived their 
name from this town. 

SUESSETAXI (-orum), a people in His- 
pania Tarraconensis, mentioned in connexion 
with the Edetani. 

SUESSIOXES or SUESSOXES (-um), a 
powerful people in Gallia Belgica, who were 
reckoned the bravest of all the Belgic Gauls 
after the Bellovaci, and who could bring 
50,000 men into the field in Caesar's time. 
The Suessiones dwelt in an extensive and 
fertile country E. of the Bellovaci, S. of the 
Yeromandui, and W. of the Bemi. They 
possessed 12 towns, of which the capital was 
Xoviodunum, subsequently Augusta Suesso- 
num or Suessones (Soisso?i3.) 

SUESSUXA (-ae: Torre di Sessola), a town 
in Samnium, on the southern slope of Mt. 
Tifata. 

SUETONIUS PAULIXUS. [Paulixus.] 
SUETONIUS (-i), TBANQUILLUS, C, 
the Boman historian, was born about the 
beginning of the reign of Yespasian, and 
practised as an advocate at Borne in the reign 
of Trajan. He lived on intimate terms with 
the younger Pliny, many of whose letters 
are addressed to him. At the request of 
Pliny, Trajan granted to Suetonius the jus 
trmm Uberorum, for though he was married 
he had not 3 children, which number was 
necessary to relieve him from various legal 
disabilities. Suetonius was afterwards ap- 
pointed private secretary (Magister Episto- 



SUEVI. 



403 



SULLA. 



larmn) to Hadrian, but was deprived of this 
office by the emperor, along with Septicius 
Clarus, the Praefect of the Praetorians, on 
the ground of associating with Sabina, the 
emperor's wife, without his permission. His 
chief work is his Lives of the Caesars. Sue- 
tonius does not follow the chronological or- 
der in his Lives, but groups together many- 
things of the same kind. His language is 
very brief and precise, sometimes obscure, 
without any affectation of ornament. The 
treatise Be ilJustribus Grammaticis and that 
Be claris Rhetoribus are probably only parts 
of a larger work. The only other productions 
of Suetonius still extant are a few lives of 
Roman authors. 

SUEVI (-orum), one of the greatest and 
most powerful peoples of Germany, or, more 
properly speaking, the collective name of a 
great number of German tribes, who were 
grouped together on account of their mi- 
gratory mode of life, and spoken of in oppo- 
sition to the more settled tribes, who went 
under the general name of Ingaevones. The 
Suevi are described by all the ancient writers 
as occupying the greater half of all Germany ; 
but the accounts vary respecting the part of 
the country which they inhabited. 

SUIDAS (-ae), a Greek lexicographer, 
of whom nothing is known. The Lexicon 
of Suidas, though without merit as to its 
execution, is valuable both for the literary 
history of antiquity, for the explanation of 
words, and for the citations from many 
ancient^ writers. 

SUIONES (-urn), the general name of all 
the German tribes inhabiting Scandinavia. 

SULLA (-ae), the name of a patrician 
family of the Cornelia gens. (1) P., great 
grandfather of the dictator Sulla, and grand- 
son of P. Cornelius Runnus, who was twice 
consul in the Samnite wars. [Rufinus, 
Cornelius.] His father is not mentioned. 
He was fiamen dialis, and likewise praetor 
urbanus and peregrinus in b.c. 212, when he 
presided over the first celebration of the 
Ludi Apollinares. — (2) L., surnamed Felix, 
the dictator, was born in b.c. 138. Although 
his father left him only a small property, 
his means were sufficient to secure for him 
a good education. He studied the Greek and 
Roman literature with diligence and success, 
and appears early to have imbibed that love 
for literature and art by which he was dis- j 
tinguished throughout life. At the same 
time he prosecuted pleasure with equal 
ardour, and his youth, as well as his man- 
hood, was disgraced by the most sensual 
vices. He was quaestor in 107, when he 
served under Marius in Africa, and displayed 
both zeal and ability in the discharge of 



his duties. Sulla continued to serve under 
Marius with great distinction in the cam- 
paigns against the Cimbri and Teutones ; but 
Marius becoming jealous of the rising fame 
of his officer, Sulla left Marius in 102, and 
took a command under the colleague of 
Marius, Q. Catulus, who entrusted the chief 
management of the war to Sulla. Sulla now 
returned to Rome, where he appears to have 
lived quietly for some years. He was praetor 
in 93, and in the following year (92) was 
sent as propraetor into Cilicia, with special 
orders from the senate to restore Ariobar- 
zanes to his kingdom of Cappadocia, from 
which he had been expelled by Mithridates. 
Sulla met with complete success. He defeated 
Gordius, the general of Mithridates, in Cap- 
padocia, and placed Ariobarzanes on the 
throne. The enmity between Marius and 
Sulla now assumed a more deadly form. 
Sulla's ability and increasing reputation had 
already led the aristocratical party to look 
up to him as one of their leaders ; and 
thus political animosity was added to private 
hatred ; but the breaking out of the Social 
War hushed all private quarrels for the 
time. Marius and Sulla both took an active 
part in the war against the common foe. 
But Marius was now advanced in years ; and 
he had the deep mortification of finding that 
his achievements were thrown into the shade 
by the superior energy of his rival. Sulla 
gained some brilliant victories over the 
enemy, and took Bovianum, the chief town 
of the Samnites. He was elected consul for 
88, and received from the senate the com- 
mand of the Mithridatic war. The events 
which followed, — his expulsion from Rome 
by Marius, his return to the city at the head 
of his legions, and the proscription of Marius 
and his leading adherents — are related in the * 
life of Marius. Sulla remained at Rome till 
the end of the year, and set out for Greece at 
the beginning of 87, in order to carry on the 
war against Mithridates. After driving the 
generals of Mithridates out of Greece, Sulla 
crossed the Hellespont, and early in 84 con- 
cluded a peace with the king of Pontus. 
Sulla now prepared to return to Italy, where, 
during his absence, the Marian party had 
obtained the ascendancy. After leaving his 
legate, L. Licinius Murena, in command of 
the province of Asia, with two legions, he 
set sail with his own army to Athens. While 
preparing for his deadly struggle in Italy, he 
did not lose his interest in literature. He 
carried with him from Athens to Rome the 
valuable library of Apellicon of Teos, which 
contained most of the works of Aristotle and 
Theophrastus. [Apellicon.] He landed at 
Brundusium in the spring of 83. The Marian 



SULLA. 



SLLPICILS 



party far outnumbered him in troops, and had 
every prospect of victory. By bribery and 
promises, however, Sulla gained over a large 
number of the Marian soldiers, and he per- 
suaded many of the Italian towns to espouse 
his cause. In the field his efforts were 
crowned by equal success ; and he was ably 
supported by several of the Soman nobles. 
In the following year (82) the struggle was 
brought to a close by the decisive battle 
gained by Sulla over the Samnites and Luca- 
nians under Pontius Telesinus before the 
Colline gate of Rome. This victory was 
followed by the surrender of Praeneste and 
the death of the younger Marios, who had 
taken refuge in this town. Sulla was now 
master of Pome and Italy ■ and he resolved 
to take the most ample vengeance upon his 
enemies, and to extirpate the popular party. 
One of his first acts was to draw up a list of 
his enemies who were to be put to death, 
called a Proscriptio. Terror now reigned, 
not only at Pome, but throughout Italy. 
Fresh lists of the proscribed constantly ap- j 
peared. Xo one was safe ; for Sulla gratified 
his friends by placing in the fatal lists their 
personal enemies, or persons whose property j 
was coveted by his adherents. At the com- 
mencement of these horrors Sulla had been 
appointed dictator for as long a time as he 
judged to be necessary, during which period 
he endeavoured to restore the power of the 
aristocracy and senate, and to diminish that j 
of the people. At the beginning of 81, he | 
celebrated a splendid triumph on account of 
his victory over Mithridates. In order to 
strengthen his power, Sulla established mili- I 
tary colonies throughout Italy. 23 legions, j 
or, according to another statement, 47 legions j 
received grants of land in various parts of i 
. Italy. Sulla likewise created at Pome a kind 
of body-guard for his protection, by giving 
the citizenship to a great number of slaves, 
who had belonged to persons proscribed by 
him. The slaves thus rewarded are said to 
have been as many as 10,000, and were called 
Cornelii after him as their patron. After 
holding the dictatorship till the beginning of j 
79, Sulla resigned this office, to the surprise 
of all classes. He retired to his estate at 
Puteoli, and there surrounded by the beauties 
of nature and art, he passed the remainder of 
his life in those literary and sensual enjoy- 
ments in which he had always taken so much 
pleasure. His dissolute mode of life hastened 
his death. The immediate cause of his death | 
was the rupture of a blood-vessel, but some i 
time before he had been suffering from the j 
disgusting disease, which is known in modern 
times by the name of Morbus Pediculosus or j 
Phthiriasis. He died in 7 S in the 60th vear of 



his age. — (3) Faestts, son of the dictator by 
his fourth wife, Caecilia Metella, and a twin 
brother of Fausta, was born not long before 
88, the year in which his father obtained 
his first consulship. Faustus accompanied 
Pompey into Asia, and was the first who 
mounted the walLs of the Temple of Jerusalem 
in 63. In 60 he exhibited the gladiatorial 
games which his father in his last will had 
enjoined upon him. In 54 he was quaestor. 
He married Pompey's daughter, and sided 
with his father-in-law in the civil war. He 
was present at the battle of Pharsalia, and 
subsequently joined the leaders of his party 
in Africa. After the battle of Thapsus in 46, 
he attempted to escape into Mauretania, but 
was taken prisoner by P. Sittius, and carried 
to Caesar. Lpon his arrival in Caesar's camp 
he was murdered by the soldiers in a tumult. 
— (4) P., nephew of the dictator, was elected 
consul along with P. Autronius Paetus for 
the year 65, but neither he nor his colleague 
entered upon the office, as they were accused 
of bribery by L. Torquatus the younger, and 
condemned. It was currently believed that 
Sulla was privy to both of Catiline's conspi- 
racies. In the civil war Sulla espoused 
Caesar's cause. He served under him as 
legate in Greece, and commanded along with 
Caesar himself the right wing at the battle of 
Pharsalia (48). He died in 45. — (5) Seev., 
brother of Xo. 4, took part in both of 
Catiline's conspiracies. 

SL'LMO (-onis). (1) (Suhnona), a town 
of the Peligni in the country of the Sabines, 
celebrated as the birthplace of Ovid. — (2) 
(Sermon eta), an ancient town of the Yolsci 
in Latium on the Ufens. 

SULPICIA (-ae), a Ronian poetess who 
flourished towards the close of the 1st cen- 
tury, celebrated for sundry amatory effusions, 
addressed to her husband Calenus. 

SULPICIFS GALEA. [G^eba.] 

SLLPICILS PXFUS (-i). (1) P.. one of 
the most distinguished orators of his time, 
was born b.c. 124. In 93 he was quaestor, 
and in 89 he served as legate of the consul 
Cn. Pompeius Strabo in the Mar sic war. In 
88, he was elected to the tribunate ; but he 
deserted the aristocratic al party, and joined 
Marius. "When Sulla marched upon Pome at 
the head of his army, Marius and Suipicius 
took to flight. Marius succeeded in making 
his escape to Africa, but Suipicius was dis- 
covered in a villa, and put to death. — (2) P., 
probably son or grandson of the last, was one 
of Caesar's legates in Gaul and in the civil 
war. He was praetor in 48. — '3/ Serv., 
with the surname Lemoxia, indicating the 
tribe to which he belonged, was a contempo- 
rary and friend of Cicero, and of about the 



SUMMAXUS. 



405 



SYGAMBRI. 



same age. He became one of the best jurists 
as well as most eloquent orators of his age. 
He was quaestor of the district of Ostia, in 
74; curule aeclile, 69; praetor, 65; and 
consul 51 with M. Claudius Marcellus. He 
appears to have espoused Caesar's side in the 
civil war, and was appointed by Caesar pro- 
consul of Achaia (46 or 45). He died in 43 
in the camp of M. Antony, having been sent 
by the senate on a mission to Antony, who 
was besieging Dec. Brutus in Mutina. Sul- 
picius wrote a great number of legal works. 

SUMMAXUS (-i), a derivative form from 
summits, the highest, an ancient Roman or 
Etruscan divinity, who was of equal or even 
of higher rank than Jupiter. As Jupiter was 
the god of heaven in the bright day, so Sum- 
manus was the god of the nocturnal heaven, 
and hurled his thunderbolts during the night. 
Summanus had a temple at Rome near the 
Circus Maximus. 

SUXIUM (-i : C. Colonni), a celebrated 
promontory forming the S. extremity of 
Attica, with a town of the same name upon 
it. Here was a splendid temple of Athena, 
elevated 300 feet above the sea, the columns 
of which are still extant, and have given the 
modern name to the promontory. 

SURENAS, the general of the Parthians, 
who defeated Crassus in b.c. 54. [Crassus.] 

SUPERUM MARE. [Adria.] 

SURREXTUM (-i : Sorrento), an ancient 
town of Campania opposite Capreae, and 
situated on the promontory {Prom. Minervae) 
separating the Sinus Paestanus from the 
Sinus Puteolanus. 

SUSA (-orum: 0. T. Shusan : Shus, Ru.), 
the winter residence of the Persian kings, 
stood in the district Cissia of the province 
Susiana, on the eastern bank of the river 
Choaspes.^_ 

SUSARIOX (-onis), to whom the origin of 
the Attic Comedy is ascribed, was a native of 
Megara, whence he removed into Attica, to 
the village of Icaria, a place celebrated as a 
seat of the worship of Dionysus (Bacchus). 
The Megaric comedy appears to have flou- 
rished, in its full development, about b.c. 
600 and onwards ; and it was introduced by 
Susarion into Attica between 580 — 564. 

SUSIAXAE (-ae, or -es) or SUSIS (-idis : 
nearly corresponding to Khuzistan), one of 
the chief provinces of the ancient Persian 
empire, lay between Babylonia and Persis, 
and between Mt. Parachoatras and the head of 
the Persian Gulf. In this last direction, its 
coast extended from the junction of the 
Euphrates with the Tigris, to about the 
mouth of the river Oroatis (Tab). It was 
divided from Persis on the S.E. and E. by a 
mountainous tract, inhabited by independent 



tribes, who made even the kings of Persia 
pay them for a safe passage. On the N. it 
was separated from Great Media by Mt. Char- 
banus ; on the W. from Assyria by an imagi- 
nary line drawn S. from near the Median 
pass in Mt. Zagros to the Tigris ; and from 
Babylonia by the Tigris itself. 

SUTRIUM (-i: tiutri), an ancient town of 
Etruria on the E. side of the Saltus Ciminius, 
and on the road from Vulsinii to Rome, made 
a Roman colony b.c. 383. 

SYBARIS (-is). (1) [Coscile or Sibari), a 
river in Lucania, flowing by the city of the 
same name, and falling into the Crathis. — 
(2) A celebrated Greek town in Lucania, 
was situated between the rivers Sybaris 
and Crathis at a short distance from the 
Tarentine gulf, and near the confines of 
Bruttium. It was founded b.c 7 20 by 
Achaeans and Troezenians, and soon at- 
tained an extraordinary degree of prosperity 
and wealth. Its inhabitants became so 
notorious for their love of luxury and plea- 
sure, that their name was employed to indicate 
any voluptuary. 

SYBOTA (-orum : Syvota), a number of 
small islands off the coast of Epirus, and op- 
posite the promontory Leucimne in Corcyra, 
with a harbour of the same name on the main 
land. 

SYCHAEUS or SICHAEUS (-i), also called 
ACERBAS. [Acerbas.] 

SYEXE (-es : Assouan, Ru.), a city of 
Upper Egypt on the E. bank of the Xile, 
just below the First Cataract. It was an 
important point in the astronomy and geo- 
graphy of the ancients, as it lay just under 
the tropic of Cancer, and was therefore 
chosen as the place through which they drew 
their chief^parallel of latitude. 

SYEXXESIS, a common name of the kings 
of Cilicia. Of these the most important are : 
— (1) A king of Cilicia, who joined with 
Labynetus - (Xebuchadnezzar) in mediating 
between Cyaxares and Alyattes, the kings 
respectively of Media and Lydia, probably in 
b.c, 610. — (2) Contemporary with Darius 
Hystaspis, to whom he was tributary. His 
daughter was married to Pixodorus. — (3) 
Contemporary with Artaxerxes II. ^Mneinon), 
ruled over Cilicia when the younger Cyrus 
marched through his country in his expedi- 
tion against his brother Artaxerxes. 

SYGAMBRI, SUGAMBRI, SIGAMBRI, 
SYCAMBRI or SICAMBRI (-orum), one of the 
most powerful peoples of Germany at an early 
time, belonged to the Istaevones, and dwelt 
originally X. of the Ubii on the Rhine, from 
whence they spread towards the X. as far as 
the Lippe. They were conquered by Tibe- 
rius in the reign of Augustus. Shortly 



SYLLA. 



406 



SYRACUSAE. 



afterwards they disappear from history, and 
are not mentioned again till the time of 
Ptolemy, who places them much farther N., 
close to the Bructeri and the Langobardi, 
somewhere between the Yecht and the Yssel. 
At a still later period we find them forming 
an important part of the confederacy known 
under the name of Franei. 

SYLLA. [Sulla.] 

SYLYANLS. [Silvanus.] 

SYLVIUS. [Silvius.] 

SYMAETHUS (-i : Giaretta), a river on 
the E. coast of Sicily and at the foot of Mf. 
Aetna, forming the boundary between Leon- 
tini and Catana. 

SYME (-es), a small island off the S.W. 
coast of Caria, lay in the mouth of the Sinus 
Doridis to the Y\ r . of the promontory of 
Cynossema. 

SYMMACHUS (-i),'Q. AURELIUS, a dis- 
tinguished scholar, statesman, and orator in 
the latter half of the 4th century of the 
Christian aera, remarkable for his zeal in 
upholding the ancient pagan religion of 
Home. He was proconsul of Africa in 373 ; 
and in 391 Theodosius raised him to the 
consulship. Of his works there are still extant 
10 books of epistles and some fragments of 
orations. 

SYNNADA (-ae), also SYNNAS (-adis : 
prob. AfioUr-Kara-Hisar, Bu.), a city in the 
N. of Phrygia Salutaris, at first incon- 
siderable, but afterwards a place of much 
importance, and from the time of Con- 
stantine, the capital of Phrygia Salutaris. 

SYPHAX (-acis), king of the Massaesy- 
lians, the W.-mdst tribe of the Kumidians. 
His history is related in the life of his con- 
temporary and rival, Masixissa. Syphax 
was taken prisoner by Ivlasinissa, b.c. 203, 
and was sent by Scipio, under the charge of 
Laelius, to Home, where he died shortly after. 

SYRACUSAE [-arum : Siracusa in Italian, 
Syracuse in English), the wealthiest and 
most populous town in Sicily, was situ- 
ated on the S. part of the E. coast, 
400 stadia N. of the promontory Plem- 
myrium, and 10 stadia N.E. of the mouth 
of the river Anapus, near the lake or 
marsh called Syraco, from which it derived 
its name. It was founded b.c. 734, one year 
after the foundation of Naxos, by a colony of 
Corinthians and other Dorians, led by Archias I 
the Corinthian. The town was originally j 
confined to the island Ortygia lying imme- | 
diately off the coast ; but it afterwards spread 
over the neighbouring mainland, and at the j 
time of its greatest extension under the elder I 
Dionysius it consisted of 5 distinct towns, 
namely Ortygia, often called simply the j 
Island, in which was the fountain of Are- ! 



thusa ; Achrathna, Ttche, Neapolis, and 
Ei'ipolae. After Epipolae had been added 
to the city, the circumference of Syracuse 
was 180 stadia or upwards of 22 English 
miles ; and the entire population of the city 
is supposed to have amounted to 500,000 
souls, at the time of its greatest prosperity. 
— Syracuse had 2 harbours. The Great 
Harbour, still called Porto Maggiore, is a 
splendid bay about 5 miles in circumference 
formed by the island Ortygia and the pro- 
montory Plemmyrium. The Small Harbour, 
also called Zaccius, lying between Ortygia 
and Achradina, was capacious enough to 
receive a large fleet of ships of war. — There 
were several stone quarries {lautumiae) in 
Syracuse, which are frequently mentioned by 
ancient writers, and in which the unfortunate 
Athenian prisoners were confined. On one 
side of these quarries is the remarkable 
excavation, called the Ear of Dionysius, in 
which it is said that this tyrant confined the 
persons whom he suspected, and that he was 
able from a little apartment above to overhear 
the conversation of his captives. This tale 
however is clearly an invention.' — The modern 
city of Syracuse is confined to the island. 
The remaining quarters of the ancient city 
are now uninhabited, and their position 
marked only by a few ruins. Of these the 
most important are the remains of the great 
theatre, and of an amphitheatre of the Roman 
period. — The government of Syracuse was 
originally an aristocracy, and afterwards a 
democracy, till Gelon made himself tyrant or 
sovereign of Syracuse, b.c. 485. Under his 
rule and that of his brother Hieron, Syracuse 
was raised to an unexampled degree of wealth 
and prosperity. Hieron died in 467, and 
was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus : 
but the rapacity and cruelty of the latter 
soon provoked a revolt among his subjects, 
which led to his deposition and the establish- 
ment of a democratical form of government. 
The next most important event in the history 
of Syracuse was the siege of the city by the 
Athenians, which ended in the total destruc- 
tion of the great Athenian armament in 413. 
The democracy continued to exist in Syracuse 
till 406, when the elder Dionysius made him- 
self tyrant of the city. After a long and 
prosperous reign he was succeeded in 367 by 
his son, the younger Dionysius, who was 
finally expelled by Timoleon in 343. A 
republican form of government was again 
established ; but it did not last long ; and in 
317 Syracuse fell under the sway of Agatho- 
cles. This tyrant died in 289 ; and the city 
being distracted by factions, the Syracusans 
voluntarily conferred the supreme power 
upon Hieron II., with the title of king, in 



SYHIA. 



407 



SYRIA. 



270. Hieron cultivated friendly relations 
with the Romans; but on his death in 216, 
at the advanced age of 92, his grandson 
Hieronymus, who succeeded him, espoused 
the side of the Carthaginians. A Roman 
army under Marcellus was sent against 
Syracuse ; and after a siege of 2 years, during 
which Archimedes assisted his fellow-citizens 
by the construction of various engines of 
war [Archimedes], the city was taken by 
Marcellus in 212. From this time Syracuse 
became a town of the Roman province of 
Sicily. ^ 

SYRIA DEA (-ae), " the Syrian goddess," 
a name by which the Syrian Astarte or 
Aphrodite (Venus), is sometimes designated. 
There can be no doubt that the worship of 
Aphrodite came from the East to Cyprus, and 
thence was carried into the south of Greece. 

SYRIA (-ae : in Aramaean Surja : Soris- 
tan, Arab. Esli-Sham, i.e. the land on the left, 
Syria), a country of W. Asia, lying along the 
E. end of the Mediterranean Sea, between Asia 
Minor and Egypt. In a wider sense the word I 
was used for the whole tract of country 
bounded by the Tigris on the E., the moun- J 
tains of Armenia and Cilicia on the X., the 
Mediterranean on the \Y., and the Arabian . 
Desert on the S. ; the whole of which was 
peopled by the Aramaean branch of the great i 
Semitic (or Syro-Arabian) race, and is included 
in the O. T. under the name of Aram. The 
people were of the same races, and those of 
the X. of the Taurus in Cappadocia and 
Pontus are called White Syrians ~Lelcosyri~ 
in contradistinction to the people of darker j 
complexion in Syria Proper, who are some- 
times even called Black Syrians ( 2wg« ftiAettes). 
Even when the name of Syria is used in its j 
ordinary narrower sense, it is often con- j 
founded with Assyria, which only differs ! 
from Syria by having the definite article pre- 
fixed. Again, in the narrower sense of the 
name, Syria still includes 2 districts which J 
are often considered as not belonging to it, 
namely, Phoexice and Palestixe, and a 3rd 
which is likewise often considered separate, ! 
namely, Coelesyria ; but this last is gene- i 
rally reckoned a part of Syria, In this 
narrower sense, then, Syria was bounded on 
the Wi ^beginning from the S.) by Mt. 
Hermon, at the S. end of Anti-Libanus, which 
separated it from Palestine, by the range of 
Libanus, dividing it from Phoenice, by the 
Mediterranean, and by Mt. Amanus, which 
divided it from Cilicia ; on the N. (where it j 
bordered on Cappadocia) by the main chain 
of Mt. Taurus, almost exactly along the 
parallel of 3S° N. lat., and striking the 
Euphrates just below Juliopolis, and con- 
siderably above Samosata : hence the Euphrates 



forms the E. boundary, dividing Syria, first 
from a very small portion of Armenia, and 
then from Mesopotamia, to about or beyond 
the 36th parallel of X. lat., whence the S.E. 
and S. boundaries, towards Babylonia and 
Arabia, in the Great Desert, are exceedingly 
indefinite. [Coinp. Arabia.] The "NY. part 
of the S. boundary ran just below Damascus, 
being formed by the highlands of Trachoniti3. 
The \Y. part of the country was intersected 
by a series of mountains, running S. from 
the Taurus, under the names of Amanus, 
Pieria, Casius, B Argyll's, and Lib anl-s, and 
Axti-Libaxus ; and the N. part, between the 
Amanus and the Euphrates, was also moun- 
tainous. The chief river of Syria was the 
Oroxtes, and the smaller rivers Chalus and 
Chrysorrhoas were also of importance. In 
the earliest historical period, Syria contained 
a number of independent kingdoms, of which 
Damascus was the most powerful. These 
were subdued by David, but became again 
independent at the end of Solomon's reign ; 
till Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, took 
Damascus and probably conquered all Syria, 
about b.c. 740. Having been a part suc- 
cessively of the Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, 
and Macedonian empires, it fell, after the 
battle of Ipsus (b.c 301), to the share of 
Seieucus Xicator, and formed a part of the 
great kingdom of the Seleucidae, wh.052 
history is given in the articles Seleuctjs, 
Axtiochus, Demetrius, kc. In this partition, 
however, Coelesyria and Palestine went, not 
to Syria, but to Egypt, and the possession of 
those provinces became the great source of 
contention between the Ptolemies and the 
Seleucids. By the irruptions of theParthians 
on the E., and the unsuccessful war of 
Antiochus the Great with the Romans on the 
W., the Greek Syrian kingdom was reduced 
to the limits of Syria itself, and became 
weaker and weaker, until it was overthrown 
by Tigranes, king of Armenia, b.c. 79. Soon 
afterwards, when the Romans had conquered, 
Tigranes as well as Mithridates, Syria was 
quietly added by Pompey to the empire of 
the republic and was constituted a province, 
b.c 64 ; but its X. district, Commagexe, was 
not included in this arrangement. The 
attempt of Zenobia to make Syria the seat 
of empire is noticed under Palmyra and 
Zexobia. ^Yhile the Roman emperors de- 
fended this precious possession against the 
attacks of the Persian kings with various 
success, a new danger arose, as early as the 
4th century, from the Arabians of the Desert, 
who began to be known under the name of 
Saracens ; and, when the rise of Mohammed 
had given to the Arabs that great religious 
impulse which revolutionised the„E. World, 



SYEIAE POBTAE. 



40S 



TACITrS. 



Syria was the first great conquest that they 
made from the E. empire, a.d. 632 — 638. 

STRIAE POETAE (-arum : Pass ofBeilan), 
a most important pass between Cilicia and 
Syria, lying between the shore of the Gulf of 
Issus on the Wv, and Mt. Amanus on the E. 

STRIXX (-ingis), an Arcadian nymph, 
who being pursued by Pan, fled into the 
river Ladon, and at her own prayer was 
metamorphosed into a reed, of which Pan 
then made his flute. 

STBOS, or STBUS (-i : Syra), an island 
in the Aegaean sea, and one of the Cyclades, 
lying between Ehenea and Cythnus. 
' STBTICA EEGIO (W. part of Tripoli), 
the special name of that part of the X. coast 
of Africa which lay between the 2 Syrtes, 
from the river Triton, at the bottom of the 
Syrtis Minor, on the \V., to the Philaenorum 
Arae, at the bottom of the Syrtis Major, on 
the E. It was for the most part a very 
narrow strip of sand, interspersed with salt 
marshes, between the sea and a range of 
mountains forming the edge of the Great 
Desert (Sahara), with only here and there a 
few spots capable of cultivation, especially 
about the river Cinyps. It was peopled by 
Libyan tribes. Under the Eomans it formed 
a part of the province of Africa. It was 
often called Teipolitaxa, from its 3 chief 
cities, Abeotonvm, Oea, and Leptis Magna ; 
and this became its usual name under the 
later empire, and has been handed down to 
our own time in the modern name of the 
Eegency of Tripoli. 

SYBTIS (-is andidis), and SYETES (-ium), 
the 2 great gulfs in the E. half of the X. 1 
coast of Africa. Both were proverbially 
dangerous, the Greater Syrtis from its sand- ! 
banks and quicksands, and its unbroken 
exposure to the X. winds, the Lesser from 
its shelving rocky shores, its exposure to the 
N.E. winds, and the consequent variableness 
of the tides in it. (1) Syetis Major ( Gulf of | 
Sidra), the E. of the 2, is a wide and deep gulf J 
on the shores of Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, 
exactly opposite to the Ionic sea, or mouth 
of the Adriatic, between Sicily and Pelopon- | 
nesus. The Great Desert comes down close j 
to its shores, forming a sandy coast [Syetica 
Eegio] . The terror of being driven on shore | 
in it is referred to in the narrative of St, 
Paul's voyage to Italy (Acts xxvii. 17). — 
(2) Syrtis Mixoe (Gulf of Kliabs), lies in the 
S.W. angle of the great bend formed by the 
X. coast of Africa as it drops down to the S. 
from the neighbourhood of Carthage, and 
then bears again to the E. : in other words, 
in the angle between the E. coast of Zeugitana 
and Byzacena (Tunis) and the X. coast of 
Tripolitana (Tripoli), 



SYEUS (4), PTJBLIUS, a slave brought to 
Eome some years before the downfal of the 
republic, who soon became highly celebrated 
as a mimographer. He may be said to have 
flourished b.c 45. A compilation containing 
probably many lines from his mimes is still 
extant under the title Publii Syri Senteiitiae. 



HPABEBXAE. [Tees Taeeenae.] 

TABURXUS (-i : Tabunio), a mountain 
belonging half to Campania and half to Sam- 
nium. It shut in the Caudine pass on its S. 
side. 

TACAPE (-es : Khabs, large Eu.), a city 
of X. Africa, in the Eegio Syrtica, at the 
innermost angle of the Syrtis Minor, to which 
the modern town gives its name. 

TACFABIXAS, a Xumidian, and Eoman 
auxiliary, who deserted, and became the 
leader of the Musulamii, a people bordering 
on Mauretania. He was at length defeated 
and slain in battle by Dolabella, a.d. 24. 

TACHOMPSO, also TACOMPSOS, aft. 
COXTBAPSELCIS, a city in the Dodeca- 
schoenus, that is, the part of Aethiopia im- 
mediately above Egypt. 

TACHOS, king of Egypt, succeeded Acoris, 
and maintained the independence of his 
country for a short time during the latter 
end of the reign of Artaxerxes II. 

TACITUS (4): (1) C.CoEXELirs, the his- 
torian. The time and place of his birth are un- 
known. He was a little older than the younger 
Pliny, who was born a.d. 61. Tacitus was first 
promoted by the emperor Yespasian, and he 
received other favours from his sons Titus 
and Domitian. In 7 8 he married the daughter 
of C. Julius Agricola, to whom he had been 
betrothed in the preceding year, while 
Agricola was consul. In the reign of Domi- 
tian, and in 88, Tacitus was praetor, and he 
assisted as one of the quindecemviri at the 
solemnity of the Ludi Seculares which were 
celebrated in that year.- Agricola died at 
Eome in 93, but neither Tacitus nor the 
daughter of Agricola was then with him. It 
is not known where Tacitus was during the 
last illness of Agricola. In the reign of 
Xerva, 97, Tacitus was appointed consul 
suffectus, in the place of T. Yirginius Eufus, 
who had died in that year, and whose funeral 
oration he delivered. Tacitus and Pliny 
were most intimate friends. In the collection 
of the letters of Pliny, there are 11 letters 
addressed to Tacitus. The time of the death 
of Tacitus is unknown, but he appears to 
have survived Trajan, who died 117. The 
extant works of Tacitus are a Life of Agri- 
cola. his father-in-law : the Historiae, which 



TAENARUM. 



409 



TAXAIS. 



comprehended the period from the second con- 
sulship of Galba, 68, to the death of Domitian, 
96, and the author designed to add the 
reigns of Xerva and Trajan ; — the first 4 
books alone are extant in a complete form; 
the 5 th book is imperfect : the Ann ales, 
which commence with the death of Augustus, 
14, and comprise the period to the death of 
Nero, 68, a space of 54 years ; the greater 
part of the 5 th book is lost, and also the 
7th, Sth, 9th, 10th, the beginning of the 11th, 
and the end of the 16th, which is the last 
book : the treatise I)e Jloribus et Fopulis 
Germanlae, describing the Germanic nations, 
and lastly the Dialogus de Oratoribus, a 
work whose genuineness has been disputed, 
but probably without reason. The moral 
dignity of Tacitus is impressed upon his 
works ; the consciousness of a love of truth, 
of the integrity of his purpose. His great 
power is in the knowledge of the human 
mind, his insight into the motives of human 
conduct ; and he found materials for this . 
study in the history of the emperors, and 
particularly Tiberius, the arch-hypocrite, and 
perhaps half madman. The style of Tacitus 
is peculiar, though it bears some resemblance 
to that of Sallust. In the Annals it is con- 
cise, vigorous, and pregnant with meaning ; j 
laboured, but elaborated with art, and i 
stripped of every superfluity. A single 
word sometimes gives effect to a sentence, 
and if the meaning of the word is missed, 
the sense of the writer is not reached. — (2) 
M. Claudius, Eoman emperor from the 25th 
September, a.d. 27 5, until April, a.d. 276. 
Tacitus was at the time of his election 7 
years of age, and was with difficulty per- 
suaded to accept the purple. The high 
character which he had borne before his 
elevation to the throne he amply sustained 
during his brief reign. He died either at 
Tarsus or at Tyana, about the 9th of April, 276. 

TAEXARUM (-i : C. Matapan), a promon- 
tory in Laconia, forming the S.-ly point of 
the Peloponnesus, on which stood a celebrated 
temple of Poseidon (Xeptunej, possessing an 
inviolable asylum. A little to the X. of the 
temple and the harbour of Achilleus was a 
town also called Taexarvm or Taexarus, and 
at a later time Caexepolis. On the promon- 
tory was a cave, through which Hercules is 
said to have dragged Cerberus to the upper 
world. Here also was a statue of Arion 
seated on a dolphin, since he is said to have 
landed at this spot after his miraculous pre- 
servation by a dolphin. In the time of the 
Romans there were celebrated marble quarries 
on the promontory. 

TAGES (-etis), a mysterious Etruscan 
being, who is described as a boy with the 



wisdom of an old man. Tages, the son of 
a Genius Jovialis, and grandson of Jupiter, 
I rose suddenly out of the ground, and in- 
structed Tarchon and the Etruscans in the 
; art of the haruspices. The Etruscans after- 
wards wrote down all he had said, and thus 
arose the books of Tages, which, according to 
some, were 12 in number. 

TA.GUS {-i : Spanish Tajo, Portuguese Tego, 
English Tagus), one of the chief rivers in 
i Spain, rising in the land of the Celtiberians, 
, between tbe mountains Orospeda andldubeda, 
and, after flowing in a \Y.-ly direction, falling 
| into jthe Atlantic. 

TALAUS (-i), son of Bias and Pero, and 
king of Argos. He was married to Lysi- 
mache (Eurynome, or Lysianassa), and was 
father of Adrastus, Parthenopaeus, Pronax, 
Mecisteus, Aristomachus, and Eriphyle. The 
patronymic Talaiomdes is given to his sons 
Adrastus and Mecisteus. 
TALOS. [Pekdjx.] 

TALTHYBIUS (4), the herald of Aga- 
memnon at Troy. He was worshipped as a 
hero at Sparta and Argos, where sacrifices 
also were offered to him. 

T AMASSES or TAMASUS (-improbably 
the same as the Homeric TEMESE, a town 
in the middle of Cyprus, N.W. of Olympus, 
and 29 miles S.E. of Soloe. 

TAMESIS (-is) or TAMES A (-ae : Thames), 
a river in Britain, on which stood Londinium, 

• flowing into the sea on the E. coast. Caesar 
j crossed the Thames at the distance of 80 
j Roman miles from the sea, probably at Cowey 

Stakes, near Oatlands and the confluence of 
the Wey. 

TAMOS, a native of Memphis in Egypt, 
| was lieutenant-governor of Ionia under 
Tissaphernes, and afterwards attached him- 
i self to the service of the younger Cyrus. 

TAXAGER (-gri : Xegro), a river of 
Lucania, rising in the Apennines, which, 
I after flowing in a X.E.-ly direction, loses 
j itself under the earth near Polla for a space 
of about 2 miles, and finally falls into the 
i Silarus near Eorum Popilii. 

TAXAGRA (-ae : Grimadha, or Gri mala), 
; a celebrated town of Boeotia, situated on a 
steep ascent on the left bank of the Asopus, 
13 stadia from Oropus, and 200 stadia from 
Plataeae, in the district Tanagraea, which 
was also called Poeniandris. Tanagra was 
supposed to be the same town as the Ho- 
meric Graea. Being near the frontiers of 
Attica, it was frequently exposed to the 
attacks of the Athenians ; and near it the 
Athenians sustained a celebrated defeat, b.c. 
457. 

TAXAIS (-is, or -idis). (1) {Bon, i.e. 

* Water), a great river, which rises in the X. 



TAXAQUIL, 



410 



TARENTUM. 



of Sarmatia Europaea (about the centre of 
Russia), and flows to the S.E. till it comes 
near the Volga, when it turns to the S.W., 
and falls into the X.E. angle of the Palus 
Maeotis (Sea of Azov). It was usually con- 
sidered the boundary between Europe and 
Asia. — (2) (Ru., near Kassatchei), a city of 
Sarmatia Asiatica, on the X. side of the S. 
mouth of the Tanais, at a little distance from 
the sea. 

TAXAQUIL. rTAnarixrus.] 

TAXETOI (-i: Taneto), a town of the 
Boii, in Gallia Cispadana, between Mutina 
and Parma. 

TAXIS (O. T. Zoan : San, Birc), a very 
ancient city of Lower Egypt, in the E. part 
of the Delta, on the right bank of the arm of 
the Xile, which was called after it the Ta- 
nitic, and on the S.W. side of the great lake I 
between this and the Pelusiae branch of the 
Xile, which was also called, after the city, 
Tanis (Lake of Menzateh)* It was one of the 
capitals of Lower Egypt, under the early 
kings, and the chief city of the Tanltes 
Xomos. 

TAXTALUS (-i). (1) Son of Zeus (Jupiter) 
and the nymph Pluto. His wife is called by j 
some Euryanassa, by others Taygete or Dione, j 
and by others, Clytia, or Eupryto. He was the | 
father of Pelops, Broteas, and X'iobe. All i 
traditions agree in stating that he was a 
wealthy king ; but while some call him king I 
of Lydia, others describe him as king of | 
Argos or Corinth. Tantalus is particularly 
celebrated in ancient story for the terrible 




Tantalus. (From an ancient Gem.) 



punishment inflicted upon him after his 
death. According to the common account, 
Tantalus divulged the secrets intrusted to 
him by Zeus, and was punished in the lower 
world by being afflicted with a raging thirst, 
and at the same time placed in the midst of 
a lake, the waters of which always receded 
from him as soon as he attempted to drink 
them. Over his head, moreover, hung 
branches of fruit, which receded in like 
manner when he stretched out his hand to 
reach them. In addition to all this there 
was suspended over his head a huge rock, I 
ever threatening to crush him. Another I 



j tradition relates that, wishing to test the 
gods, he cut his son Pelops in pieces, boiled 
them, and set them before the gods at a 
repast ; whilst a third account states that 
he stole nectar and ambrosia from the table 
) of the gods. According to a fourth story, 
| Tantalus incurred his punishment by receiv- 
I ing a golden dog, which Ehea had appointed 
to watch Zeus and his nurse, and which was 
j stolen by Pandareus. The punishment of 
i Tantalus was proverbial in ancient times, 
j and from it the English language has bor- 
rowed the verb "to tantalise," that is, to 
j hold out hopes or prospects which cannot be 
! realised. — (2) Son of Thyestes, who was 
: killed by Atreus. — (3) Son of Amphion and 
{ Xiobe^ 

TAOCHI (-5rum), a people of Pontus, on 
the borders of Armenia. 

TAPHIAE IXSULAE (-arum), a number 
of small islands in the Ionian sea, lying 
between the coasts of Leucadia and Acar- 
nania. They were also called the islands of 
the Teleboae, and their inhabitants were in 
like manner named Taphei, or Teleboae. 
The largest of these islands is called Taphxs 
by Homer, but Taphies or Taphiusa by later 
writers. 

TAPHITS. [Taphiae.] 
TAPROBAXE (-es: Ceylon), a great island 
of the Indian ocean, opposite to the S. extre- 
mity of India intra Gangenu 
TAB AS. [Tapenttm.] 
TARBELLI (-orum), one of the most im- 
portant people in Gallia Aquitanica, between 
the ocean and the Pyrenees. Their chief town 
was Aqeae Tabbeleicae or Aeglstae, on the 
Aturus (Dacqs on the Adour). 

TARCHOX (-onis or -ontis), son of Tyr- 
rhenus, who is said to have built the town 
of Tarquinii. [Tarqeenii.] Yirgil represents 
him as coming to the assistance of Aeneas 
against Turnus. 

^TAREXTlXUS SIXES (67. of Tarentum^, 
a great gulf in the S. of Italy, between 
Bruttium, Lucania, and Calabria, beginning 
W: near the Prom. Lacinium, and ending E. 
near the Prom. Iapygium, and named after 
the town of Tarentum. 

TAREXTUM (-i), called TARAS (-antis) by 
the Greeks (Taranto), an important Greek 
city in Italy, situated on the W. coast of 
the peninsula of Calabria, and on a bay of 
the sea, about 100 stadia in circuit, forming 
an excellent harbour, and being a portion 
of the great Gulf of Tarentum. The city 
stood in the midst of a beautiful and fertile 
country, S. of Mt. Auion and W. of the mouth 
of the Galaesus. It was originally built 
by the Iapygians, who are said to have been 
joined by some Cretan colonists from the 



TA1UCHEA. 



411 



TARQUINIUS. 



neighbouring town of Uria, and it derived 
its name from the mythical Taras, a son of 
Poseidon. The greatness of Tarentum, how- 
ever, dates from b.c. 708, when the original 
inhabitants were expelled, and the town was 
taken possession of by a strong body of Lace- 
daemonian Partheniae under the guidance of 
Phalanthus [Phalanthus]. It soon became 
the most powerful and nourishing city in the 
whole of Magna Graecia, and exercised a kind 
of supremacy over the other Greek cities in 
Italy. With the increase of wealth the citizens 
became luxurious and effeminate, and being 
hard pressed by the Lucanians and other bar- 
barians in the neighbourhood, they were 
obliged to apply for aid to the mother-country. 
Archidamus, son of Agesilaus, was the first 
who came to their assistance, in b.c. 338 ; 
and he fell in battle fighting on their behalf. 
The next prince whom they invited to succour 
them was Alexander, king of Epirus, and 
uncle to Alexander the Great. At first he 
met with considerable success, but was 
eventually defeated and slain by the Bruttii 
in 326, near Pandosia, on the banks of the 
Acheron. Shortly afterwards the Tarentines 
had to encounter a still more formidable 
enemy. Having attacked some Roman ships, 
and then grossly insulted the Roman ambas- 
sadors who had been sent to demand repara- 
tion, war was declared against the city by the 
powerful republic. The Tarentines were saved 
for a time by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who 
came to their help in 281 ; but two years 
after the defeat of this monarch and his with- 
drawal from Italy, the city was taken by the 
Romans (2 72). In the second Punic war 
Tarentum revolted from Rome to Hannibal 
(212) ; but it was retaken by the Romans in 
207, and was treated by them with great 
severity. From this time Tarentum declined 
in prosperity and wealth. It was subse- 
quently made a Roman colony, and it still 
continued to be a place of considerable im- 
portance in the time of Augustus. Its 
inhabitants retained their love of luxury and 
ease ; and it is described by Horace as molle 
Tarentum and imbelle Tarentum. 

TARICHEA (-ae), or -EAE (-arum : ffl- 
Xereh, Ru c ), a town of Galilee, at the S. end 
of the lake of Tiberias. 

TARNE (-es), a city of Lydia, on Mt 
Tmolus, mentioned by Homer. 

TARPEIA (-ae), daughter of Sp. Tarpeius, 
the governor of the Roman citadel on the 
Saturnian hill, afterwards called the Capi- 
toline, was tempted by the gold on the Sabine 
bracelets and collars to open a gate of the 
fortress to T. Tatius and his Sabines. As 
they entered, they threw upon her their 
shields, and thus crushed her to death. The 



Tarpeian rock, a part of the Capitoline, was 
named after her. 

TARPHE (-es), a town in Locris, on Mt. 
Oeta, mentioned by Homer, and subsequently 
called Pharygae. 

TARQUINIA. [Tarquixius.] 

TARQUINII (-drum: Turchina nr. Cor- 
neto), a city of Etruria, situated on a hill and 
on the river Marta, S.E. of Cosa and on a road 
leading from the latter town to Rome. It 
was one of the 1 2 Etruscan cities, and was 
probably regarded as the metropolis of the 
Confederation. It is said to have been 
founded by Tarchon, the son or brother of 
Tyrrhenus, who was the leader of the Lydian 
colony from Asia to Italy. It was at Tar- 
quinii that Demaratus, the father of Tar- 
quinius Priscus, settled ; and it was from 
this city that the Tarquinian family came 
to Rome. Tarquinii was subsequently made 
a Roman colony and a municipium ; but 
it gradually declined in importance ; and 
in the 8th or 9th century of the Christian 
aera it was deserted by its inhabitants, who 
founded Corneto on the opposite hill. Some 
of the most interesting remains of Etruscan 
art have been discovered at Tarquinii. 

TARQUINIUS (-i), the name of a family 
in early Roman history, to which the 5th and 
7th kings of Rome belonged. The legend of 
the Tarquins ran as follows. Demaratus, 
their ancestor, who belonged to the noble 
family of the Bacchiadae at Corinth, settled 
at Tarquinii in Etruria, where he married 
an Etruscan wife, by whom he had two sons, 
Lucunio and Aruns. Demaratus bequeathed 
all his property to Lucumo, and died himself 
shortly afterwards. But, although Lucumo 
was thus one of the most wealthy persons at 
Tarquinii, and had married Tanaquil, who 
belonged to a family of the highest rank, he 
was excluded, as a stranger, from all power 
and influence in the state. Discontented 
with this inferior position, he set out for 
Rome, riding in a chariot with his wife, and 
accompanied by a large train of followers. 
When they had reached the Janiculus, an 
eagle seized his cap, and, after carrying it 
away to a great height, placed it again upon 
his head. Tanaquil, who was skilled in the 
Etruscan science of augury, bade her hus- 
band hope for the highest honour from this 
omen. Her predictions were soon verified. 
The stranger was received with welcome, 
and he and his followers were admitted to 
the rights of Roman citizens. He took the 
name of L. Tarquinius, to which Livy adds 
Priscus. His wealth, his courage, and his 
wisdom, gained him the love both of Ancus 
Marcius and of the people. The former ap- 
pointed him guardian of his children ; and, 



TARQUISTirS. 



412 



TARRACINA. 



when he (lied, the senate and the people 
unanimously elected Tarquinius to the vacant 
throne. The reign of Tarquinius was dis- 
tinguished by great exploits in war, and by 
great works in peace. He defeated the 
Latins and Sabines ; and the latter people 
ceded to him the town of Collatia, where he j 
placed a garrison under the command of 
Egerius, the son of his deceased brother j 
Arivns, who took the surname of Collatinus. | 
Some traditions relate that Tarquinius de- : 
feated the Etruscans likewise. He erected ! 
many public buildings, and other works, at 
Boine, the most celebrated of which are the 
vast sewers which still remain. Tarquinius j 
also made some important changes in the 
constitution of the state. He was murdered ! 
after a reign of 38 years at the instigation of ! 
the sons of Ancus Marcius, But the latter I 
did not secure the reward of their crime, for 
Serrius Tullius, with the assistance of Tana- 
quil, succeeded to the vacant throne. Servius 
Tullius, whose life is given under Tuitius, 
was murdered after a reign of 44 years, by 1 
his son-in-law, L. Tarquinius, who ascended j 
the vacant throne. — L. TARQrixrus Superbes, 
commenced his reign without any of the 
forms of election. One of his first acts was 
to abolish the rights which had been con- 
ferred upon the plebeians by Servius ; and at | 
the same time all the senators and patricians i 
whom he mistrusted, or whose wealth he 
coveted, were put to death or driven into 
exile. He surrounded himself by a body- | 
guard, by means of which he was enabled to 
do what he liked. His cruelty and tyranny 
obtained for him the surname of Superb us. \ 
But, although a tyrant at home, he raised j 
Borne to great influence and power among 
the surrounding nations. He gave his 
daughter in marriage to Octavius Mamilius 
of Tusculum, the most powerful of the Latin j 
chiefs ; and under his sway Borne became 
the head of the Latin confederacy. He de- 
feated the Tolscians, and took the wealthy | 
town of Suessa Bometia, with the spoils of 
which he commenced the erection of the 
Capitol which his father had vowed. In the 
vaults of this temple he deposited the 3 
Sibylline books, which he purchased from a 
Sibyl or prophetess for 300 pieces of gold ; a 
price which he had at first scornfully refused, j 
He next engaged in war with Gabii, one of i 
the Latin cities, which refused to enter into 
the league. Unable to take the city by force 
of arms, Tarquinius had recourse to stratagem. ; 
His son, Sextus, pretending to be ill-treated 
by his father, and covered with the bloody 
marks of stripes, fiecl to Gabii. The in- j 
fatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the I 
command of their troops ; whereupon, at a | 



hint of his father, who struck off the heads 
of the tallest poppies in his garden before 
the eyes of Sextus's messenger, he put to 
death or banished all the leading men of 
the place, and then had no difficulty in 
compelling it to submit to his father.* In 
the midst of his prosperity Tarquinius fell 
through a shameful outrage committed by his 
son Sextus on Lucretia, the wife of his cousin 
Tarquinius Collatinus. As soon as Sextus 
had departed, Lucretia sent for her husband 
and father. Collatinus came, accompanied 
by L. Brutus ; Lucretius, by B. Valerius, 
who afterwards gained the surname of Bub- 
licola. They found her in an agony of 
sorrow. She told them what had happened, 
enjoined them to avenge her dishonour, and 
then stabbed herself to death. They all 
swore to avenge her. Brutus threw off his 
assumed stupidity, and placed himself at 
their head. Brutus, who was Tribunus 
Celerum, summoned the people, and related 
the deed of shame. All classes were inflamed 
with the same indignation. A decree was 
passed deposing the king, and banishing him 
and his family from the city. Tarquinius, 
with his two sons, Titus and Aruns, took 
refuge at Caere in Etruria. Sextus repaired 
to Gabii, his own principality, where he was 
shortly after murdered by the friends of those 
whom he had put to death. Tarquinius 
reigned 24 years. He was banished e.c. 
510. The people of Tarquinii and Yeii 
espoused the cause of the exiled tyrant, and 
marched against Borne. The two consuls 
advanced to meet them, A bloody battle was 
fought, in which Brutus and Aruns, the sons 
of Tarquinius, slew each other. Tarqiiinius 
next repaired to Lars Borsena, the powerful 
king of Clusium, who marched against Borne 
at the head of a vast army. The history of 
this memorable expedition is related under 
Borsena. After Borsena quitted Borne, 
Tarquinius took refuge with his son-in-law, 
Mamilius Octavius of Tusculum. Under the 
guidance of the latter, the Latin states 
espoused the cause of the exiled king, and 
declared war against Borne. The contest was 
decided by the celebrated battle of the lake 
Begillus, in which the Romans gained the 
victory by the help of Castor and Bollux. 
Tarquinius now fled to Aristobulus at Cumae, 
where he died a wretched and childless old 
man. Such is the story of the Tarquins ac- 
cording to the ancient writers ; but it con- 
tains numerous inconsistencies, and must not 
be received as a real history. 

TABBACLNA. (-ae : Terracina), more an- 
ciently called ANXUB (-uri*), an ancient 
town of Latiivm situated 58 miles S,E. of 
Borne on the Via Appia and upon the coast, 



TARE A CO. 



413 



TAURUS. 



with a strongly fortified citadel upon a high 
hill, on which stood the temple of Jupiter 
Anxurus. 

TARRACO (-onis : Tarragona), an ancient 
town on the E. coast of Spain situated on 
a rock 760 ft. high, between the river Iherus 
and the Pyrenees on the river Tulcis. It 
was founded by the Massilians, and was made 
the head quarters of the 2 brothers P. and 
Cn. Scipio, in their campaigns against the 
Carthaginians in the 2nd Punic war. It sub- 
sequently became a populous and flourishing 
town ; and Augustus, who wintered here (b.c. 
26) after his Cantabrian campaign, made it 
the capital of one of the 3 Spanish provinces 
(Hispania Tarraconensis) and also a Roman 
colony. 

TARSIUS (-i : Tarza or BaJikesri), a river 
of Mysia, rising in Mt. Temnus, and flowing 
X.E., through the Miletopolites Lacus, into 
the Macestus. 

TARSUS, TARSOS (-i: Terms, Ku,), the 
chief city of Cilicia, stood near the centre 
of Cilicia Campestris, on the river Cydnus, 
about 12 miles above its mouth. All that 
can be determined with certainty as to its 
origin seems to be that it was a very ancient 
city of the Syrians, vdio were the earliest 
known inhabitants of this part of Asia 
Minor, and that it received Greek settlers 
at an early period. At the time of the Mace- 
donian invasion, it was held by the Persian 
troops, who were about to burn it, when they 
were prevented by Alexander's arrival. After 
playing an important part as a military post 
in the wars of the successors of Alexander, 
and under the Syrian kings, it became, by 
the peace between the Romans and Antiochus 
the .Great, the frontier city of the Syrian 
kingdom on the X.W. As the power of the 
Seleucidae declined, it suffered much from 
the oppression of its governors, and from the 
wars between the members of the royal 
family. At the time of the Mithridatic War, 
it suffered, on the one hand, from Tigranes, 
who overran Ciliciaj and, on the other, from 
the pirates, who had their strongholds in the 
mountains of Cilicia Aspera, and made frequent 
incursions into the level country. Erom both 
these enemies it was rescued by Pompey, who 
made it the capital of the new Roman pro- 
vince of Cilicia, b.c. 66. Under Augustus, 
the city obtained immunity from taxes, 
through the influence of the emperor's tutor, 
the Stoic Athenodorus, who was a native of 
the place. It enjoyed the favour, and was 
called by the names, of several of the later 
emperors. It was the scene of important 
events in the wars with the Persians, the 
Arabs, and the Turks, and also in the Cru- 
sades. Tarsus was the birth-place of many^ 



distinguished men, and above all, of the 
Apostle Paul. 

TARTARUS (-i), son of Aether and Ge, 
and by his mother Ge the father of the 
Gigantes, Typhoeus, and Echidna, In the 
Iliad Tartarus is a place beneath the earth, 
as far below Hades as Heaven is above the 
earth, and closed by iron gates. Later poets 
use the name as synonymous with Hades, 

TARTESSUS (-i), an ancient town in 
Spain, and one of the chief settlements of the 
Phoenicians, probably the same as the Tar- 
shish of Scripture. The whole country W. 
of Gibraltar was also called Tartessis. 

TARUSCOX or TARASCOX (-onis : Taras- 
con), a town of the Salyes in Gaul, on the E. 
bank of the Rhone, X. of Arelate, and E. 
of Xemausus. 

TARYISIUM [4 : Treviso), a town of 
Tenetia in the X. of Italy, on the river Silis, 
which became the seat of a bishopric, and a 
place of importance in the middle ages. 

TATIUS,T., kingoftheSabines. [Romulus.] 

TATTA (Tuz-Gbl), a great salt lake in the 
centre of Asia Minor. 

TAULAXTII (-oram), a people of Illyria, 
in the neighbourhood of Epidamnus. 

TAUXUS (-i : Taunus), a range of moun- 
tains in Germany, at no great distance from 
the confluence of the Moenus (Main) and the 
Rhine. 

TAURASIA. [Taurixi.] 

TAUREXTUM (-i) and TAUROIS (-entis), 
a fortress belonging to Massilia, and near the 
latter city. 

TAURI (-oram), a wild and savage people 
in European Sarmatia, who sacrificed all 
strangers to a goddess whom the Greeks 
identified with Artemis (Diana). The Tauri 
dwelt in the peninsula which was called after 
them Chersonesus Taurica. 

TAURIXI (-oram), a people of Liguria 
dwelling on the upper course of the Po, at 
the foot of the Alps. Their chief town was 
Taurasia, afterwards colonised by Augustus, 
and called Augusta Taurinorum (Turin). 

TAURISCI (-omni), a Celtic people in 
Xoricum, and probably the old Celtic name 
of the entire population of the country. 

TAUROIS. [Taurextum.] 

TAUROMEXIUM (-i : Taormina), a city 
on the E. coast of Sicily, situated on Mt. 
Taurus, from which it derived its name, and 
founded b.c 35S by Andromachus with the 
remains of the inhabitants of Xaxos. 

TAURUS (-i : from the Aramaean Tur, a 
high mountain : Taurus, Ala-Dagh, and other 
special names), a great mountain chain of 
Asia. In its widest extent, the name was 
applied, by the later geographers, to the 
whole of the great chain, which runs through 



TAYIOI. 



414 



TELCHIXES, 



Asia from W. to E. ; but in its usual signi- 
fication, it denotes the mountain-chain in the 
S. of Asia Minor, -which begins at the Sacrum 
or Chelidonium Prom, at the S.E. angle of I 
Lycia, surrounds the gulf of Pamphylia, 
passing through the middle of Pisidia ; then 
along the S. frontier of Lycaonia and Cappa- 
docia, which it divides from Cilicia and Com- 
magene ; thence, after being broken through 
by the Euphrates, it proceeds almost due E. j 
through the S. of Armenia, forming the 1 
■water-shed between the sources of the Tigris 
on the S., and the streams which feed the 
upper Euphrates and the Araxes on the X. ; I 
thus it continues as far as the S. margin of \ 
the lake Arsissa, where it ceases to bear the 
name of Taurus, and is continued in the 
chain which, under the names of Xiphates, I 
Zagros, &c, forms the N.E. margin of the 
Tigris and Euphrates valley. 

T AVIUM {-i: prob. Boghaz Kieni, Eu.), | 
the capital of the Trocmi, in Galatia, stood 
on the E. side of the Halys, but at some dis- j 
tance from the river, and formed the centre 
of meeting for roads leading to ail parts of 
Asia Minor. 

TAXILA or TAXI ALA (-6mm), an im- ' 
portant city of India intra Gangem, stood in 
a large and fertile plain between the Indus J 
and the Hyciaspes, and was the capital of the 
Indian king Taxiles. 

TAXILES. (J. An Indian prince or king, 
who reigned over the tract between the Indus I 
and the Hyciaspes, at the period of the expe- 
dition of Alexander, b.c. 327. His real name j 
was Mophis, or Omphis, and the Greeks I 
appear to have called him Taxiles or Taxilas, 
from the name of his capital city of Taxila. 
— (2) A general in the service of Mithridates ; 
the Great. 

TAYGETE, (-es), daughter cf Atlas and : 
Pleione, one of the Pleiades, from whom 
life Taygetus in Laconia is said to have 
derived its name. By Zens (Jupiter), she 
became the mother of Lacedaemon and of j 
Eurotas. 

TAYGETUS or TAYGETUM (4), or 
TAYGETA (-orum), a lofty range of moun- 
tains of a wild and savage character, sepa- 
rating Laconia and Messenia, and extending 
from the frontiers of Arcadia down to the 
Prom. Taenarum. 

TEAXUM (-i). (1) Aprmi (nr. Tonte 
Rotto), a town of Apulia on the river Erento 
and the confines of the Frentani, 18 miles 
from Larinum. — (2) Sidicixum (Teano), an 
important town of Campania, and the capital 
of the Sidicini, situated on the X. slope of 
Mt. Massicus and on the Yia Praenestina, 
6 miles W. of Cales. 

TEAKUS (-i : Teara, Bear a or Dere), a 



river of Thrace, the waters of which were 
useful in curing cutaneous diseases. 

TEATE (-is: Chieti^ the capital of the 
Marrucini, situated on a steep hill on the 
river Aternus, and on the road from Ater- 
num to Corfinium. 

TECMESSA (-ae), the daughter of the 
Phrygian king Teleutas, whose territory was 
ravaged by the Greeks during a predatory 
excursion from Troy. Tecmessa was taken 
prisoner, and was given to Ajax, the son of 
Telamon, by whom she had a son, Eurysaces. 

TECTOSAGES (-um). (1) In Gallia. 
[Yolcae.] — (2) In Asia Minor. [Galatia.] 

TEGEA (-ae). (1) {Piati), an important 
city of Arcadia, and the capital of the district 
Tegeatis, which was bounded on the E. by 
Argolis and Laeonica, on the S. by Laconia, 
on the TY. by Maenalia, and on the X. by 
the territory of Mantinea. It was one of the 
most ancient towns of Arcadia, and is said to 
have been founded by Tegeates, the son of 
Lycaon. The Tegeatae sent 3000 men to 
the battle of Plataea, in which they were 
distinguished for their bravery. They re- 
mained faithful to Sparta in the Peloponnesian 
war ; but after the battle of Leuctra they 
joined the rest of the Arcadians in establish- 
ing their independence. During the wars of 
the Achaean league Tegea was taken both by 
Cleomenes, king of Sparta, and Antigonus 
Doson, king of Macedonia, and the ally of 
the Achaeans. — (2) A town in Crete, said to 
have been founded by Agamemnon. • 

TELAMOX (-orris), son of Aeacus and 
Endei's, and brother of Peleus, Having 
assisted Peleus in slaying their half-brother 
Phocus [Peleus], Telamon was expelled from 
Aegina, and came to Salamis. Here he was 
first married to Glauce, daughter of Cychreus, 
king of the island, on whose death Telamon 
became king of Salamis. He afterwards 
married Periboea or Eriboea, daughter of 
Alcathous, by whom he became the father of 
Ajax, who is hence frequently called TeJa- 
monxades, and TeJamon'ws heros. Telamon 
himself was one of the Calydonian hunters 
and one of the Argonauts. He was also a 
great friend of Hercules, whom he joined in 
his expedition against Laomedon of Troy, 
which city he was the first to enter. Her- 
cules, in return, gave to him Theanira or 
Hesione, a daughter of Laomedon, by whom 
he became the father of Teucer and Trambelus. 

TELAMOX (Telamojie), a town and harbour 
of Etruria, a few miles S. cf the river Umbro, 
said to have been foimded by Telamon cn his 
return from the Argonautic expedition. 

TELCHIXES (-um), a family or a tribe, 
said to have been descended from Thalassa or 
Poseidon (Xeptune). They are represented 



TELEBOAE. 



415 



TEMESA. 



in 3 different aspects : — (1.) As cultivators of 
the soil and ministers of the gods. As such 
they came from Crete to Cyprus, and from 
thence to Rhodes, where they founded Cami- 
rus, Ialysus, and Lindus. Rhodes, which 
was named after them TelcJti/iis, was aban- 
doned by them, because they foresaw that 
the island would be inundated. Poseidon 
was intrusted to them by Rhea, and they 
brought him up in conjunction with Caphira, 
a daughter of Oceanus. Ehea, Apollo and 
Zeus (Jupiter), however, are also described 
as hostile to the Telchines. Apollo is said 
to hare assumed the shape of a wolf, and to 
have thus destroyed the Telchines, and Zeus 
to have overwhelmed them by an inundation. 
(2.) As sorcerers and envious daemons. Their 
very eyes and aspect are said to have been 
destructive. They had it in their power to 
bring on hail, rain, and snow, and to assume 
any form they pleased ; they further mixed 
Stygian water with sulphur, in order thereby 
to destroy animals and plants. (3.) As artists, 
for they are said to have invented useful 
arts and institutions, and to have made 
images of the gods. They worked in brass 
and iron, made the sickle of Cronos and the 
trident of Poseidon. 

TELEBOAE. [Taphiae.] 

TELEGOXUS (-i), son of Ulysses and 
Circe. After Ulysses had returned to Ithaca, 
Circe sent out Telegonus in search of his 
father. A storm cast his ship on the coast 
of Ithaca, and being pressed by hunger, he 
began to plunder the fields. Ulysses and 
Telemachus being informed of the ravages 
caused by the stranger, went out to fight 
against him ; but Telegonus ran Ulysses 
through with a spear which he had received 
from his mother. At the command of Athena 
(Minerva). Telegonus, accompanied by Tele- 
machus and Penelope, went to Circe in Aeaea, 
there buried the body of Ulysses, and mar- 
ried Penelope, by whom he became the father 
of Irakis. 

TELEMACHUS (-i), son of Ulysses and 
Penelope. He was still an infant when his 
father went to Troy ; and when the latter 
had been absent from home nearly 20 years, 
Telemachus went to Pylos and Sparta, to 
gather information concerning him. He was 
hospitably received by Nestor, who sent his 
own son to conduct Telemachus to Sparta. 
Menelaus also received him kindly, and com- 
municated to him the prophecy of Proteus 
concerning Ulysses. From Sparta Telema- 
chus returned home ; and on his arrival 
there he found his father, whom he assisted 
in slaying the suitors. 

TELEMUS (-i), son of Eurymus, and a 
celebrated soothsayer. 



TELEPHUS (-i), son of Hercules and 
Auge, the daughter of king Aleus of Tegea. 
On reaching manhood, he consulted the 
| Delphic oracle to learn his parentage, and 
was ordered to go to king Teuthras in Mysia. 
He there found his mother, and succeeded 
; Teuthras on the throne of Mysia. He 
■ married Laodice or Astyoche, a daughter of 
' Priam ; and he attempted to prevent the 
' Greeks from landing on the coast of Mysia. 
, Dionysus (Bacchus), however, caused him to 
i stumble over a vine, whereupon he was 
| wounded by Achilles. Being informed by an 
I oracle that the wound could only be cured 
I by him who had inflicted it, Telephus re- 
i paired to the Grecian camp ; and as the 
; Greeks had likewise learnt from an oracle 
I that without the aid of Telephus they could 
not reach Troy, Achilles cured Telephus by 
| means of the rust of the spear with which 
he had been wounded. Telephus, in return, 
pointed out to the Greeks the road which 
they had to take. 

TELESIA (-ae : Telese), a town in Sam- 
nium, on the road from Allifae to Bene- 
ventum. 

TELESILLA (-ae), of Argos, a celebrated 
lyric poetess and heroine, flourished about 
b.c. 510. She led a band of her country- 
women in_the war with the Spartans. 
TELESIXUS, PONTIUS. [Poxtius.] 
TELLEXAE (-arum), a town in Latium 
between the later Via Ostiensis and the Via 
Appia. 

TELLUS. [Gaea.1 

TELMESSUS or. TELMISSUS (4). 
(1) {Jfei, the port of Macri, Eu.), a city of 
Lycia, near the borders of Caria, on a gulf 
: called Telmissicus Sinus, and close to the 
I promontory Telrnissis. — (2) A town of Caria, 
60 stadia (6 geog. miles) from Halicarnassus. 
TELO (-onis), MAETIUS {Toulon), a port 
| town of Gallia Xarbonensis on the Medi- 
terranean. 

TELOS' (4: Telos or Piskojn), a small 
island of the Carpathian sea, one of the 
Sporades. 

TELPHUSSA. [Thelpesa.] 
TEMEXIDAE. [ Temexes ] 
TEMEXUS (-i), son of Aristomachus, was 
one of the Heraclidae who invaded Pelopon- 
nesus. After the conquest of the peninsula, 
he received Argos as his share. His de- 
i scendants, the Temenidae, being expelled 
from Argos, are said to have founded the 
kingdom of Macedonia, whence the kings of 
Macedonia called themselves Temenidae. 

TEMESA or TEMPSA (-ae : Torre del 
Lupi), a town in Bruttium on the Sinus 
i Terinaeus, and one of the most ancient Auso- 
nian towns in the S. of Italy. 



TEMPE. 



416 



TEREXTIUS. 



TEMPE (neut. pi. indcl.), a beautiful and 
romantic valley in the X. of Thessaly between 
Mts. Olympus and Ossa, through, which the 
Peneus escapes into the sea. The lovely 
scenery of this glen is frequently described 
by the ancient poets and declaimers ; and it 
was also celebrated as one of the favourite 
haunts of Apollo, who transplanted his 
laurel from this spot to Delphi. So cele- 
brated was the scenery of Tempe that its 
name was given to any beautiful valley. 
Thus we find a Tempe in the land of the 
Sabines, near Reate, through which the river 
Velinus flowed ; and also a Tempe in Sicily, 
through which the river Helorus flowed, hence 
called by Ovid Tempe Heloria. 

TEXCTERI or TEXCHTERI (-orum), a 
people of Germany dwelling on the Rhine 
between the Ruhr and the Sieg, S. of the 
Usipetes, in conjunction with whom their 
name usually occurs. 

TEXEDOS or TEXEDUS (-i), a small 
island of the Aegaean sea, off the coast of 
Troas, of an importance very disproportionate 
to its size, on account of its position near the 
mouth of the Hellespont, from which it is 
about 12 miles distant. It appears in the 
legend of the Trojan War as the station to 
which the Greeks withdrew their fleet, in 
order to induce the Trojans to think that 
they had departed, and to receive the wooden 
horse. In the Persian War it was used by 
Xerxes as a naval station. It afterwards be- 
came a tributary ally of Athens, and adhered 
to her during the whole of the Peloponnesian 
War, and down to the peace of Antalcidas, 
by which it was surrendered to the Persians. 
At the Macedonian conquest the Tenedians 
regained their liberty. 

TEXES or TEXXES, son of Cycnus and 
Proclea, and brother of Hemithea. Cycnus 
was king of Colonae in Troas. His 2nd wife 
was Philonome, who fell in love with her 
step-son ; but as he repulsed her advances 
she accused him to his father, who put both 
his son and daughter into a chest, and threw 
them into the sea. But the chest was driven 
on the coast of the island of Leucophrys, of 
which the inbabitants elected Tenes king, 
and which he called Tenedos, after his own 
name. 

TEXOS (-i : Tino), a small island in the 
Aegaean sea, S.E. of Andros and N. of 
Delos. 

TEXTYRA (-orum: Denderah, Ru.), a 
city of Upper Egypt, on the western bank Of 
the Xile, between Abydos and Coptos, with 
celebrated temples of Athor (the Egyptian 
Venus), Isis, and Typhon. There are still 
magnificent remains of the temples of Athor 
and of Isis : in the latter was found the 



celebrated Zodiac, which is now preserved at 
Paris. 

TEOS (-i: Sighajik), one of the Ionian 
cities on the coast of Asia Minor, renowned 
as the birthplace of Anacreon and Hecataeus. 
It stood at the bottom of the bay between the 
promontories of Coryceum and Myonnesus. 

TEREXTIA (-ae). (1) Wife of M. Cicero, 
the orator, to whom she bore 2 children, a 
son and daughter. She was a woman of 
sound sense and great resolution ; and her 
firmness of character was of no small service 
to her weak and vacillating husband in some 
important periods of his life. During the civil 
war, however, Cicero was offended with her 
conduct, and divorced her in b.c. 46. Terentia 
is said to have attained the age of 103. — 
(2) Also called Terentilla, the wife of Mae- 
cenas, and also one of the favourite mistresses 
of Augustus. 

TEREXTIUS (-i) AFER, P., usually called 
Terence, the celebrated comic poet, was born 
at Carthage, b.c. 195. By birth or purchase 
he became the slave of P. Terentius Lucanus, 
a Roman senator. A handsome person and 
promising talents recommended Terence to 
his master, who afforded him the best 
education of the age, and finally manumitted 
him. On his manumission, according to the 
usual practice, Terence assumed his patron's 
name, Terentius, having been previously 
called Publius or Publipor. The Andria was 
the first play offered by Terence for repre- 
sentation. The curule aediles referred the 
piece to Caecilius, then one of the most 
popular play-writers at Rome. Unknown 
and meanly clad, Terence began to read from 
a low stool his opening scene. A few verses 
showed the elder poet that no ordinary writer 
was before him, and the young aspirant, then 
in his 27 th year, was invited to share the 
couch and supper of his judge. This reading 
of the Andria, however, must have preceded 
its performance nearly two years, for Caecilius 
died in 168, and it was not acted till 166. 
Meanwhile, copies were in circulation, envy 
was awakened, and Luscius Lavinius, a 
veteran, and not very successful play-writer, 
began his unwearied attacks on the dramatic 
and personal character of the author. The 
Andria was successful, and, aided by the ac- 
complishments and good address of Terence 
himself, was the means of introducing him 
to the most refined and intellectual circles of 
Rome. His chief patrons were Laelius and 
the younger Scipio, both of whom treated 
him as an equal, and are said even to have 
assisted him in the composition of his plays. 
After residing some years at Rome, Terence 
went to Greece, where he devoted himself to 
the study of Menander's comedies. He never 



TERENTIUS. 



417 



TEUTOBURGIENSIS SALTUS. 



returned to Italy, and we have various, but 
no certain, accounts of his death. He died 
in the 36th year of his age, in 159, or in the 
year following-. Six comedies are all that 
remain to us ; and they are probably all that 
Terence produced. They are founded on 
Greek originals, but we have corresponding 
fragments enough of Menander to prove that 
Terence retouched and sometimes improved 
his model. In summing up his merits, we 
ought not to omit the praise which has been 
universally accorded him — that, although a 
foreigner and a freedman, he divides with 
Cicero and Caesar the palm of pure Latinity. 

TERENTIUS YARRO. [Varro.] 

TEREUS (-eos,or -ei), son of Ares (Mars), 
king of the Thracians in Daulis, afterwards 
Phocis. Pandion, king of Attica, who had 2 
daughters, Philomela and Proene, called in 
the assistance of Tereus against some enemy, 
and gave him his daughter Procne in marriage. 
Tereus became by her the father of Itys, and 
then concealed her in the country, that he 
might thus marry her sister Philomela, whom 
he deceived by saying that Procne was dead. 
At the same time he deprived Philomela of 
her tongue. Ovid (Met. vi. 565) reverses the 
story by stating that Tereus told Procne that 
her sister Philomela was dead. Philomela, 
however, soon learned the truth, and made it 
known to her sister by a few words which 
she wove into a peplus. Procne thereupon 
killed her own son Itys, and served up the 
flesh of the child in a dish before Tereus. 
She then fled with her sister. Tereus pur- 
sued them with an axe, and when the sisters 
were overtaken they prayed to the gods to 
change them into birds. Procne, accord- 
ingly,- became a nightingale, Philomela a 
swallow, and Tereus a hoopoo. According 
to some, Procne became a swallow, Philomela 
a nightingale, and Tereus a hawk. 

TERGESTE (-is : Trieste), a town of Istria, 
on a bay in the N.E. of the Adriatic gulf 
called after it Tergestinus Sinus. It was 
made a Roman colony by Vespasian. 

TERIDATES. [Tiridates.] 

TERINA (-ae: St. JEufemia), a town on 
the W. coast of Bruttium, from which the 
Sinus Terinaeus derived its name. 

TERIOLIS or TERIOLA CASTRA, a for- 
tress in Rhaetia, which has given its name to 
the country of the Tyrol. 

TERMESSUS (-i : prob. SJienet, Ru.), a 
city of Pisidia, high up on the Taurus. 

TERMINUS (-i), a Roman divinity, pre- 
siding over boundaries and frontiers. His 
worship is said to have been instituted by 
Numa, who ordered that every one should 
mark the boundaries of his landed property 
by stones consecrated to Jupiter, and at these | 



boundary-stones every year sacrifices should 
be offered at the festival of the Terminalia. 
The Terminus of the Roman state originally 
stood between the 5th and 6th milestone on 
the road towards Laurentum, near a place 
called Festi. Another public Terminus stood 
in the temple of Jupiter in the Capitol. 

TERPANDER (-dri), the father of Greek 
music, and through it of lyric poetry. He 
was a native of Antissa in Lesbos, and 
flourished between b.c. 700 and 650. He 
established the first musical school or system 
that existed in Greece, and added 3 strings 
to the lyre, which before his time had only 4. 

TERPSICHORE (-es), one of the 9 MuSeS, 
presided over the choral song and dancing. 

[MUSAE.] 

TERRA. _ [Gaea.] 

TERRACINA. [Tarracina.] 

TESTA (-ae), C. TREBATIUS, a Roman 
jurist, and a contemporary and friend of 
Cicero. Trebatius enjoyed considerable re- 
putation under Augustus as a lawyer. Horace 
addressed to him the 1st Satire of the 2nd 
Book. 

TETHYS (-yos, acc. -ya, and -yn), daughter 
of Uranus and Gaea, and wife of Oceanus, by 
whom she became the mother of the Oceanides 
and of the numerous river-gods. 

TETRICA (-ae), a mountain on the frontiers 
of Pisenum and the land of the Sabines, be- 
longing to the great chain of the Apennines. 

TETRICUS (-i), C. PESUYIUS, one of the 
Thirty Tyrants, and the last of the pretenders 
who ruled Gaul during its separation from 
the empire under Gallienus and his suc- 
cessor, a.d. 267 — 274. 

TEUCER (-cri). (1) Son of the river-god 
Scamander by the nymph Idaea, was the first 
king of Troy, whence the Trojans are some- 
times called Teucri. — (2) Son of Telamon and 
Hesione, was a step-brother of Ajax, and the 
best archer among the Greeks at Troy. He 
founded the town of Salamis, in Cyprus, and 
married Eune, the daughter of Cyprus, by 
whom he became the father of Asteria. 

TEUCRI. [Troas.] 

TEUMESSUS (-1), a mountain in Boeotia, 
near Hypatus, and close to Thebes, on the 
road from the latter place to Chalcis. 

TEUTHRANIA. [Mysia.] 

TEUTHRAS (-antis), an ancient king of 
Mysia. He was succeeded in the kingdom of 
Mysia by Telephus. [Telephus.I The 50 
daughters of Teuthras, given as a reward to 
Hercules, are called by Ovid Tenth rant ia 
turba. 

TEUTHRAS (prob. Dem'uji-Dagh), a moun- 
tain in the Mysian district of Teuthrania, a 
S.W. branch of Temnus. 

TEUTOBURGIENSIS SALTUS, a range of 

E E 



TEUTOXES. 



418 



THEAXO. 



hills in Germany, extending- from Osnabriick 
to Paderborn (the Teutoburger Wold or Lip- 
pische Wald). It is celebrated on account of 
the defeat and destruction of Yarus and 3 
Roman legions by the Germans under Armi- 
nius, a.d. 9. 

TEUTOXES (-urn) or TEUTOXI (-drum), 
a powerful people in Germany, who probably 
dwelt on the coast of the Baltic, near the 
Cimbri. They invaded Gaul and the Roman 
dominions, along with the Cimbri, at the lat- 
ter end of the 2nd century b.c. 

THABOR, TABOR, or ATABYRIUM (4 : 
Jebel Tin-), an isolated mountain at the E. 
end of the plain of Esdraelon in Galilee. 

THAIS (-idis), a celebrated Athenian cour- 
tesan, who accompanied Alexander the Great 
on his expedition into Asia. After the death of 
Alexander, Thai's attached herself to Ptolemy 
Lagi, by whom she became the mother of two 
sons, Leontiscus and Lagus, and of a daugh- 
ter, Irene. 

THALA (-ae), a great city of Xumidia, 
mentioned by Sallust and other writers, and 
probably identical with Telepte or Thelepte, 
a city in the S. of Xumidia, 71 Roman miles 
N.W. of Capsa. 

THALASSIUS, TALASSIUS (4), or TA- 
LASSIO (-onis), a Roman senator of the time 
of Romulus. At the time of the rape of the 
Sabine women, when a maiden of surpassing 
beauty was carried off for Thalassius, the 
persons conducting her, in order to protect 
her against any assaults from others, ex- 
claimed " for Thalassius." Hence, it is said, 
arose the wedding shout with which a bride 
at Rome was conducted to the house of her 
bridegroom. 

THALES (-etis and -is), the Ionic philo- 
sopher, and one of the Seven Sages, was born 
at Miletus about b.c. 636, and died about 546, 
at the age of 90, though the exact date nei- 
ther of his birth nor of his death is known. 
He is said to have predicted the eclipse of the 
sun which happened in the reign of the 
Lydian king Alyattes ; to have diverted the 
course of the Halys in the time of Croesus ; 
and later, in order to unite the Ionians, when 
threatened by the Persians, to have instituted 
a federal council in Teos. He was one of the 
founders in Greece of the study of philosophy 
and mathematics. Thales maintained that 
water is the origin of things, meaning thereby, 
that it is water out of which every thing 
arises, and into which every thing resolves 
itself. Thales left no works behind him. 

THALES or THALETAS (-ae), the cele- 
brated musician and lyric poet, was a native 
of Gortyna, in Crete, and probably flourished 
shortly after Tcrpander. 

THALIA (-ae). (1) One of the 9 Muses, 



and, at least in later times, the Muse of 
Comedy. [Musae.] — (2) One of the Nereides. 
— (3) One of the Charites or Graces. 

THALLO. [Hoeae.] 

THAMYRIS (-is) or THAMYRAS (-ae), 
an ancient Thracian bard, was a son of Phil- 
ammon, and the nymph Argiope. In his 
presumption he challenged the Muses to a 
trial of skill, and being overcome in the con- 
test, was deprived by them of his sight and 
of the power of singing. He was represented 
with a broken lyre in his hand. 

THANATOS. [Mors.] 

THAPSACUS (4: O.T. Thipsach : an 
Aramean word, signified a ford : at the ford 
of JEl-Hamman, near MaJckah, Ru.), a city of 
Syria, in the province of Chalybonitis, on the 
left bank of the Euphrates, 2000 stadia S. of 
Zeugma, and 15 parasangs from the mouth 
of the river Chaboras (the Araxes of Xeno- 
phon) . 

THAPSUS (4). (1) A city on the E. 
coast of Sicily, on a peninsula of the same 
name (Isola degli Magnisi). — (2) [Demos, 
Ru.), a city on the E. coast of Byzacena, in 
Africa Propria. 

THASOS or THASUS (4 : TJiaso or Tasso), 
an island in the X : of the Aegaean sea, off the 
coast of Thrace, and opposite the mouth of the 
river Xestus. It was at a very early period 
taken possession of by the Phoenicians, on 
account of its valuable gold mines. Accord- 
ing to tradition the Phoenicians were 
led by Thasus, son of Poseidon (Xeptune), 
or Agenor, who came from the East in search 
of Europa, and from whom the island de- 
rived its name. Thasos was afterwards 
colonised by the Parians, b.c. 708, and 
among the colonists was the poet Archilochus. 
The Thracians once possessed a considerable 
territory on the coast of Thrace, and were 
one of the richest and most powerful peoples 
in the X T . of the Aegaean. They were sub- 
dued by the Persians under Mardonius, and 
subsequently became part of the Athenian 
maritime empire. They revolted, however, 
from Athens, in b.c. 465, and after sustain- 
ing a siege of 3 years, were subdued by 
Cimon in 463. They again revolted from 
Athens in 411, and called in the Spartans, 
but the island was again restored to the 
Athenians by Thrasybulus in 407. 

THAUMAS (-antis), son of Pontus and 
Ge, and by the Oceanid Electra, the father 
of Iris and the Harpies. Hence Iris is called 
Tlunimantias, Thaumantis, and Thaumantea 
rir go. 

THEAXO (-us). (1) Daughter of Cisseus, 
wife of Antenor, and priestess of Athena 
(Minerva) at Ilion. — (2) A celebrated female 
philosopher of the Pythagorean school, 



THEBAE. 



419 



THEMIS. 



appears to have been the wife of Pytha- 
goras, and the mother by him of Telauges, 
Mnesarchus, Myia, and Arignote ; but the 
accounts respecting her were various. 

THEBAE (-arum), in the poets sometimes 
THEBE (-es), aft. DIOSPOLIS MAGNA, 
i.e., Great City of Jove, in Scripture NO, or 
NO AMMON, was the capital of Thebai's, or 
Upper Egypt, and, for a long time, of the 
whole country. It was reputed the oldest 
city of the world. It stood in about the 
centre of the Thebai'd, on both banks of the 
Nile, above Coptos, and in the Xomos Cop- 
tites. It appears to have been at the height 
of its splendour, as the capital of Egypt, and 
as a chief seat of the worship of Amnion, 
about b.c. 1600. The fame of its grandeur 
had reached the Greeks as early as the time 
of Homer, who describes it, with poetical I 
exaggeration, as having a hundred gates, 
from each of which it could send out 200 
war chariots, fully armed. Its real extent 
was calculated by the Greek writers at 140 
stadia (14 geog. miles) in circuit. That J 
these computations are not exaggerated, is 
proved by the existing ruins, which extend 
from side to side of the valley of the Nile, | 
here about 6 miles wide ; while the rocks 
which bound the valley are perforated with 
tombs. These ruins, which are perhaps the 
most magnificent in the world, enclose 
within their site the 4 modern villages of 
Carnae, Luxor, JLedi?iet Abou, and Gournou. 

THEBAE (-arum), in Europe. (1) (Theba, 
Turkish Stiva), the chief city in Boeotia, was 
situated in a plain S.E. of the lake Helice, and 
N.E. of Plataeae. Its acropolis, which was an 
oval eminence, of no great height, was called 
Cadmea, because it was said to have been 
founded by Cadmus, the leader of a Phoe- 
nician colony. It is said that the fortifications 
of the city were constructed by Amphion and 
his brother Zethus ; and that, when Amphion 
played his lyre, the stones moved of their 
own accord, and formed the wall. The terri- 
tory of Thebes was called Thebais, and 
extended E. -wards as far as the Euboean sea. 
No city is more celebrated in the mythical 
ages of Greece than Thebes. It was here 
that the use of letters was first introduced 
from Phoenicia into W. Europe. It was the 
reputed birthplace of the 2 great divinities, 
Dionysus (Bacchus) and Hercules. It was 
also the native city of the seer Tiresias, as 
well as of the great musician, Amphion. It 
was the scene of the tragic fate of Oedipus, 
and of the war of the " Seven against 
Thebes." A few years afterwards " The 
Epigoni," or descendants of the seven heroes, 
marched against Thebes to revenge their 
fathers' death ; they took the city, and razed 



it to the ground. It appears at the earliest 
historical period as a large and flourishing 
city ; and it is represented as possessing 7 
gates, the number assigned to it in the 
ancient legends. The Thebans were from an 
early period inveterate enemies of their 
neighbours, the Athenians. In the Pelopon- 
nesian war they espoused the Spartan side, 
and contributed not a little to the downfall of 
Athens. But, in common with the other 
Greek states, they soon became disgusted 
with the Spartan supremacy, and joined the 
confederacy formed against Sparta in b.c. 
394. The peace of Antalcidas, in 387, put 
an end to hostilities in Greece ; but the 
treacherous seizure of the Cadmea by the 
Lacedaemonian general, Phoebidas, in 382, 
and its recovery by the Theban exiles in 379, 
led to a war between Thebes and Sparta, in 
which the former not only recovered its inde- 
pendence, but for ever destroyed the Lace- 
daemonian supremacy. This was the most 
glorious period in the Theban annals ; and 
the decisive defeat of the Spartans at the 
battle of Leuctra, in 371, made Thebes the 
first power in Greece. Her greatness, how- 
ever, was mainly due to the pre-eminent 
abilities of her citizens, Epaminondas and 
Pelopidas ; and with the death of the former 
at the battle of Mantinea, in 362, she lost the 
supremacy which she had so recently gained. 
The Thebans were induced, by the eloquence 
of Demosthenes, to forget their old animosi- 
ties against the Athenians, and to join the 
latter in protecting the liberties of Greece 
against Philip of Macedon ; but their united 
forces were defeated by Philip, at the battle 
of Chaeronea, in 338. Soon after the death 
of Philip and the accession of Alexander, the 
Thebans made a last attempt to recover their 
liberty, but were cruelly punished by the 
young king. The city was taken by Alex- 
ander in 336, and was entirely destroyed, 
with the exception of the temples, and the 
house of the poet \ Pindar ; 6000 inhabitants 
were slain, and 30,000 sold as slaves. In 
316 the city was rebuilt by Cassander, with 
the assistance of the Athenians. In 290 it 
was taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and 
again suffered greatly. After the Macedonian 
period Thebes rapidly declined in importance ; 
and it received its last blow from Sulla, who 
gave half of its territory to the Delphians. — 
(2) Surnamed Phthioticae, an important 
city of Thessaly, in the district Phthiotis. 

THEBAIS. * [Aegyptus.] 

THEBE (-es), a city of Mysia, on the 
wooded slope of M. Placus, destroyed by 
Achilles. It was said to have been the birth- 
place of Andromache and Chrysei's. 

THEMIS (-idis), daughter of Uranus and 
e e 2 



THEMI5CYRA. 



THEOCRITUS. 



Ge, was married to Zeus (Jupiter), by -whom 
she became the mother of the Horae, Eu- 
nomia, Dice (Astraea), Irene, and of the 
Moerae. In the Homeric poems, Themis is 
the personification of the order of things 
established by law, custom, and equity, 
whence she is described as reigning in the 
assemblies of men, and as convening, by the 
command of Zeus, the assembly of the gods. 
She dwells in Olympus, and is on friendly 
terms with Hera (Juno) . She is also described 
as a prophetic divinity, and is said to have 
been in possession of the Delphic oracle as 
the successor of Ge, and predecessor of Apollo. 
Xyniphs, believed to be daughters of Zeus 
and Themis, lived in a cave on the river 
Eridanus, and the Hesperides also are called 
daughters of Zeus and Themis. On coins she 
often bears a resemblance to the figure of 
Athena (Minerva), and holds a cornucopia and 
a pair of scales. 

THOilSCYRA, a plain on the coast of 
Pontus, extending E. of the river Iris, beyond 
the Thermodon, celebrated from very ancient 
times as the country of the Amazons. 

THEMISTIUS (-i), a distinguished phi- 
losopher and rhetorician, was a Paphlagonian, 
and flourished, first at Constantinople, and 
afterwards at Rome, in the reigns of Con- 
stantius, Julian, Jovian, Yalens, Gratian, 
and Theodosius. 

THEMISTOCLES (-is), the celebrated 
Athenian, was the son of Xeocles and Abro- 
tonon, a Thracian woman, and was born 
about b.c. 514. In his youth he had an im- 
petuous character ; he displayed great intel- 
lectual power, combined with a lofty ambition, 
and desire of political distinction. He began 
his career by setting himself in opposition to 
those who had most power, and especially to 
Aristides, to whose ostracism (in 483) he 
contributed. From this time he was the 
political leader in Athens. In 481 he was 
Archon Eponymus ; about which time he 
persuaded the Athenians to employ the pro- 
duce of the silver mines of Laurium in 
building ships, instead of distributing it 
among the Athenian citizens. Upon the 
invasion of Greece by Xerxes, Themistocles 
was appointed to the command of the Athe- 
nian fleet ; and to his energy, prudence, 
foresight, and courage, the Greeks mainly 
owed their salvation from the Persian do- 
minion. Upon the approach of Xerxes, the 
Athenians, on the advice of Themistocles, 
deserted their city, and removed their 
women, cbildren, and infirm persons, to Sala- 
mis, Aegina, and Troezen. A panic having 
seized the Spartans and other Greeks, The- 
mistocles sent a faithful slave to the Persian 
commanders, inforniing them that the Greeks 



intended to make their escape, and that the 
Persians had now the opportunity of accom- 
plishing a noble enterprise, if they would 
only cut off their retreat. The Persians 
! believed what they were told, and in the 
night their fleet occupied the whole of the 
channel between Salamis and the mainland. 
The Greeks were thus compelled to fight ; 
! and the result was the great and glorious 
i victory, in which the greater part of the fleet 
of Xerxes was destroyed. This victory, 
! which was due to Themistocles, established 
! his reputation among the Greeks. Yet his 
influence does not appear to have survived 
the expulsion of the Persians from Greece 
and the fortification of the ports of Athens, 
; to which he had advised the Athenians. He 
was probably accused of peculation, and 
perhaps justly, for he was not very scru- 
pulous ; at all events he was ostracised in 
471, and retired to Argos. After the dis- 
covery of the treasonable correspondence of 
| Pausanias with the Persian king, the Lacedae- 
; nionians sent to Athens to accuse Themis- 
j tocles of being privy to the design of 
! Pausanias ; whereupon the Athenians sent 
i off persons with the Lacedaemonians with 
j instructions to arrest him (466;. Themis- 
tocles, hearing of what was designed against 
I him, first fled from Argos to Corcyra ; then 
to Epirus, where he took refuge in the house 
I of Admetus, king of the Moiossi, and finally 
! reached the coast of Asia in safety. Xerxes 
| was now dead (465), and Artaxerxes was on 
the throne. Themistocles went up to visit 
i the king at his royal residence ; and on his 
j arrival he sent the king a letter, in which he 
promised to do him a good service, and 
prayed that he might be allowed to wait a 
year, and then to explain personally what 
brought him there. In a year he made him- 
self master of the Persian language and the 
! Persian usages, and, being presented to the 
king, obtained the greatest influence over 
him, and was presented with a handsome 
allowance, after the Persian fashion. Mag- 
-nesia supplied him with bread, Lampsacus 
with wine, and Myus with the other pro- 
visions. But before he could accomplish any- 
thing he died, probably by poison, ad- 
ministered by himself, from despair of 
accomplishing anything against his country. 
Themistocles had great talents, but little 
morality; and thus ended his career, un- 
happily and ingloriously. He died in 449, 
at the age of 65. 

THEOCLYMEXUS (-i), a soothsayer, son 
of Polyphides of Hyperasia, and a descendant 
of Melampus. 

THEOCRITUS (-i). (1) Of Chios, an 
orator, sophist, and perhaps an historian, in 



THEODECTES. 



421 



THEOGNIS. 



the time of Alexander the Great. None of 
his works are extant with the exception of 
2 or 3 epigrams, among- which is a very 
hitter one upon Aristotle. — (2) The celebrated 
bucolic poet, was a native of Syracuse, and the 
son of Praxagoras and Philinna. He visited 
Alexandria during- the latter end of the 
reign of Ptolemy Soter, where he received 
the instruction of Philetas and Asclepiades, 
and began to distinguish himself as a poet. 
His first efforts obtained for him the patron- 
age of Ptolemy Philadelphia, who was 
associated in the kingdom with his father, 
Ptolemy Soter, in b.c. 285, and in whose 
praise the poet wrote the 14th, 15th, 
and 17th Idyls. Theocritus afterwards re- 
turned to Syracuse, and lived there under 
Hiero II. It appears from the 16th Idyl that 
he was dissatisfied, both with the want of 
liberality on the part of Hiero in rewarding 
him for his poems, and with the political 
state of his native country. It may there- 
fore be supposed that he devoted the latter 
part of his life almost entirely to the con- 
templation of those scenes of nature and of 
country life, on his representations of which 
his fame chiefly rests. Theocritus was the 
creator of bucolic poetry as a branch of Greek, 
and through imitators, such as Virgil, of Roman 
literature. The bucolic idyls of Theocritus 
are of a dramatic and mimetic character, and 
are pictures of the ordinary life of the 
common people of Sicily. 

THEODECTES (-ae), of Phaselis, in Pam- 
phylia, was a highly distinguished rheto- 
rician and tragic poet in the time of Philip 
of Macedon. The greater part of his life was 
spent at Athens, where he died at the age 

of 4i; 

THEODORICUS or THEODERICUS. 
(I.) King of the Visigoths from a.d. 418 to 
451, fell fighting on the side of Aetius 
and the Romans at the great battle of 
Chalons, in which Attila was defeated, 
451. — (II.) King of the Visigoths a.d. 
452 — 466, 2nd son of Theodoric I., was 
assassinated in 466 by his brother Euric, who 
succeeded him on the throne. Theodoric II. 
was a patron of letters and learned men. — 
(III.) Surnamedthe Great, king of the Ostro- 
goths, succeeded his father Theodemir, in 475. 
Theodoric entered Italy in 489, and after de- 
feating Odoacer in 3 great battles, and laying 
siege to Ravenna, compelled Odoacer to capi- 
tulate on condition that he and Theodoric 
should rule jointly over Italy ; but Odoacer 
was soon afterwards murdered by his more 
fortunate rival (493). Theodoric thus became 
master of Italy, which he ruled for 3 3 years, 
till his death in 526. His long reign was 
prosperous and beneficent. Theodoric was 



a patron of literature; and among his min- 
isters were Cassiodorus and Boethius, the 
two last writers who can claim a place in the 
literature of ancient Rome. 

THEODORUS (-i). (1) Of Byzantium, a 
rhetorician, and a contemporary of Plato. — 
(2) A philosopher of the Cyrenaic school, 
usually designated by ancient writers " the 
Atheist." He resided for some time at 
Athens ; and being banished thence, went to 
Alexandria, where he entered the service of 
Ptolemy son of Lagus. — (3) An eminent 
rhetorician of the age of Augustus, was a 
native of Gadara. He settled at Rhodes, 
where Tiberius, afterwards emperor, during 
his retirement (b.c. 6 — a.d. 2) to that island, 
was one of his hearers. He also taught at 
Rome. Theodorus was the founder of a 
school of rhetoricians called " Theodorei." 

THEODOSIUS (-i). (I.)- Surnamed the 
Great, Roman emperor of the East, a. d. 
37 8 — 395, was the son of the general 
Theodosius, and was born in Spain about 346. 
He acquired a considerable military repu- 
tation in the lifetime of his father, under 
whom he served ; and after the death of 
Valens, was proclaimed emperor of the East 
by Gratian. The Roman empire in the East 
was then in a critical position, owing to the 
inroads of the Goths ; but Theodosius gained 
two signal victories over the barbarians, and 
concluded a peace with them in 382. In 
387 he defeated and put to death Maximus, 
whom he had previously acknowledged em- 
peror of Spain, Gaul, and Britain. In 390 
Theodosius gave a signal instance of his 
savage temper. A serious riot having broken 
out at Thessalonica, in which the imperial 
officer and several of his troops were mur- 
dered, Theodosius resolved to take the most 
signal vengeance upon the whole city. The 
inhabitants were invited to the games of the 
Circus ; and as soon as the place was full, 
the soldiers were employed for 3 hours in 
slaughtering them. It was on this occasion 
that St. Ambrose, archbishop of Milan, after 
representing his crime to Theodosius, refused 
him admission to the church, and finally 
compelled him to entreat pardon before all 
the congregation. Theodosius died at Milan 
17th January, 395. — (II.) Roman emperor of 
the East, a.d. 408 — 450, was born in 401, 
and was only 7 years of age at the death of 
his father Arcadius, whom he succeeded. 
Theodosius was a weak prince ; and his 
sister Pulcheria possessed the virtual govern- 
ment of the empire during his long reign. 
The compilation called the Codex Theodo- 
siamis was begun in his reign. 

THEOGNIS (-idis), of Megara, an ancient 
elegiac and gnomic poet, is said to have 



THEON. 



422 



THERAMENES. 



flourished b.c. 548 or 544. He was a noble by 
birth ; and all his sympathies were with the 
nobles. He was banished with the leaders of 
the oligarchical party, having previously been 
deprived of all his property ; and most of his 
poems were composed while he was an exile. 
The genuine fragments of Theognis contain 
much that is highly poetical in thought, and 
elegant as well as forcible in expression. 

THEON (-onis). (1) The name of 2 ma- 
thematicians, namely, Theon the elder, of 
Smyrna, an arithmetician, who lived in the 
time of Hadrian ; and Theon the younger, of 
Alexandria, the father of Hypatia, best 
known as an astronomer and geometer, who 
lived in the time of Theodosius the elder. — 
(2) Aelivs Theox, of Alexandria, a sophist 
and rhetorician of uncertain date, wrote 
several works, of which one entitled Progym- 
nasmata is still extant. — (3) Of Samos, a 
painter who flourished from the time of 
Philip onwards to that of the successors of 
Alexander. 

THEOXOE (-es), daughter of Proteus and 
Psammathe, also called Idothea. [Idothea.] 
THEOPHAXES (-is), C>\ POMPEIUS, of 
Mytiiene in Lesbos, a learned Greek, was one 
of the most intimate friends of Pompey, and 
wrote the history of his campaigns. 

THEOPHRASTUS (4), the "Greek philo- 
sopher, was a native of Eresus in Lesbos, 
and studied philosophy at Athens, first under 
Plato, and afterwards under Aristotle. He 
became the favourite pupil of Aristotle, who 
named Theophrastus his successor in the 
presidency of the Lyceum, and in his will 
bequeathed to him his library and the ori- 
ginals of his own writings. Theophrastus 
was a worthy successor of his great master, 
and nobly sustained the character of the 
school. He is said to have had 2000 disciples, 
and among them such men as the comic poet 
Menander. He was highly esteemed by the 
kings Philippus, Cassander, and Ptolemy, 
and was not the less the object of the regard 
of the Athenian people, as was decisively 
shown when he was impeached of impiety'; 
for he was not only acquitted, but his accuser 
would have fallen a victim to his calumny, 
had not Theophrastus generously interfered to 
save him. He died in b.c 287, having pre- 
sided over the Academy about 35 years. His 
age is variously stated. According to some 
accounts he lived 85 years, according to 
others 107 years. He is said to have closed 
his life with the complaint respecting the 
short duration of human existence, that 
it ended just when the insight into its pro- 
blems was beginning. He wrote a great 
number of works, the great object of which 
was the development of the Aristotelian 



philosophy; his Characteres and his work 
On Plants are extant. 

THEOPOMPUS (-i). (1) King of Sparta, 
reigned about B.C. 7 70 — 720. He is said to 
have established the ephoralty, and to have 
been mainly instrumental in bringing the 1st 
Messenian war to a successful issue. — (2) Of 
Chios, a celebrated Greek historian, was the 
son of Damasistratus and the brother of 
Caucalus the rhetorician. He was born 
about b.c 378, and attended the school of 
rhetoric, which Isocrates opened at Chios. 
He accompanied his father into banishment, 
when the latter was exiled on account of his 
espousing the interests of the Lacedaemonians, 
but he was restored to his native country in 
the 45th year of his age (333), inconsequence 
of the letters of Alexander the Great, in which 
he exhorted the Chians to recal their exiles. 
On his return, Theopompus, who was a man 
of great wealth as well as learning, naturally 
took an important position in the state ; but 
his vehement temper, and his support of the 
aristocratical party, soon raised against him 
a host of enemies. Of these one of the most 
formidable was the sophist Theocritus. As 
long as Alexander lived, his enemies dared 
not take any open proceedings against 
Theopompus ; and even after the death of the 
Macedonian monarch, he appears to have 
enjoyed for some years the protection of the 
royal house ; but he was eventually expelled 
from Chios as a disturber of the public peace, 
and fled to Egypt to Ptolemy, about 305, 
being at the time 75 years of age. We are 
informed that Ptolemy not only refused to 
receive Theopompus, but would even have 
put him to death as a dangerous busybody, 
had not some of his friends interceded for 
his life. Of his farther fate we have no 
particulars. None of the works of Theo- 
pompus have come down to us. Eesides his 
Histories he composed several orations. His 
style resembled that of his master Isocrates, 
and he is praised by the ancients for his 
diligence and accuracy, but censured for the 
severity and acrimony of his judgments. 

THERA (-ae : Santorin), an island in the 
Aegaean sea, and the chief of the Sporades, 
distant from Crete 700 stadia, and 25 Roman 
miles S. of the island of Ios. 

THERAMENES (-is), an Athenian, son of 
Hagnon, was a leading member of the oligar- 
chical government of the 400 at Athens, in 
b.c 411. Subsequently, however, he not 
only took a prominent part in the deposition 
of the 400, but came forward as the accuser 
of Antiphon and Archeptolemus, who had 
been his intimate friends, but whose death he 
was now the mean and cowardly instrument 
in procuring. After the capture of Athens 



THERAPXAE. 



423 



THESEUS. 



by Lysander, Theramenes was chosen one of 
the Thirty Tyrants (404) . But as from policy 
he endeavoured to check the tyrannical pro- 
ceedings of his colleagues, Critias accused him 
before the council as a traitor, and procured 
his condemnation by violence. When he had j 
drunk the hemlock, he dashed out the last j 
drops from the cup, exclaiming, " This to the : 
health of the lovely Critias ! " 

THERAPNAE (-arum), a town in Laconia, I 
on the left bank of the Eurotas, and a little j 
above Sparta, celebrated in mythology as the 
birthplace of Castor and Pollux. Menelaus ; 
and Helen were said to be buried here. 

THERAS, a Spartan, who colonised and I 
gave name to the island of Thera. 

THERASIA (-ae), a small island W. of 
Thera. 

THERM A, a town in Macedonia, afterwards j 
called Thessalonlca [Thessaloxica], situated j 
at the X.E. extremity of a great gulf of the 
Aegaean sea, called Thekmaicus or Thekmaevs 
Sixrs, from the town at its head. This gulf ! 
was also called Macedonicus Sinus : its modern 
name is Gulf of Saloniki. 

THERMAE (-arum), a town in Sicily, built 
by the inhabitants of Hiinera, after the de- 
struction of the latter city by the Cartha- 
ginians. [Htmera.] 

THERMAICUS SINUS. [Therma.] 

THERMODOX (-ontis : Thermeh), a river j 
of Pontus, in the district of Themiscyra, the 
reputed country of the Amazons, rises in a 
mountain called Amazonius M. (and still 
Mason Dagh), near Phanaroea, and falls into 
the sea about 30 miles E. of the mouth of the j 
Iris. At its mouth was the city of Themis- [ 
cyra ; and there is still, on the W. side of the 
mouth of the Thermeh, a place of the same I 
name, Thermeh* 

THERMOPYLAE, often called simply 
PYLAE (-arum), that is, the Hot Gates or I 
the Gates, a celebrated pass leading from I 
Thessaly into Locris. It lay between Mt. Oeta I 
and an inaccessible morass, forming the edge i 
of the Malic Gulf. At one end of the pass, 
close to Anthela, the mountain approached so 
close to the morass as to leave room for only I 
a single carriage between ; this narrow en- I 
trance formed the W. gate of Thermopylae. 
About a mile to the E. the mountain again \ 
approached close to the sea, near the Locrian 
town of Alpeni, thus forming the E. gate of j 
Thermopylae. The space between these 2 
gates was wider and more open, and was dis- 
tinguished by its abundant flow of hot springs, , 
which were sacred to Hercules : hence the 
name of the place. The pass of Thermopylae I 
is especially celebrated on account of the 
heroic defence of Leonidas and the 300 Spar- j 
tans against the niightv host of Xerxes. 



THERMUM (-i) or THERMA (-atis), a 
town of the Aetolians near Stratus, with 
warm mineral springs, and regarded for some 
time as the capital of the country. 

THEROX (-onis), tyrant of Agrigentum in 
Sicily, reigned from about b.c. 488 tiU his 
death in 472. He shared with Gelon in the 
great victory gained over the Carthaginians 
in 480. 

THERSAXDER (-dri), son of Polynices 
and Argia, and one of the Epigoni, went with 
Agamemnon to Troy, and was slain in that 
expedition_by Telephus. 

THERSITES (-ae), son of Agrius, the most 
deformed man and impudent talker among 
the Greeks at Troy. According to the later 
poets he was killed by Achilles, because he 
had ridiculed him for lamenting the death of 
Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons. 

THESEUS (-eos, -ei, or -el), the great le- 
gendary hero of Attica, was the son of Aegeus, 
king of Athens, and of Aethra, the daughter 
of Pittheus, king of Troezen. He was brought 
up at Troezen ; and when he reached matu- 
rity, he took, by his mother's directions, the 
sword and sandals, the tokens which had 
been left by Aegeus, and proceeded to Athens. 
Eager to emulate Hercules, he went by land, 
displaying his prowess by destroying the rob- 
bers and monsters that infested the country. 
By means of the sword which he carried, 
Theseus was recognised by Aegeus, acknow- 
ledged as his son, and declared his successor, 
to the exclusion of the sons of Pallas. The 
capture of the Marathonian bull, which had 
long laid waste the surrounding country, was 
the next exploit of Theseus. After this he 
went of his own accord as one of the 7 youths, 
whom the Athenians were obliged to send 
every year, with 7 maidens, to Crete, in order 
to be devoured by the Minotaur. When they 
arrived at Crete, Ariadne, the daughter of 
Minos, became enamoured of Theseus, and 
provided him with a sword with which he 
slew the Minotaur, and a clue of thread by 
which he found his way out of the labyrinth. 
Having effected his object, Theseus sailed 
away, carrying off Ariadne, There were va- 
rious accounts about Ariadne ; but according 
to the general account Theseus abandoned 
her in the island of Xaxos on his way home. 
[Ariadxe.] He was generally believed to 
have had by her two sons, Oeonopion and 
Staphylus. As the vessel in which Theseus 
sailed approached Attica, he neglected to 
hoist the white sail, which was to have been 
the signal of the success of the expedition ; 
whereupon Aegeus, thinking that his son had 
perished, threw himself into the sea "Aegevs.] 
Theseus thus became king of Athens. One of 
the most celebrated of the adventures of 



THESPIAE. 



424 



THE S SALT A, 



Theseus was his expedition against the Ama- 
zons. He is said to have assailed them before 
they had recovered from the attack of Her- 
cules, and to have carried off their queen, 
Antiope. The Amazons in their turn invaded 
Attica, and penetrated into Athens itself ; and 
the final battle in which Theseus overcame 
them was fought in the very midst of the city. 
By Antiope, Theseus was said to have had a 
son named Hippolytus or Demophoon, and 
after her death to have married Phaedra 
[Hippolytus, Phaedra]. Theseus figures in 
almost all the great heroic expeditions. He 
was one of the Argonauts ; he joined in the 
Calydonian hunt, and aided Adrastus in re- 
covering the bodies of those slain before 
Thebes. He contracted a close friendship 
with Pirithous, and aided him and the Lapi- 
thae against the Centaurs. With, the assist- 
ance of Pirithous, he' carried off Helen from 
Sparta while she was quite a girl, and placed 
her at Aphidnae, under the care of Aethra. 
In return he assisted Pirithous in his attempt 
to carry off Persephone from the lower world. 
Pirithous perished in the enterprise, and 
Theseus was kept in hard durance until he 
was delivered by Hercules, Meantime Castor 
and Pollux invaded Attica, and carried off 
Helen and Aethra, Academus having informed 
the brothers where they were to be found 
[ AcADEirus] . Menestheus also endeavoured 
to incite the people against Theseus, who on 
his return found himself unable to re-establish 
his authority, and retired to Scyros, where 
he was treacherously slain by Lycomedes. 
The departed hero was believed to have 
appeared to aid the Athenians at the battle 
of Marathon. There can be no doubt that 
Theseus is a purely legendary hero, though 
the Athenians in later times regarded him as 
an historical personage, and as the author 
of several of their political institutions. 

THESPIAE (-arum) or THESPIA (-ae : 
JEremo or Pdmo~kastro), an ancient town in 
Boeotia on the S.E. slope of Mt. Helicon, at 
no great distance from the Crissaean Gulf. 
It was burnt to the ground by the Persians, 
but subsequently rebuilt. At Thespiae was 
preserved the celebrated marble statue of 
Eros by Praxiteles, who had given it to 
Phryne, by whom it was presented to her 
native town. [Praxiteles.] Erom the 
vicinity of Thespiae to Mt. Helicon the 
Muses are called Thesjnades, and Helicon 
itself is named the Thespia rupes. 

THESPIS (-is), the celebrated father of 
Greek tragedy, was a contemporary of Pisis- 
tratus, and a native of Icarus, one of the 
demi in Attica, where the worship of Dionysus 
(Bacchus) had long prevailed. The alteration 
made by Thespis, and which gave to the old 



tragedy a new and dramatic character, was 
very simple but very important. He intro- 
duced an actor, for the sake of giving rest 
to the chorus, in which capacity he probably 
appeared himself, taking various parts in the 
same piece, under various disguises, which 
he was enabled to assume by means of linen 
masks, the invention of which is ascribed to 
him. The first representation of Thespis was 
in b.c. 535. Eor further details see Met. of 
Antiq. art. Tragoedia. 

THESPIUS (-i), son of Erechtheus, who, 
according to some, founded the town of 
Thespiae in Boeotia. His descendants are 
called Thespiadae. 

THESPBOTI (-orum), a people of Epirus, 
inhabiting the district called after them 
Thesprotia or Thesprotis, which extended 
along the coast from the Ambracian gulf N.- 
wards as far as the river Thyamis, and 
inland as far as the territory of the Molossi. 
The Thesproti were the most ancient in- 
habitants of Epirus, and are said to have 
derived their name from Thesprotus, the son 
of Lycaon. They were Pelasgians, and in 
their country was the oracle of Dodona, the 
great centre of the Pelasgic worship. From 
Thesprotia issued the Thessalians, who took 
possession of the country afterwards called 
Thessaly. 

THESSALIA (-ae), the largest division of 
Greece, was bounded on the N. by the Cam- 
bunian mountains, which separated it from 
Macedonia ; on the W. by Mt. Pindus, which 
separated it from Epirus ; on the E. by the 
Aegaean sea ; and on the S. by the Maliac 
gulf and Mt. Oeta, which separated it from 
Locris, Phocis, and Aetolia. Thessaly Proper 
is a vast plain shut in on every side by moun- 
tain barriers, broken only at the N.E. corner 
by the valley and defile of Tempe, which 
separates Ossa from Olympus. This plain is 
drained by the river Peneus and its affluents, 
and is said to have been originally a vast 
lake, the waters of which were afterwards 
carried off through the vale of Tempe by 
some sudden convulsion, which rent the rocks 
of this valley asunder. In addition to the 
plain already described there were 2 other 
districts included under the general name of 
Thessaly : one called Magnesia, being a long 
narrow strip of country, extending along the 
J coast of the Aegaean sea from Tempe to the 
Pagasaean gulf, and bounded on the W. by 
Mts. Ossa and Olympus ; and the other being 
a long narrow vale at the extreme S. of the 
country, lying between Mts. Othrys and Oeta, 
and drained by the river Spercheus. Thes- 
saly Proper was divided in very early times 
into 4 districts or tetrarchies — a division 
which we still find subsisting in the Pelo- 



THE SS ALIA. - 



425 



THETIS. 



ponnesian war. These districts were — (1) 
Hestiaeotis, the X.\V~. part of Thessaly, 
hounded on the N. by Macedonia, on the W. 
by Epirus, on the E. by Pelasgiotis, and on 
the S. by Thessaliotis : the Peneus may be 
said in general to have formed its S. limit. — 
(2) Pelasgiotis, the E. part of the Thes- 
salian plain, was bounded on the N. by 
Macedonia, on the W. by Hestiaeotis, on the 
E. by Magnesia, and on the S. by the Sinus 
Pagasaeus and Phthiotis. — (3) Thessaliotis, 
the S.W. part of the Thessalian plain, was 
bounded on the N. by Hestiaeotis, on the W. 
by Epirus, on the E. by Pelasgiotis, and on 
the S. by Dolopia and Phthiotis. — (4) 
Phthiotis, the S.E. of Thessaly, bounded on 
the N. by Thessaliotis, on the W. by Dolopia, 
on the S. by the Sinus Maliacus, and on the 
E. by the Pagasaean gulf. It is in this dis- 
trict that Homer places Phthia and Hellas 
Proper, and the dominions of Achilles. 
Besides these there were 4 other districts, 
yiz. : — (5) Magnesia. [Magnesia.] — (8) Do- 
lopia, a small district bounded on the E. by 
Phthiotis, on the N. by Thessaliotis, on the 
W. by Athamania, and on the S. by Oetaea. 
The Dolopes were an ancient people, for they 
are not only mentioned by Homer as fighting 
before Troy, but they also sent deputies to 
the Amphictyonic assembly. — (7) Oetaea, a 
district in the upper valley of the Spercheus, 
lying between Mts. Othrys and Oeta, and 
bounded on the N. by Dolopia, on the S. by 
Phocis, and on the E. by Malis. — (8) Malis. 
[Malis.] — The Thessalians were a Thespro- 
tian tribe, and under the guidance of leaders, 
who are said to have been descendants of 
Hercules, invaded the W. part of the country, 
afterwards called Thessaliotis, whence they 
subsequently spread over the other parts of 
the country. For some time after the con- 
quest, Thessaly was governed by kings of the 
race of Hercules ; but the kingly power 
seems to have been abolished in early times, 
and the government in the separate cities 
became oligarchical, the power being chiefly 
in the hands of a few great families de- 
scended from the ancient kings. Of these 
two of the most powerful were the Aleuadae 
and the Scopadae, the former of whom ruled 
at Larissa, and the latter at Cranon or 
Crannon. At an early period the Thes- 
salians were united into a confederate body. 
Each of the 4 districts into which the country 
was divided probably regulated its affairs by 
some kind of provincial council ; and in case 
of war, a chief magistrate was elected under 
the name of Tagics (Ta^c?), whose commands 
were obeyed by all the 4 districts. This con- 
federacy, however, was not of much practical 
benefit to the Thessalian people, and appears 



to have been only used by the Thessalian 
nobles as a means of cementing and main- 
taining their power. The Thessalians never 
became of much importance in Grecian his- 
tory. In b.c. 344 Philip completely subjected 
Thessaly to Macedonia, by placing at the head 
of the 4 divisions of the country governors 
devoted to his interests. The victory of T. 
Flamininus at Cynoscephalae, in 197, again 
gave the Thessalians a semblance of inde- 
pendence under the protection of the Romans. 

THESSALOXICA (-ae : Saloniki), more 
anciently THEHMA, an ancient city in Mace- 
donia, situated at the X.E. extremity of the 
Sinus Thermaicus. Under the name of 
Therma it was not a place of much import- 
ance. It was taken and occupied by the 
Athenians a short time before the commence- 
ment of the Peloponnesian war (b.c. 432), 
but was soon after restored by them to Per- 
diccas. It was made an important city by 
Cassander, who collected in this place the 
inhabitants of several adjacent towns (about 
I b.c. 315), and who gave it the name of 
| Thessalonica, in honour of his wife, the 
I daughter of Philip, and sister of Alexander 
the Great. From this time it became a large 
and flourishing city. It was visited by the 
I Apostle Paul about a.d. 53; and about 2 
years afterwards he addressed from Corinth 
2 epistles to his converts in the city. 

THESTIUS (-i), son of Ares (Mars), and 
Demonice or Androdice, and, according to 
others, son of Agenor, and grandson of 
Pleuron, the king of Aetolia. He was the 
father of Iphiclus, Eiiippus, Plexippus, Eu- 
rypylus, Leda, Althaea, and Hypermnestra. 
The patronymic Thestiabes is given to his 
grandson Meleager, as well as to his sons, 
and the female patronymic Thestias, to his 
daughter Althaea, the mother of Meleager. 
• THESTOR (-oris), son of Idmon and 
Laothoe, and father of Calchas, Theocly- 
menus, Leucippe, and Theonoe. The patro- 
nymic Thestorides is frequently given to his 
son Calchas. 

THETIS (-idis), one of the daughters of 
Xereus and Doris, was a marine divinity, and 
j dwelt like her sisters, the Nereids, in the 
I depths of the sea, with her father, Xereus. 
She there received Dionysus (Bacchus) on his 
I flight from Lycurgus, and the god, in his 
gratitude, presented her with a golden urn. 
When Hephaestus (Vulcan) was thrown 
j down from heaven, he was likewise received 
by Thetis. She had been brought up by 
I Hera (Juno), and when she reached the age 
of maturity, Zeus (Jupiter) and Hera gave 
her, against her will, in marriage to Peleus. 
I Poseidon (Xeptune) and Zeus himself are 
i said bv some to have sued for her hand ; 



THIA. 



426 



TKRACIA. 



but "when Themis declared that the son of 
Thetis would he more illustrious than his 
father, both gods desisted from their suit. 
Others state that Thetis rejected the offers 
of Zeus, because she had been brought up by 
Hera ; and the god, to revenge himself, 
decreed that she should marry a mortal. 
Chiron then informed his friend Peleus how 
he might gain possession of her, even if she 
should metamorphose herself ; for Thetis, 
like Proteus, had the power of assuming any 
form she pleased. Peleus, instructed by 
Chiron, held the goddess fast till she assumed 
her proper form, and promised to marry 
him. The wedding was honoured with the 
presence of all the gods, except Eris or Dis- 
cord, who was not invited, and who avenged 
herself by throwing among the assembled 
gods the apple, which was the source of so 
much misery. [Pksss.] By Peleus, Thetis 
became the mother of Achilles, on whom she 
bestowed the tenderest care and love. 
[Achillas." 

THIA {-ae), daughter of "Cranus and Ge, 
one of the female Titans, became by Hyperion 
the mother of Helios Sol , Eos {Aurora}, and 
Selene (Luna), that is, she was regarded as 
the deity from whom all light proceeded. 

THIS, a great city of fpper Egypt, 
capital of the Thinites Xomos, and the seat 
of some of the ancient dynasties. 

XHlSBE (-es), a beautiful Babylonian 
maiden, beloved by Pyramus. The lovers, 
living in adjoining houses, often secretly 
conversed with each other through an open- 
ing in the wall, as their parents would not 
sanction their marriage. Once they agreed 
upon a rendezvous at the tomb of Ninus. 
Thisbe arrived first, and while she was 
waiting for Pyramus, she perceived a lioness, 
which had just tern to pieces an ox, and 
took to flight. "While running she lost her 
garment, which the lioness soiled with blood. 
In the meantime Pyramus arrived, and find- 
ing her garment covered with blood, he 
imagined that she had been murdered, and 
made away with himself under a mulberry 
tree, the fruit of which henceforth was as 
red as blood. Thisbe, who afterwards found 
the body of her lover, likewise killed herself. 

THISBE {-es}, afterwards THISBAE 
(-arum : Kakosia] , a town of Boeotia, on the 
borders of Phocis, and between Mt. Helicon 
and the Corinthian gulf. 

TEG ANTE A (-ae), a surname of the 
Taurian Artemis (Diana), derived from Thoas, 
king of Tauris. 

THOAS (-antis). (1) Son of Andraemon 
and Gorge, was king of Calydon and Pleu- 
ron, in Aetolia, and sailed with 40 ships 
against Troy. — 2, Son of Dionysus (Bacchus, 



and Ariadne, was king of Leninos, and 
married to Myrina, by whom he became the 
father of Hypsipyle and Sieinus. When the 
Lemnian women killed all the men in the 
island, Hypsipyle saved and concealed her 
father, Thoas. The patronymic TnoASTiAS 
is given to Hypsipyle, as the daughter of 
Thoas. — (3) Son of Borysthenes, and king 
of Tauris, into whose dominions Iphigenia 
was carried by Artemis, when she was to 
have been sacrificed. 

THORICUS {-i : TkeHko), one of the 12 
ancient towns in Attica, and subsequently a 
denius belonging to the tribe Acamantis, was 
situated on the S.E. coast, a little above 
Sunium. 

THRACIA (-ae), was in earlier times the 
name of the vast space of country bounded on 
the N. by the Danube, on the S. by the Pro- 
pontis and the Aegaean, on the E. by the 
Pontus Euxinus, and on the W. by the river 
Strymon, and the eastern-most of the Hlyrian 

; tribes. It was divided into 2 parts by 
Mt. Haemus (the Balkayi). running from 
W. to E., and separating the plain of the 
lower Danube from the rivers which fall 

: into the Aegaean. Two extensive mountain 

; ranges branch off from the S. side of Mt. 
Haemus ; one running S.E. towards Con- 

■ stantinople; and the other called Bhodope, 
E. of the preceding one, and also running in 
a S.E.-ly direction near the river N'estus. 
Between these two ranges there are many 
plains, which are drained by the Hebrus, the 

; largest river in Thrace. At a later time the 
name Thrace was applied to a more limited 

' extent of country. Thrace, in its widest 
extent, was peopled in the times of Hero- 
dotus and Thucydides by a vast number 
of different tribes; but their customs and 

i character were marked by great uniformity. 
They were savage, cruel, and rapacious, 
delighting in blood, but brave and warlike. 
In earlier times, however, some of the 
Thracian tribes must have been distin- 
guished by a higher degree of civilisation 

: than prevailed among them at a later period . 
The earliest Greek poets, Orpheus, Linus, 
Musaeus, and others, are all represented as 
coming from Thrace. Eumolpus, likewise, 
who founded the Eleusinian mysteries at 
Attica, is said to have been a Thracian, and 
to have fought against Erechtheus, king of 
Athens. We find mention of the Thracians in 
other parts of southern Greece, and also in 
Asia. The principal Greek colonies along 
the coast, beginning at the Strymon and 
going E. -wards, were Amphipolis, Abdera, 
Dicaea or Dicaepolis. Maf.ovea, Stryme, 
ICesekhbXA, and Aexos. The Thracian Cher- 
sonesus was probably colonised by the Greeks 



THRASEA. 



427 



THUCYDIDES. 



at an early period, but it did not contain any 
important Greek settlement till the migration 
of the first Miltiades to the country, during 
the reign of Pisistratus at Athens. [Cher- 
sonestjs.] On the Propontis the 2 chief 
Greek settlements were those of Perinthus 
and Selymbria ; and on the Thracian Bos- 
porus was the important town of Byzantium. 
There were only a few Greek settlements on 
the S.W. coast of the Euxine ; the most im- 
portant were those of Apollonia, Odessus, 
Callatis, Tomi, renowned as the place of 
Ovid's banishment, and Istria, near the S. 
mouth of the Danube. The Thracians are 
said to have been conquered by Sesostris, 
king of Egypt, and subsequently to have been 
subdued by the Teucrians and Mysians ; but 
the first really historical fact respecting them 
is their subjugation by Megabazus, the general 
of Darius. After the Persians had been 
driven out of Europe by the Greeks, the 
Thracians recovered their independence ; and 
at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war, 
almost all the Thracian tribes were united 
under the dominion of Sitalces, king of the 
Odrysae, whose kingdom extended from 
Abdera to the Euxine and the mouth of the 
Danube. In the 3rd year of the Pelopon- 
nesian war (b.c 429), Sitalces, who had 
entered into an alliance with the Athenians, 
invaded Macedonia with a vast army of 
150,000 men, but was compelled by the 
failure of provisions to return home, after 
remaining in Macedonia 30 days. Sitalces 
fell in battle against the Triballi in 424, and 
was succeeded by his nephew Seuthes, who 
during a long reign raised his kingdom to a 
height of power and prosperity which it had 
never previously attained. After the death 
of Seuthes, which appears to have happened 
a little before the close of the Peloponnesian 
war, we find his powerful kingdom split up 
into different parts. Philip, the father of 
Alexander the Great, reduced the greater 
part of Thrace ; and after the death of 
Alexander the country fell to the share of 
Lysimachus. It subsequently formed a part 
of the Macedonian dominions. We do not 
know at what period it became a Roman 
province. 

THRASEA (-ae), P. PAETUS, a dis- 
tinguished Roman senator, and Stoic philo- 
sopher, in the reign of Nero, was a native of 
Patavium and was probably born soon after 
the death of Augustus. He made the younger 
Cato his model, of whose life he wrote an 
account. He married Arria, the daughter of 
the heroic Arria, who showed her husband 
Caecina how to die ; and his wife was worthy 
of her mother and her husband. At a later 
period he gave his own daughter in marriage 



to Helvidius Priscus, who trod closely in the 
footsteps of his father-in-law. After incur- 
ring the hatred of Nero by the independence 
of his character, and the freedom with which 
he expressed his opinions, he was condemned 
to death by the senate by command of the 
emperor, a.d. 66. 

THRASYBULUS (4). (1) Tyrant of Mile- 
tus, was a contemporary of Periander and 
Alyattes, the king of Lydia. — (2) A celebrated 
Athenian, son of Lycus. He was zealously 
attached to the Athenian democracy, and 
took an active part in overthrowing the 
oligarchical government of the 400 in b.c. 
411. On the establishment of the Thirty 
Tyrants at Athens he was banished, but, by 
the assistance of the Thebans, succeeded in 
overthrowing the Ten, who had succeeded 
to the government, and eventually obtained 
possession of Athens, and restored the de- 
mocracy, 403. In 390 he commanded the 
Athenian fleet in the Aegaean, and was slain 
by the inhabitants of Aspendus. — (3) Brother 
of Gelon and Hieron, tyrants of Syracuse, 
the latter of whom he succeeded in b.c. 467, 
but was soon afterwards expelled by the 
Syracusans, whom he had provoked by his 
rapacity and cruelty. 

THRASYMACHUS (-i), a native of Chal- 
cedon, was a sophist, and one of the earliest 
cultivators of the art of rhetoric. He was a 
contemporary of Gorgias. 

THRASYMENUS. TTrasimexus.] 

THRONIUM (-i : Momani), the chief town 
of the Locri Epicnemidii, on the river 
Boagrius, at a short distance from the sea, 
with a harbour upon the coast. 

THUCYDIDES (-is). Q) An Athenian 
statesman, and leader of the aristocratic party 
in opposition to Pericles. He was ostracised 
in b.c. 444. — (2) The great Athenian his- 
torian, of the demus Halimus, was the son 
of Olorus or Orolus and Hegesipyle, and was 
born in b.c. 471. Thucydides is said to have 
been instructed in oratory by Antiphon, and 
in philosophy by Anaxagoras. Either by in- 
heritance or by marriage he possessed gold 
mines in that part of Thrace which is opposite 
to the island of Thasos, where he was a 
person of the greatest influence. He com- 
manded an Athenian squadron of 7 ships, at 
Thasus, 424, when Eucles, who commanded 
in Amphipolis, sent for his assistance against 
Brasidas ; but, failing in that enterprise, he 
became an exile, probably to avoid a severer 
punishment. He himself says that he lived 
20 years in exile (v. 26), and as it commenced 
in the beginning of 423, he may have re- 
turned to Athens in the beginning of 403, 
about the time when Thrasybulus liberated 
Athens. Thucydides is said to have been 



THULE. 



428 



TTBERIS. 



assassinated at Athens soon after his return ; 
and at all events his death cannot be placed 
later than 401. With regard to his work, 
we may conclude that we have a more exact 
history of a long eventful period by Thucy- 
dides than we have of any period in modern 
history, equally long and equally eventful. 

THULE (-es), an island in the X. part of 
the German Ocean, regarded by the ancients 
as the most N.-ly point in the whole earth, 
and by some supposed to have been Iceland ; 
by others, one of the Shetland group. 

THUEII (-oruni), more rarely THURIUM 
(-i : Terra Xuova), a Greek city in Lucania, 
founded b.c. 443, near the site of the ancient 
Sybaris, which had been destroyed more than 
60 years before. [Sybaris.] It was built by 
the remains of the population of Sybaris, 
assisted by colonists from all parts of Greece, 
but especially from Athens. Among these 
colonists were the historian Herodotus and 
the orator Lysias. The new city, from which 
the remains of the Sybarites were soon ex- 
pelled, rapidly attained great power and pros- 
perity, and became one of the most important 
Greek towns in the S. of Italy. 

THYAMIS (-is : Kalanw), a river in 
Epirus, forming the boundary between Thes- 
protia and the district of Cestryna. 

THYADES. [Thyia.i 

THYESTES (-ae), son of Pelops and 
Hippodamia, was the brother of Atreus and 
the father of Aegisthus. [Atreus and 
Aegisthes.] 

THYIA (-ae), a daughter of Castalius or 
Cephisseus, became by Apollo the mother of 
Delphus. She is said to have been the first 
to have sacrificed to Dionysus (Bacchus), 
and to have celebrated orgies in his honour. 
From her the Attic women, who went yearly I 
to Mt, Parnassus to celebrate the Dionysiac 
orgies with the Delphian Thyiades, received 
themselves the name of Thyiades or Thyades. \ 
This word, however, comes from <9-£<w, and | 
properly signifies the raging or frantic 
women. 

THYMBRA (-ae) . (1) A city of the Troad, 
N. of Ilium Yetus, with a celebrated temple 
of Apollo, who derived from this place the 
epithet Thymbraeus. — (2) A wooded district 
in Phrygia, no doubt connected with 
Thyme b£um. 

THYMBRIUM (-i), a small town of Phry- | 
gia, 10 parasangs W, of Tyriaeum, with the 
so-called fountain of Midas. 

THYMBRIUS (-i : TJiimbrek), a river of 
the Troad^ falling into the Scamander. 

THYMELE (-es), a celebrated mima or 
female actress in the reign of Domitian, with I 
whom she was_a great favourite. 

THYMOETES (-ae), one of the elders of | 



Troy, whose son was killed by the order of 
Priam, because a soothsayer had predicted 
that Troy would be destroyed by a boy, born 
on the day on which this child was born. 

THYXI (-orum), a Thracian people, whose 
original abodes were near Salmydessus, but 
who afterwards passed over into Bithyxia. 

THYNIA (-ae). (1) The land of the Thyni 
in Thrace. — (2) Another name for Bithyxia. 

THYOXE (-es), the name of Semele, under 
which Dionysus (Bacchus), fetched her from 
Hades, and introduced her among the im- 
mortals. Hence Dionysus is also called 
Thyoxees. 

THYREA (-ae), the chief town in Cymi- 
ria. the district on the borders of Laconia and 
Argolis, was situated upon a height on the bay 
of the sea called after it Sixes Thyreates. 
The territory of Thyrea was called Thyeeatis, 

THYSSAGETAE (-arum), a people of Sar- 
matia Asiatica, on the E. shores of the Palus 
Maeotis. 

TIBAREXI or TIBABI (-oruni) ; a quiet 
agricultural people on the X. coast of Pontus, 
E. of the river Iris. 

TIBERIAS. (1) A city of Galilee, on the 
S.W. shore of the Lake of Tiberias, built by 
Herod Antipas in honour of the emperor 
Tiberius. — (2) Or Gexxesaret, also the Sea 
oe Gaeilee, in the O.T. Chixxereth (Bahr 
Tubariyeh), the 2nd of the 3 lakes in Pales- 
tine, formed by the course of the Jordan. 
[Jordanes.] Its length is 11 or 12 geogra- 
phical miles, and its breadth from 5 to 6. It 
lies deep among fertile hills, has very clear 
and sweet_water, and is full of excellent fish. 

TIBERIXUS (-i), one of the mythical 
kings of Alba, son of Capetus, and father of 
Agrippa, is said to have been drowned in 
crossing the river Albula which was hence 
called Tiberis. 

TIBERIS alsoTIBRIS, TYBRIS, THYBRIS 
(-is or-idis), AMNIS TIBERIXUS or simply 
TIBERIXUS (-i : Tiler or Teuere), the chief 
river in central Italy, on which stood the 
city of Rome. It is said to have been origi- 
nally called Albula, and to have received the 
name of Tiberis in consequence of Tiberinus, 
king of Alba, having been drowned in it. 
The Tiber rises from 2 springs of limpid 
water in the Apennines, near Tifernum, and 
flows in a SYV.-ly direction, separating 
Etruria from Umbria, the land of the Sabines, 
and Latium. After flowing about 110 miles 
it receives the Xar (Nerd), and from its con- 
fluence with this river its regular navigation 
begins. Three miles above Rome, at the 
distance of nearly 7 miles from the Xar, it 
receives the Anio (Teuerotie), and from this 
point becomes a river of considerable impor- 
tance. Within the walls of Rome, the Tiber 



TIBERIUS. 



429 



TIBUR. 



is about 300 feet wide, and from 12 to 18 
feet deep. After heavy rains the river in 
ancient times, as at the present day, fre- 
quently overflowed its banks, and did con- 
siderable mischief to the lower parts of the 
city. (Hor. Carm. i. 2.) The waters of the 
river are muddy and yellowish, whence it is 
frequently called by the Roman poets flaws 
Tiberis. The poets also give it the epithets 
of Tyrrhenus, because it flowed past Etruria 
during the whole of its course, and of Lydias, 
because the Etruscans are said to have been of 
Lydian origin. 

TIBERIUS (-i), Emperor of Rome, a.d. 
14 — 37. His full name was Tiberius Clau- 
dius Nero Caesar. He was the son of T. 
Claudius Nero and of Livia, and was born on 
the 16th of November, b.c. 42, before his 
mother married Augustus. He was carefully 
educated and became well acquainted with 
Greek and Latin literature. In 20 he was 
sent by Augustus to restore Tigranes to the 
throne of Armenia. In 13, Tiberius was 
consul with P. Quintilius Varus. In 11, 
while his brother Drusus was fighting against 
the Germans, Tiberius conducted the war 
against the Dalmatians and Pannonians. 
In 6 he obtained the tribunitia potestas for 
5 years, but during this year he retired with 
the emperor's permission to Rhodes, where 
he spent the next 7 years. His chief reason 
for this retirement was to get away from his 
wife Julia, the daughter of Augustus, whom 
he had been compelled by the emperor to 
marry. Pie returned to Rome a.d. 2. From 
the year of his adoption by Augustus, a.d. 4, 
to the death of that emperor, Tiberius was in 
command of the Roman armies, though he 
visited Rome several times. On the death 
of Augustus at Nola, on the 19th of August, 
a.d. 14, Tiberius, who was on his way to 
Illyricum, was immediately summoned home 
by his mother Livia, and took possession of 
the imperial power without any opposition. 
He began his reign by putting to death 
Postumus Agrippa, the surviving grandson 
of Augustus. THien he felt himself sure in 
his place, he began to exercise his craft. He 
took from the popular assembly the election 
of the magistrates, and transferred it to the 
senate. Notwithstanding his suspicious na- 
ture, Tiberius gave his complete confidence to 
Sejanus, who for many years possessed the real 
government of the state. In a.d. 26 Tiberius 
left Rome, and withdrew into Campania. 
He never returned to the city. He left on 
the pretext of dedicating temples in Cam- 
pania, but his real motives were his dislike 
to Rome, where he heard a great deal that 
was disagreeable to him, and his wish to 
indulge his sensual propensities in private. 



In order to secure still greater retirement, 
he took up his residence (27) in the island 
of Capreae, at a short distance from the 
Campanian coast. In 31, Sejanus who aimed 
at nothing less than the imperial power, was 
put to an ignominious death, which was 
followed by the execution of his friends ; and 
for the remainder of the reign of Tiberius, 
Rome continued to be the scene of tragic 
occurrences. Tiberius died on the 16th of 
March 37, at the villa of Lucullus, at Mise- 
num ; having been smothered by the order 
of Macro, the prefect of the praetorians. 

TIBISCUS or TIBISSUS (-i), probably 
the same as the PARTHISCUS or PAR- 
THISSUS (Theiss), a river of Dacia, form- 
ing the W. boundary of that country. 

TIBULLUS (4), ALB1US, the Roman 
poet, was of equestrian family. His birth is 
placed by conjecture b.c. .54, and his death 
b.c 18.- Of his youth and education, 
absolutely nothing is known. The estate 
belonging to the equestrian ancestors of Ti- 
bullus was at Pedum, between Tibur and 
Praeneste, and the poet spent there the 
better portion of his short, but peaceful and 
happy life. His great patron was Messala, 
whom he accompanied in 3 1 into Aquitania, 
and the following year into the East. Ti- 
bullus, however, was taken ill, and obliged 
to remain in Corcyra, from whence he 
returned to Rome. So ceased the active life 
of Tibullus ; his life is now the chronicle of 
his poetry and of those tender passions which 
were the inspiration of his poetry. His 
elegies are addressed 'to two mistresses, under 
the probably fictitious names of Delia and 
Nemesis ; besides whom, as we learn from 
Horace (Od. i. 33), he celebrated another 
beauty named Glycera. The poetry of his 
contemporaries shows Tibullus as a gentle 
and singularly amiable man. To Horace 
especially he was an object of warm attach- 
ment, and his epistle to Tibullus gives the 
most full and pleasing view of his poetical 
retreat, and of his character. 

TIBUR (-iiris : Tivoli), one of the most 
ancient towns of Latium, 16 miles N.E. of 
Rome, situated on the slope of a hill (hence 
called by Horace svpinum Tibur, on the left 
bank of the Anio, which here forms a magnifi- 
cent waterfall. It became subj ect to Rome with 
the other Latin cities on the final subjugation 
of Latium, in b.c. 33S. Under the Romans 
Tibur continued to be a large and flourishing 
town, since the salubrity and beautiful 
scenery of the place led many of the most 
distinguished Roman nobles to build here 
magnificent villas. Of these the most splen- 
did was' the villa of the emperor Hadrian, 
in the extensive remains of which many 



TICINUM. 



430 



TIMOLEON. 



valuable specimens of ancient art have been 
discovered. Here also the celebrated Ze- 
nobia lived after adorning the triumph of her 
conqueror Aurelian. Horace likewise had a 
country house in the neighbourhood of Tibnr, 
which he preferred to all his other resi- 
dences. 

TICINUM (-i: Pavia), a town of the 
Laevi, or, according to others, of the Insu- 
bres, in Gallia Cisalpina, on the left bank of 
the Ticinus. 

TICINUS (-i : Tessino), an important 
river in Gallia Cisalpina, rises in Mons 
Adula, and after flowing through Lacus 
Yerbanus (Lago Maggiore), falls into the Po, 
near Ticinum. It was upon the bank of this 
river that Hannibal gained his first victory 
over the Romans by the defeat of P. Scipio, 
B.C. 218. 

TIF AT A, a mountain in Campania, E. of 
Capua. 

TIFERNUM (-i). (1). Tibemnum (Citta 
di Castello), a town of Umbria, near the 
sources of the river Tiber, whence its sur- 
name, and upon the confines of Etruria. — (2) 
Metaurense (S. Angelo in Vado), a town in 
Umbria, E. of the preceding, on the river 
Metaurus. — (3) A town in Samnium, on the 
river Tifernus. 

TIFERNUS (4 : Biferno), a river of Sam- 
nium, rising in the Apennines, and flowing 
through the country of the Frentani into the 
Adriatic. 

TIGELLINUS, SOPHONIUS (-i), son of a 
native of Agrigentum, the minister of Nero's 
worst passions, and of all his favourites the 
most obnoxious to the Roman people. On 
the accession of Otho, Tigellinus was com- 
pelled to put an end to his own life. 

TIGELLIUS HERMO GENES. [Hermo- 

GENES.] 

TIGRANES (-is), kings of Armenia. (I.) 
Reigned b.c. 96 — 56 or 55. In 83 he made 
himself master of the whole Syrian mo- 
narchy, from the Euphrates to the sea. 
In 69, having refused to deliver up his 
son-in-law, Mithridates, to the Romans, 
Lucullus invaded Armenia, defeated the 
mighty host which Tigranes led against him, 
and followed up his victory by the capture of 
Tigranocerta. Subsequently Tigranes reco- 
vered his dominions ; but on the approach of 
Pompey, in 66, he hastened to make overtures 
of submission, and laid his tiara at his feet, 
together with a sum of 6000 talents. Pompey 
left him in possession of Armenia Proper with 
the title of king. Tigranes died in 56 or 
55. — (II.) Son of Artavasdes, and grandson of. 
the preceding. 

TIGRANOCERTA (-orum, i.e., in Arme- 
nian, the City of Tigranes : Sert, R,u.), the 



later capital of Armenia, built by Tigranes 
on a height by the river Nicephorius, in the 
valley between Mt. Masius and Niphates. 

TIGRIS (-idis and -is), a great river of W. 
Asia, rises from several sources on the S. 
side of that part of the Taurus chain called 
Niphates, in Armenia, and flows S.E., first 
through the narrow valley between Mt. 
Masius and the prolongation of Mt. Niphates, 
and then through the great plain which is 
bounded on the E. by the last-named chain, 
till it falls into the head of the Persian Gulf, 
after receiving the Euphrates from the W. 

TIGURINI (-orum), a tribe of the Helvetii, 
who joined the Cimbri in invading the 
country of the Allobroges in Gaul, where 
they defeated the consul L. Cassius Longinus, 
b.c. 107. They formed in the time of Caesar 
the most important of the 4 cantons {pagi) 
into which the Helvetii were divided. 

TILPHUSIUM (-i), a town in Boeotia, 
situated upon a mountain of the same name, 
S. of lake Copais, and between Coronea and 
Haliartus. It derived its name from the 
fountain Tilphusa, which was sacred to 
Apollo, and where Tiresias is said to have 
been buried. 

TIMAEUS (-i). (1) The historian, was 
the son of Andromachus, tyrant of Taurome- 
nium in Sicily, and was born about b.c. 352. 
He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles, 
and passed his exile at Athens, where he had 
lived 50 years when he wrote the 34th book 
of his history. He probably died about 256. 
The great work of Timaeus was a history of 
Sicily from the earliest times to 264. — (2) Of 
Locri, in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, 
is said to have been a teacher of Plato. 

TIMAGENES (-is), a rhetorician and an 
historian, was a native of Alexandria, from 
which place he was carried as a prisoner to 
Rome, where he opened a school of rhetoric, 
and_taught with great success. 

TIMANTHES (-is), a celebrated Greek 
painter at Sicyon, contemporary with Zeuxis 
and Parrhasius, about b.c 400. The master- 
piece of Timanthes was his celebrated picture 
of the sacrifice of Iphigenia, in which Aga- 
memnon was painted with his face hidden in 
his mantle. 

TIMAVUS (-i), a small river in the N. of 
Italy, forming the boundary between Istria 
and Venetia, and falling into the Sinus Ter- 
gestinus in the Adriatic, between Tergeste 
and Aquileia. 

TIMOCREON (-ontis), of Rhodes, a lyric 
poet, celebrated for the bitter and pugnacious 
spirit of his works, and especially for his 
attacks on Themistocles and Simonides. 

TIMOLEON (-onis), son of Timodemus or 
Tiniaenetus and Demariste, belonged to one 



TIMON. 



431 



TIRIDATES. 



of the noblest families at Corinth. His early 
life was stained by a dreadful deed of blood. 
We are told that so ardent was his love of 
liberty, that when his brother Timophanes 
endeavoured to make himself tyrant of their 
native city, Timoleon murdered him rather 
than allow him to destroy the liberty of the 
state. At the request of the Greek cities of 
Sicily, the Corinthians dispatched Timoleon 
with a small force in b.c. 344 to repel the 
Carthaginians from that island. He obtained 
possession of Syracuse, and then proceeded to 
expel the tyrants from the other Greek cities, 
of Sicily, but was interrupted in this under- 
taking by a formidable invasion of the Car- 
thaginians, who landed atLilybaeum in 339, 
with an immense army, under the command 
of Hasdrubal and Hamilcar, consisting of 
70,000 foot and 10,000 horse. Timoleon 
could only induce 12,000 men to march with 
him against the Carthaginians ; but with this 
small force he gained a brilliant victory over 
the Carthaginians on the river Crimissus 
(339). The Carthaginians were glad to con- 
clude a treaty with Timoleon in 338, by 
which the river Halycus was fixed as the 
boundary of the Carthaginian and Greek do- 
minions in Sicily, Subsequently he expelled 
almost all the tyrants from the Greek cities 
in Sicily, and established democracies instead. 
Timoleon, however, was in reality the ruler 
of Sicily, for all the states consulted him on 
every matter of importance ; and the wisdom 
of his rule is attested by the nourishing con- 
dition of the island for several years even 
after his death. He died in 337. 

TIMOX (-5nis). (1) The son of Timarchus 
of Phlius, a philosopher of the sect of the 
Sceptics, nourished in the reign of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, about b.c. 279, and onwards. 
He taught at Chalcedon as a sophist with 
such success that he realised a fortune. He 
then removed to Athens, where he passed the 
remainder of his life, with the exception of a 
short residence at Thebes. He died at the 
age of almost 90.— (2) The Misanthrope, an 
Athenian, lived in the time of the Pelopon- 
nesian war. In consequence of the ingrati- 
tude he experienced, and the disappointments 
he suffered, from his early friends and com- 
panions, he secluded himself entirely from 
the world, admitting no one to his society 
except Alcibiades. He is said to have died 
in consequence of refusing to have a broken 
limb set. 

TIMOTHEUS (-i). (1) A celebrated mu- 
sician and poet of the later Athenian dithy- 
ramb, was a native of Miletus, and the son of 
Thersander. He was born b.c 446, and died 
in 357, in the 90th year of his age. He was 
at first unfortunate in his professional efforts. 



Even the Athenians, fond as they were of 
novelty, were offended at th.3 bold innovations 
of Timotheus, and hissed off his performance. 
On this occasion it is said that Euripides en- 
couraged Timotheus by the prediction that 
he would soon have the theatres at his feet. 
This prediction appears to have been accom- 
plished in the vast popularity which Timo- 
theus afterwards enjoyed. He delighted in 
the most artificial and intricate forms of 
musical expression, and he used instrumental 
music, without a vocal accompaniment, to a 
greater extent than any previous composer. 
Perhaps the most important of his innova- 
tions, as the means of introducing all the 
others, was his addition to the number of the 
strings of the cithara, which he seems to 
have increased to 11. — (2) A distinguished 
flute-player of Thebes, flourished under Alex- 
ander the Great. 

TIXGIS (-is : Tangier), a city of Maure- 
tania, on the S. coast of the Fretum Gadi- 
tanum {Straits of Gibraltar), was a place of 
very great antiquity. It was made by Augus- 
tus a free city, and by Claudius a colony, and 
the capital of Mauretania Tingitana. 

TIXIA (-ae), a small river in Umbria, ris- 
ing near Spoletium, and falling into the Tiber. 

TIRESIAS (-ae), a Theban, was one of the 
most renowned soothsayers in all antiquity. 
He was blind from his seventh year, but lived 
to a very old age. The occasion of his blind- 
ness and of his prophetic power is variously 
related. In the war of the Seven against 
Thebes, he declared that Thebes should be 
victorious, if Menoeceus would sacrifice him- 
self; and during the war of the Epigoni, 
when the Thebans had been defeated, he ad- 
vised them to commence negotiations of 
peace, and to avail themselves of the oppor- 
tunity that would thus be afforded them, to 
take to flight. He himself fled with them 
(or, according to others, he was carried to 
Delphi as, a captive), but on his way he drank 
from the well of Tilphossa, and died. Even 
in the lower world Tiresias was believed to 
retain the powers of perception, while the 
souls of other mortals were mere shades, and 
there also he continued to use his golden staff. 
The blind seer Tiresias acts so prominent a 
part in the mythical history of Greece, that 
there is scarcely any event with which he is 
not connected in some way or other ; and this 
introduction of the seer in so many occur- 
rences separated by long intervals of time, 
wasjacilitated by the belief in his long life. 

TIRIDATES or TER1DATES (-is). (1) The 
second king of Parthia. [Arsaces II.] — (2) 
King of Armenia, and brother of Vologeses I. 
(Arsaces XXIII.), king of Parthia. He was 
made king of Armenia by his brother, but 



TIRO. 



432 



TIT AXES. 



was driven out of the kingdom by Corbulo, 
the Roman general, and finally received the 
Armenian crown fromXero at Rome in a.d. 63. 

TIRO (onis), M. TULLIUS, the freedman 
of Cicero, to whom he was an object of 
tender affection. He appears to have been a 
man of very amiable disposition, and highly 
cultivated intellect. He was not only the 
amanuensis of the orator, and his assistant in 
literary labour, but was himself an author of 
no mean reputation, and notices of several 
works from his pen have been preserved by 
ancient writers. After the death of Cicero, 
Tiro purchased a farm in the neighbourhood 
of Puteoli, where he lived until he reached 
his 100th year. It is usually believed that 
Tiro was the inventor of the art of short- 
hand writing (Xotae Tironianae). 

TIRYXS (-this), an ancient town in Argo- 
lis, S,E. of Argos, and one of the most ancient 
in all Greece, is said to have been founded by 
Proetus, the brother of Acrisius, who built 
the massive walls of the city with the help of 
the Cyclopes. Proetus was succeeded by 
Perseus ; and it was here that Hercules was 
brought up. Hence we find his mother, Alc- 
mena, called Tirynthia, and the hero 
himself, Tirynthius. The remains of the city 
are some of the most interesting in all Greece, 
and are, with those of Mycenae, the most 
ancient specimens of what is called Cyclopean 
architecture. 

TISAMEXUS (-i). (1) Son of Orestes 
and Hermione, was king of Argos, but was 
deprived of his kingdom when the Heraclidae 
invaded Peloponnesus. He was slain in a 
battle against the Pleraclidae. 

TISIPHOXE. JEumenidae.] 

TISSAPHERXES (-is), a famous Persian, 
who was appointed satrap of Lower Asia in 
e.c. 414, He espoused the cause of the 
Spartans in the Peloponnesian war, but he 
did not give them any effectual assistance, 
since his policy was to exhaust the strength 
of both parties by the continuance of the war. 
His plans, however, were thwarted by the 
arrival of Cyrus in Asia Minor in 407, who 
supplied the Lacedaemonians with cordial 
and effectual assistance. At the battle of 
Cunaxa, in 401, Tissaphernes was one of the 
4 generals who commanded the army of 
Artaxerxes, and his troops were the only 
portion of the left wing that was not put to 
flight by the Greeks. When the 10,000 had 
begun their retreat, Tissaphernes promised 
to conduct them home in safety ; but in the 
course of the march he treacherously arrested 
Clearchus and 4 of the other generals. As 
a reward for his services, he was invested 
by the king, in addition to his own satrapy, 
with all the authority which Cyrus had 



enjoyed in western Asia. This led to a war 
with Sparta, in which Tissaphernes was 
unsuccessful; on which account, as well as 
by the influence of Parysatis, the mother of 
Cyrus, he was put to death in 395 by order of 
the king. 

TITAXES (-um). (1) The sons and 
daughters of Uranus (Heaven) and Ge 
(Earth), originally dwelt in heaven, whence 
they are called Uranidae. They were 12 in 
number, 6 sons and 6 daughters, namely, 
Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Iapetus, 
Cronus, Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, 
Phoebe, and Tethys ; but their names are 
different in other accounts. It is said that 
Uranus, the first ruler of the world, threw 
his sons, the Hecatoncheires, (Hundred- 
Handed), — Briareus, Cottys, Gyes, — and the 
Cyclopes, — Arges, Steropes, and Brontes — 
into Tartarus. Gaea, indignant at this, per- 
suaded the Titans to rise against their father, 
and gave to Cronus (Saturn) an adamantine 
sickle. They did as their mother bade them, 
with the exception of Oceanus. Cronus, with 
his sickle, unmanned his father, and threw 
the part into the sea ; from the drops of his 
blood there arose the Erinnyes, — Alecto, 
Tisiphone, and Megaera.. The Titans then 
deposed Uranus, liberated their brothers who 
had been cast into Tartarus, and raised Cro- 
nus to the throne. But Cronus hurled the 
Cyclopes back into Tartarus, and married his 
sister Rhea. It having been foretold to him 
by Gaea and Uranus, that he should be de- 
throned by one of his own children, he 
swallowed successively his children Hestia 
(Vesta), Demeter (Ceres), Hera (Juno), 
Pluto, and Poseidon (Xeptune). Rhea, 
therefore, when she was pregnant with 
Zeus (Jupiter) went to Crete, and gave birth 
to the child in the Dictaean Cave, where he 
was brought up by the Curetes. When Zeus 
had grown up he availed himself of the assist- 
ance of Thetis, the daughter of Oceanus, who 
gave to Cronus a potion which caused him to 
bring up the stone and the children he had 
swallowed. United with his brothers and 
sisters, Zeus now began the contest against 
Cronus and the ruling Titans. This contest 
(usually called the Titanomachia) was carried 
on in Thessaly, Cronus and the Titans occu- 
pying Mt. Othrys, and the sons of Cronus 
Mt. Olympus. It lasted 10 years, till at 
length Gaea promised victory to Zeus if he 
would deliver the Cyclopes and Hecaton- 
cheires from Tartarus. Zeus accordingly 
slew Campe, who guarded the Cyclopes, and 
the latter furnished him with thunder and 
lightning. The Titans then were overcome, 
and hurled down into a cavity below Tar- 
tarus, and the Plecatoncheires were set to 



TITARESIUS. 



433 



TOLETUM. 



guard them. It must be observed that the 
fight of the Titans is sometimes confounded 
by ancient writers with the fight of the Gi- 
gantes. — (2) The name Titans is also given 
to those divine or semi-divine beings who 
were descended from the Titans, such as 
Prometheus, Hecate, Latona, Pyrrha, and 
especially Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the 
Moon), as the children of Hyperion and 
Thia, and even to the descendants of Helios, 
such as Circe. 

TITARESIUS (-i : Massonitiko or Xera- 
ghi), a river of Thessaly, also called Europus, 
rising in Mt. Titarus, flowing through the 
country of the Perrhaebi, and falling into the 
Peneus, S.E. of Phalanna. 

TITHOXUS (-i), son of Laomedon and 
Strymo, and brother of Priam. By the 
prayers of Eos (Aurora), who loved him, he 
obtained from the gods immortality, but not 
eternal youth, in consequence of which he 
completely shrank together in his old age ; 
whence a decrepit old man was proverbially 
called Tithonus. Eos changed him into a 
cicada, or grasshopper. 

TITHOREA. [Neon.] 

TITHRAUSTES, a Persian, who succeeded 
Tissaphernes in his satrapy, and put him to 
death bv order of Artaxerxes Mnemon, b.c.395. 
_ TITUS FLAYIUS SABIXUS YESPASI- 
AXTJS (-i), Roman emperor, a.d. 79 — 81, 
commonly called by his praenomen TITUS, 
was the son of the emperor Yespasianus and 
his wife Elavia Domitilla. He was born on 
the 30th of December, a.d. 40. When a 
young man he served as tribunus militum in 
Britain and in Germany, with great credit. 
After having been quaestor, he had the com- 
mand of a legion, and served under his father 
in the Jewish wars, Yespasian returned to 
Italy, after he had been proclaimed emperor 
on the 1st of July, a.d. 69 ; but Titus re- 
mained in Palestine to prosecute the siege of 
Jerusalem, during which he showed the 
talents of a general with the daring of a 
soldier. The siege of Jerusalem was con- 
cluded by the capture of the place, on the 8th 
of September, 70. Titus returned to Italy 
in the following year (71), and triumphed at 
Rome with his father. He also received the 
title of Caesar, and became the associate of 
Yespasian in the government. His conduct 
at this time gave no good promise, and his 
attachment to Berenice, the sister of Agrippa 
II., also made him unpopular, but he sent 
her away from Rome after he became empe- 
ror. Titus succeeded his father in 79, and 
his government proved an agreeable surprise 
to those who had anticipated a return of the 
times of Xero. During his whole reign Titus 
displayed a sincere desire for the happiness 



of the people, and he did all that he could 
to relieve them in times of distress. He 
assumed the office of Pontifex Maximus after 
the death of his father, and with the purpose, 
as he declared, of keeping his hands free 
from blood, a resolution which he kept. The 
1st year of his reign is memorable for the 
great eruption of Yesuvius, which desolated 
a large part of the adjacent country, and 
buried with lava and ashes the towns of Her- 
culaneum and Pompeii. Titus endeavoured 
to repair the ravages of this great eruption ; 
and he was also at great care and expense in 
repairing the damage done by a great fire at 
Rome, which lasted 3 days and nights. He 
completed the Colosseum, and erected the 
baths which were called by his name. He 
died on the 13th of September, a.d. 81, after a 
reign of 2 years and 2 months, and 20 days. 
He was in the 41st year of his age ; and 
there were suspicions that* he was poisoned 
by his brother, Domitian. 

TITYUS (-i), son of Gaea, or of Zeus 
(Jupiter) and Elara, the daughter of Orcho- 
menus, was a giant in Euboea. Instigated 
by Hera (Juno), he attempted to offer violence 
to Artemis (Diana), when she passed through 
Panopaeus to Pytho, but he was killed by 
the arrows either of Artemis or Apollo ; 
I according to others, Zeus destroyed him with 
a flash of lightning. He was then cast into 
Tartarus, and there he lay outstretched on 
the ground, covering 9 acres, whilst 2 vultures 
or 2 snakes devoured his liver. 

TLEPOLEMUS (-i), son of Hercules by 
Astyoche, daughter of "Phylas, or by Asty- 
damia, daughter of Amyntor. He was king 
of Argos, but after slaying his uncle Licym- 
nius, he settled in Rhodes. He joined the 
Greeks in the Trojan war with 9 ships, and 
was slain by Sarpedon. 

TLOS, a considerable city, in the interior 
of Lycia, about 2| miles E. of the river 
Xanthus. 

TMOLUS (-i). (1) God of Mt. Tmolus 
in Lydia, is described as the husband of 
Pluto (or Omphale) and father of Tantalus, 
and is said to have decided the musical con- 
test between Apollo and Pan — (2) [Dagh), a 
celebrated mountain of Asia Minor, running 
E. and W. through the centre of Lydia, and 
dividing the plain of the Herrnus, on the X\, 
from that of the Cayster, on the S. 

TOLEXUS or TELOX1US (-i : Turano), a 
river in the land of the Sabines, rising in the 
country of the Marsi and Aequi, and falling 
into the Yelinus. 

TOLETUM (4 : Toledo), the capital of the 
Carpetani in Hispania Tarraconensis, situated 
on the river Tagus, which nearly encom- 
passes the town. 

■ F F 



TOLISTOBOGI. 



434 



TBACHIS. 



TOLISTOBOGI, TOLISTOBOII. [Gala- 

TIA.]^ 

TOLOSA (-ae : Toulouse), a town of Gallia 
Narbonensis, and the capital of theTectosages, 
was situated on the Garunma, near the fron- 
tiers of Aquitania. It was subsequently made 
a Roman colony, and was surnamed Palladia. 
It was a large and wealthy town, and con- 
tained a celebrated temple, in which is said 
to have been preserved a great part of the 
booty taken by Brennus from the temple of 
Delphi. The town and temple were plun- 
dered by the consul Q. Servilius Caepio, in 
b.c. 106. 

TOLUMXIUS (-i) LAR (-tis), king of the 
Yeientes, to whom Fidenae revolted in b.c. 
438, and at whose instigation the inhabitants 
of Fidenae slew the 4 Boman ambassadors 
who had been sent to inquire into the reasons 
of their recent conduct. In the war which 
followed, Tolumnius was slain in single 
combat by Cornelius Cossus. 

TOMI (-drum) or TOMIS (-is: Tomiswar 
or Jegni Pangola), a town of Thrace (subse- 
quently Moesia), situated on the W. shore of 
the Euxine, and at a later time the capital 
of Scythia Minor. It is renowned as the 
place of Ovid's banishment. 

TOMYBIS (-is), a queen of the Massagetae, 
by whom Cyrus was slain in battle, b.c 529. 

TOBONE (-es), a town of Macedonia, in 
the district of Chalcidice, and on the S.W. 
side of the peninsula Sithonia, from which 
the gulf between the peninsulas Sithonia and 
Pallene was called Sinus Toronaicus. 

TOBQUATUS (-i), the name of a patrician 
family of the Manlia Gens. (1) T. Maxlitjs 
Impehiosus Torquatus, the son of L. Manlius 
Capitolinus Imperiosus, dictator b.c. 363, was 
a favourite hero of Boman story. Manlius is 
said to have been duU of mind in his youth, 
and was brought up by his father in the 
closest retirement in the country. In 361 
he served under the dictator T. Quintius 
Pennus in the war against the Gauls, and in 
this campaign earned immortal glory by 
slaying in single combat a gigantic Gaul. 
From the dead body of the barbarian he took 
the chain (toj^ques) which had adorned him, 
and placed it around his own neck ; and from 
this circumstance he obtained the surname 
of Torquatus. He was dictator in 353, and 
again in 349. He was also three times consul, 
namely in 347, 344, and in 340. In the 
last of these years Torquatus and his colleague, 
P. Decius Mus, gained the great victory over 
the Latins at the foot of Yesuvius, which 
established for ever the supremacy of Borne 
over Latium, Shortly before the battle, when 
the two armies were encamped opposite to 
one another, the consuls published a pro- 



clamation that no Boman should engage in 
single combat with a Latin on pain of death. 
This command was violated by young Man- 
lius, the consul's son, who was in consequence 
executed by the lictor in presence of the as- 
sembled army. This severe sentence rendered 
Torquatus an object of detestation among the 
Boman youths as long as he lived ; and the 
recollection of his severity was preserved in 
after ages by the expression AfcoiUana bnperia. 
— (2) T. Maxlius Torquatus, consul b.c 
235, when he conquered the Sardinians; 
censor 231 ; and consul a 2nd time in 224. 
He possessed the hereditary sternness and 
severity of his family ; and we accordingly 
find him opposing in the senate the ransom 
of those Bomans who had been taken pri- 
soners at the fatal battle of Cannae. He was 
dictator in 210. — (3) L. Maxlils Torquatl-s, 
consul b.c 65 with L. Aurelius Cotta. He 
took an active part in suppressing the Catili- 
narian conspiracy in 63 ; and he also sup- 
ported Cicero when he was banished in 58. — 
(4) L. Maxlius Torquatus, son of >'o. 3, 
belonged to the aristocratical party, and ac- 
cordingly opposed Caesar on the breaking out 
of the civil war in 49. He was praetor in 
that year, and was stationed at Alba with 6 
cohorts. He subsequently joined Pompey in 
Greece, and in the following year (48) he 
had the command of Oricum intrusted to him, 
but was obliged to surrender both himself 
and the town to Caesar, who, however, dis- 
missed Torquatus uninjured. After the battle 
of Pharsalia Torquatus went to Africa, and 
upon the defeat of his party in that country 
in 46 he attempted to escape to Spain along 
with Scipio and others, but was taken pri- 
soner by P. Sittius at Hippo Begius and slain 
together with his companions. Torquatus 
was well acquainted with Greek literature, 
and is praised by Cicero, with whom, in early 
life, he was closely connected, as a man well 
trained in every kind of learning. — (5) A. 
Maxlius Torquatus, praetor in 52, when he 
presided at the trial of Milo for bribery. On 
.the breaking out of the civil war he espoused 
the side of Pompey, and after the defeat of 
the latter retired to Athens, where he was 
living in exile in 45. He was an intimate 
friend of ^Cicero. 

TBABEA (-ae), Q., a Boman comic dra- 
matist who occupies the eighth place in the 
canon of Yolcatius Sedigitus. The period 
when he flourished is uncertain, but he has 
been placed about b.c 130. 

TBACHIS or TBACHIN (-Inis). (1) Also 
called Heraclea Trachixiae, or Heraclea 
Phthiotidis, or simply Heraclea, a town of 
Thessaly in the district Malis, celebrated as 
the residence of Hercules for a time. — (2) A 



TRACHOXITIS. 



435 



TPvEBATIUS. 



town of Phocis, on the frontiers of Boeotia, 
and on the slope of Mt. Helicon in the neigh- 
bourhood of Lebadea. 

TRACHOXITIS or TRACHOX, the N. dis- 
trict of Palestine beyond the Jordan, lay 
between Anti-Libanus and the mountains of 
Arabia, and was bounded on the N. by the 
territory of Damascus, on the E. by Auranitis, 
on the S. by Ituraea, and on the W. by 
Gaulanitis. 

TRAJAXUS (4) M. ULPIUS, Roman em- 
peror a.d. 98 — 117, was born at Italica, near 
Seville, the 18th of September, 52. He was 
trained to arms, and served with distinction 
in the East and in Germany. He was consul 
in 91, and at the close of 97 he was adopted 
by the emperor Xerva, upon whose death in 
the following year Trajan succeeded to the 
empire with the title of Imperator Caesar 
Xerva Trajanus Augustus. His accession 
was hailed with joy, and he did not disap- 
point the expectations of the people. At the 
time of Xerva's death, Trajan was at Cologne, 
and did not return to Rome for some months, 
when he entered it on foot, accompanied by 
his wife Pompeia Plotina. Trajan was em- 
ployed for the next 2 or 3 years in a war with 
Decebaius, king of the Daci, whom he de- 
feated, and compelled to sue for peace. 
Trajan assumed the name of Daeicus, and 
entered Rome in triumph (103). In the 
following year (101) he commenced his 2nd 
Dacian war against Decebaius, who, it is 
said, had broken the treaty. Decebaius was 
completely defeated, and put an end to his 
life (106), After the death of Decebaius, 
Dacia was reduced to the form of a Roman 
province ; strong forts were built in various 
places, and Roman colonies were planted. 
On his return Trajan had a triumph, and he 
exhibited games to the people for 123 days. 
About this time Arabia Petraea was subjected 
to the empire by A. Cornelius Palma, the 
governor of Syria ; and an Indian embassy 
came to Rome. In 114 Trajan left Rome to 
make war on the Armenians and the Parthians. 
He spent the winter of 114 at Antioch, and 
in the following year he invaded the Parthian 
dominions. The most striking and brilliant 
success attended his arms. In the course of 
2 campaigns (115 — 116), he conquered the 
greater part of the Parthian empire, and took 
the Parthian capital of Ctesiphon. In 116 
he descended the Tigris, and entered the 
Erythraean Sea (the Persian Gulf). While 
he was thus engaged the Parthians rose 
against the Romans, but were again subdued 
by the generals of Trajan. On his return to 
Ctesiphon, Trajan determined to give the 
Parthians a king, and placed the diadem on 
the head of Parthamaspates. In 117 Trajan 



fell ill, and as his complaint grew worse he 
set out for Italy. He lived to reach Selinus 
in Cilicia, afterwards call ;i Trajanopolis, 
where he died in August, 117, after a reign 
of 19 years, 6 months, and 15 days. He left 
no children. Trajan was strong and laborious, 
of majestic appearance, and simple in his 
mode of life. Though not a man of letters, 
he had a sound judgment, and felt a sincere 
desire for the happiness of his people. 
Trajan constructed several great roads in the 
empire ; he built libraries at Rome, one of 
which, called the Ulpia Bibliotheca, is often 
mentioned ; and a theatre in the Campus 
Marthas. His great work was the Forum 
Trajanum, in the centre of which was placed 
the column of Trajan. 

TRAJECTUM (-i : Utrecht), a town of the 
Batavi on the Rhine, called at a later time 
Trajectus Rheni or Ad Rhenum. 

TRALLES (-ium), or ' TRALLIS (-is : 
Ghiuzel-Mlsar, Ru., near Aidin), a flourish- 
ing commercial city of Asia Minor, reckoned 
sometimes to Ionia, and sometimes to Caria. 
It stood on a quadrangular height at the S. 
foot of Alt, Messogis (with a citadel on a 
higher point), on the banks of the little 
river Eudon, a X. tributary of the Maeander, 
from which the city was distant 80 stadia (8 
geog. miles) . Under the Seleucidae it bore 
the names of Seleucia and Antiochia. 

TRAPEZUS (-untis). (1) (Xear Mdvria), 
a city of Arcadia, on the Alpheus. — (2) Ta- 
rabosan, Trabezun, or Trebizond), a colony of 

, Sinope, at almost the extreme E. of the X. 

I shore of Asia Minor. • After Sinope lost her 

' independence, Trapezus belonged, first to 
Armenia Minor, and afterwards to the king- 
dom of Pontus. Under the Romans, it was 
made a free city, probably by Pompey, and, 
by Trajan, the capital of Pontus Cappadocius. 

I Hadrian constructed a new harbour ; and 
the city became a place of first-rate com- 
mercial importance. It was taken by the 
Goths in the reign of Valerian ; but it had 
recovered, and was in a nourishing state in 
the time of Justinian, who repaired its forti- 
fications. In the middle ages it was for some 
time the seat of a fragment of the Greek 
empire called the empire of Trebizond. It is 
now the second commercial port of the Black 
Sea, ranking next after Odessa. 

TRASIMEXUS LACUS (i : Lago di Re- 
rugia), sometimes, but not correctly written, 

I THRASYMEXUS, a lake in Etruria, between 
Clusium and Perusia, memorable for the vic- 
tory gained by Hannibal over the Romans 
under Flaminius, e.g. 217. 

TREBA (-ae : Trevi), a town in Latium, 
near the sources of the Anio. X.E. of Anagnia. 

I TREBATIUS TESTA. [Testa.] 



TREBELLIES. 



436 



TRIPOLIS, 



TREBELLIUS (-i) POLLIO (-onis), one of 
the 6 Scriptures Historiae Augustae, flourished 
under Constantine. 

TREBIA (-ae : Trebbia), a small river in 
Gallia Cisalpina, falling into the Po near 
Placentia. It is memorable for the victory 
■which Hannibal gained over the Romans, b.c. 
218. 

TREBOXIUS (4), C, played rather a pro- 
minent part in the last days of the republic. 
Ke commenced public life as a supporter of 
the aristocratical party, but changed sides 
soon afterwards, and in his tribunate of the 
plebs (55) he proposed the Lex Trebonia, by 
vrhich Pompey obtained the 2 Spains, Crassus 
Syria, and Caesar the Gauls and Illyricurn for 
another period of 5 years. Eor this service he 
was rewarded by being appointed one of 
Caesar's legates in Gaul. In 48, Trebonius was 
city-praetor, and towards the end of 47 suc- 
ceeded Q. Cassius Longinus as pro-praetor in 
the government of Farther Spain. Caesar 
raised him to the consulship in October, 45, and 
promised him the province of Asia. In return 
for all these honours and favours, Trebonius 
was one of the prime movers in the conspi- 
racy to assassinate Caesar, and after the 
murder of his patron (44) he went as pro- 
consul to the province of Asia. In the fol- 
lowing year (43), Dolabella surprised the 
town of Smyrna, where Trebonius was 
residing, and slew him in his bed. 

TREBELA (-ae). (1) (Tregghia), a town 
in Samnium situated in the S.E. part of the 
mountains of Cajazzo. — (2) Mutesca, a town 
of the Sabines of uncertain site. — (3) Suffexa, 
also a town of the Sabines, and of uncertain 
site. 

TRERES (-i : Sacco), a river in Eatium, 
and a tributary of the Liris. 

TRES TABERXAE (-arum), (1) A station 
on the Via Appia in Eatium, between Aricia 
and Forum Appii. It is mentioned in the 
account of St. Paul's journey to Rome. — 
(2) [Ltorghetto), a station in Gallia Cisalpina, 
on the road from Placentia to Mediolanum. 

TRETIRI or TREYERI (-orum), a power- 
ful people in Gallia Belgica, who were faithful 
allies of the Romans, and whose cavalry was 
the best in all Gaul. The river Mosella 
flowed through their territory, which ex- 
tended AY. -ward from the Rhine as far as the 
Remi. Their chief town was made a Roman 
colony by Augustus, and was called Al*gesta 
Trevirorttm [Trier or Treves). It stood on 
the right bank of the Alosella, and became 
under the later empire one of the most 
flourishing Roman cities X. of the Alps. It 
was the capital of Belgica Prima ; and after 
the division of the Roman world by Diocle- 
tian (a.d. 292) into 4 districts, it became the 



I residence of the Caesar who had the govern- 
ment of Britain, Gaul, and Spain. The 
modern city still contains many interesting 

j Roman remains. 

TRIBAELI (-orum), a powerful people in 
Thrace, a branch of the Getae dwelling along 
the Danube, who were defeated by Alexander 
the Great, b.c. 335. 

TRIBOCCI (-orum), a German people, 

I settled in Gallia Belgica, between Mt. Yogesus 

; and the Rhine, in the neighbourhood of 

j Strasburg. 

TRICASSES, TRICASII, or TRICASSTXI 

I (-orum), a people in Gallia Lugdunensis, E. 
of the Senones, whose chief town was 
Augustobona, afterwards Tricassae [Troyes). 
TRICASTIXI (-orum), a people in Gallia 

j Xarbonensis, inhabiting a narrow slip of 
country between the Drome and the Isere. 
Their chief town was Augusta Tricastinorum, 
or simply Augusta (Aouste). 

TRICCA (-ae), subsequently TRICALA 

| (Trikkala), an ancient town of Thessaly in 

I the district . Hestiaeotis, situated on the 
Lethaeus, X". of the Peneus. Homer repre- 
sents it as governed by the sons of Aescu- 

j lapius ; and it contained in later times a 
celebrated temple of this god. 

TRICOREI (-orum), a Ligurian people in 
Gallia Xarbonensis, a branch of the Sallyi, in 

; the neighbourhood of Massilia and Aquae 
Sextiae. 

TRIDEXTEM (-i : Trent, in Italian 
1 Trento), the capital of the Tredextixi, and 
the chief town of Rhaetia, situated on the 
I river A thesis (Adige), and on the pass of the 
Alps leading to Yerona. 
TRIXACRIA. [Sicilia.] 
TRIXOBAXTES (-urn), one of the most 
powerful people of Britain, inhabiting the 
I modern Essex. 

TRIOPAS (-ae), son of Poseidon (Xeptune) 
and Canace, a daughter of Aeolus, or of 
Helios (the Sim) and Rhodos. and the father 
of Iphimedia and Erysichthon. Hence, his 
son Erysichthon is called Triopelus, and his 
, grand-daughter 3Iestra or Metra, the daughter 
I of Erysichthon, Triopeis. 

TRIOPIUM (-i : C. Krio), the promontory 
which terminates the peninsula of Cnidus, 
forming the S.Yv , headland of Caria and of 
j Asia Minor. 

TRIPHYLIA (-ae), the S. portion of Elis, 
j lying between the Alpheus and the Xeda, is 
said to have derived its name from the 3 
different tribes by which it was peopled. Its 
chief town was Pylos. 

TRIPOLIS (-is), properly the name of a 
confederacy composed of 3 cities, or a district 
containing 3 cities, but it is also applied to 
single cities which had some such relation 



TRIPTOLEMUS. 



TROAS. 



to others as t make the name appropriate. | 

(1) {Kash Yeniji), a city on the Maeander, 
1 2 miles W. of Hierapolis, on the borders of 
Phrygia, Caria, and Lydia, to each of which 
it is assigned by different authorities. — 

(2) {Tireboli , a fortress on the coast of Pontus, 
on a river of the same name {Tireboli Su), 
90 stadia E. of the Prom. Zephyrium (C. 
Zefreh). — (3) {Tripoli, Tarabulus), on the 
coast of Phoenicia, consisted of 3 distinct j 
cities, 1 stadium (600 feet) apart, each having j 
its own walls, but all united in a common ! 
constitution, having one place of assembly, 
and forming in reality one city. They were 
colonies of Tyre, Sidon, and Aradus respec- 
tively. It is now a city of about 15,000 
inhabitants, and the capital of one of the 
pachalicks of Syria, that of Tripoli. — (4) The 
district on the N. coast of Africa, between 
the 2 Syrtes, comprising the 3 cities of 
Sabrata (or Abrotonum), Oea, and Leptis 
Magna, and also called Tripolitana Regio. 

[StPvTICA.] 

TRIPTOLEMUS (-i)j son of Celeus, king 
of Eleusis, and Metanira or Polymnia. 
Others describe him as son of king Eleusis 
by Cothonea, or of Oceanus and Gaea, or of 
Trochilus by an Eleusinian woman. Tripto- 
lemus was the favourite of Demeter (Ceres), 
and the inventor of the plough and agricul- 
ture, and of civilisation, which is the result 
of it. He was the great hero in the Eleusinian 
mysteries. According to the common legend 
he hospitably received Demeter at Eleusis, 
when she was wandering in search of her 
daughter. The goddess, in return, wished to 
make his son Demophon immortal, and placed ! 
him in the fire in order to destroy his mortal ] 
parts ; but Metanira screamed out at the 
sight, and the child was consumed by the I 
flames. As a compensation for this bereave- 
ment, the goddess gave to Triptolemus a 
chariot with winged dragons and seeds of 
wheat. In this chariot Triptolemus rode I 
over the earth, making man acquainted with ' 
the blessings of agriculture. On his return J 
to Attica, Celeus endeavoured to kill him, j 
but by the command of Demeter he was 
obliged to give up his country to Triptolemus, 
who now established the worship of Demeter, 
and instituted the Thesmophoria. Tripto- j 
lemus is represented in works of art as a 
youthful hero, sometimes with the petasus, j 
on a chariot drawn by dragons, and holding 
in his hand a sceptre and corn ears. 

TRLTAEA (-ae). (1) A town of Phocis, 
KiW. of Cleonae, on the left bank of the 
Cephissus and on the frontiers of Locris. — 
(2) One of the 12 cities of Achaia, 120 stadia j 
E. of Pharae and near the frontiers of Arcadia. 

TRLTO (-us:, or TRITOGENIA (-ae), a 



surname of Athena (Minerva), derived by 
some from lake Tritonis in Libya, by others 
from the stream Triton near Alalcomenae in 
Boeotia ; and by the grammarians from t^t^ 
which, in the dialect of the Athamanians, is 
said to signify " head." 

TRITON (-onis), son of Poseidon (Neptune) 
and Amphitrite (or Celaeno), who dwelt 
with his father and mother in a golden 
palace in the bottom of the sea, or, according 
to Homer, at Aegae. Later writers describe 
him as riding over the sea on sea horses or 




Triton. ( From a Roman Lamp.) 



other monsters. Sometimes we find men- 
tion of Tritons in the plural. Their appear- 
ance is variously described ; though they are 
always conceived as having the human figure 
in the upper part of their bodies, and that of 
a fish in the lower part. The chief charac- 
teristic of Tritons in poetry as weU as in 
works of art is a trumpet made out of a shell 
{concha), which the Tritons blow at the 
command of Poseidon, to soothe the restless 
waves_of the sea. 

TRITON (-onis) EL., TRITONIS (-is), or 
TRITONITIS PALUS, a river and lake on 
the Mediterranean coast of Libya, which are 
mentioned in several old Greek legends, espe- 
cially in the mythology of Athena (Minerva), 
whom one account represented as born on the 
lake Tritonis. The lake is undoubtedly the 
great salt lake, in the S. of Tunis, called El- 
Sibkah. Some of the ancient writers gave 
altogether a different locality to the legend, 
and identify the Triton with the river usually 
called Latho>-, in Cyrena'ica. 

TRIYICUM (-i : Trivico), a small town in 
Samnium, situated among the mountains 
separating Samnium from Apulia. 

TROAS (-adis: Chan), the territory of 



TROAS. 



433 



TROSSULOI. 



Ilium or Troy, formed the N.W. part of \ 
Mysia. It was bounded on the W. by the 
Aegaean sea, from Pr. Lectum to Pr. Sigeum, 
at the entrance of the Hellespont ; on the 
N.W. by the Hellespont, as far as the river 
Ehodius, below Abydus ; on the N.E. and E. 
by the mountains which border the valley of 
the Ehodius, and on the S. by the N. coast of 
the Gulf of Adramyttium along the S. foot of 
Ida ; but on the N.E. and E. the boundary is 
sometimes extended so far as to include the 
whole coast of the Hellespont and part of the 
Propontis, and the country as far as the river 
Granicus, thus embracing the district of Dar- I 
dania, and somewhat more. The Troad is for 
the most part mountainous, being intersected 
by Mt. Ida and its branches : the largest plain 
is that in which Troy stood. The chief rivers 
were the Satxois on the S., the Ehodius on 
the X., and the Scama>-der and Simois in the 
centre. These 2 rivers, so renowned in the 
legends of the Trojan AVar, flow from 2 dif- 
ferent points in the chain of Mt. Ida, and 
unite in the plain of Troy, through which the 
united stream flows N.W. and falls into the 
Hellespont E. of the promontory of Sigeum. j 
The precise locality of the city of Troy, or, ; 
according to its genuine Greek name, Ilium, 
is the subject of much dispute. The most 
probable opinion seems to be that which places 
the original city in the upper part of the 
plain, on a moderate elevation at the foot of 
Mt. Ida, and its citadel (called Pergama, 
ITlfi^aa-a.), on a loftier height, almost sepa- 
rated from the city by a ravine, and nearly 
surrounded by the Scamander. This city 
seems never to have been restored after its 
destruction by the Greeks. The Aeolian co- 
lonists subsequently built a new city, on the 
site, as they doubtless believed, of the old one, 
but really much lower down the plain; and 
this city is the Troja, or Iijum Yetus, of 
most of the ancient writers. After the time 
of Alexander this city declined, and a new 
one was built still farther down the plain, 
below the confluence of the Simois and Sca- 
mander, and near the Hellespont, and this 
was called Ilium Novum. The mythical ac- 
count of the origin of the kingdom of Troy is 
briefly as follows : — Teucer, the first king in 
the Troad, had a daughter, who married 
Dardanus. [Dardaxia]. From this Teucer the 
people were called Teucri. Dardanus had 2 
sons, Ilus and Erichthonius; and the latter 
was the father of Tros, from whom the coun- 
try and people derived the names of Troas 
and Troes. Tros was the father of Ilus, who 
founded the city, which was called after him 
Ilium, and also, after his father, Troja. 
The next king was Laomedon, and after him 
Priam. [Priamus.] In his reign the city | 



was taken and destroyed by the confederated 
Greeks, after a 10 years' siege. The chrono- 
logers assigned different dates for the capture 
of Troy ; the calculation most generally ac- 
cepted placed it in b.c. 1184. ■ 

TEOCAII or -II. [Galatia.] 

TEOES._ [Troas.] 

TROEZEN (-enis: Dhamala), the capital 
of Troezexia, a district in the S.E. of Argolis, 
on the Saronic gulf, and opposite the island 
of Aegina. The town was situated at some 
little distance from the coast, on which it 
possessed a harbour called Pogox, opposite 
the island of Calauria. Troezen was a very 
ancient city, and is said to have been origin- 
ally called Poseidonia, on account of its wor- 
ship of Poseidon (Neptune) e It received the 
name of Troezen from Troezen, one of the 
sons of Pelops ; and it is celebrated in mytho- 
logy as the place where Pittheus, the mater- 
nal grandfather of Theseus, lived, and where 
Theseus himself was born. In the historical 
period it was a city of some importance. 

TEOGILIAE (-arum), 3 small islands, ly- 
ing off the promontory of Trogilium. 

TEOGLODYTAE (-arum : i. e. dwellers in 
caves), the name applied by the Greek geogra- 
phers to various uncivilised people, who had 
no abodes but caves, especially to the inha- 
bitants of the W. coast of the Eed Sea, along 
the shores of Upper Egypt and Aethiopia. 
There were also Troglodytae in Moesia, on 
the banks of the Danube. 

TEOGUS, POMPEITJS. [Jtjstinus.] 

TBOILIOI. [Trossulum.] 

TEOILUS (-i), son of Priam and Hecuba, 
or according to others, son of Apollo. He 
fell by the hands of Achilles. 

TROJA (-ae), the name of the city of Troy 
or Ilium, also applied to the country. [Troas.] 

TROPHONIUS (-i), son of Erginus, king 
of Orchomenus, and brother of Agamedes. 
He and his brother built the temple at Delphi, 
and the treasury of king Hyrieus in Boeotia. 
[Agamedes.] Trophonius after his death was 
worshipped as a hero, and had a celebrated 
oracle in a cave near Lebadea, in Boeotia. 
(See Diet, of Antiq,, art. Oraculum.) 

TROS (-ois), son of Erichthonius and As- 
tyoche, and grandson of Dardanus. He was 
married to Callirrhoe, by whom he became 
the father of Ilus, Assaracus, and Ganymedes, 
and was king of Phrygia. The country and 
people of Troy derived their name from him. 
He gave up his son Ganymedes to Zeus (Jupi- 
ter), for a present of horses, [Ganymedes.] 

TBOSSTJLUaI (-i : Trosso), a town in Etru- 
ria, 9 miles from Volsinii, which is said to 
have been taken by some Roman equites, 
without the aid of foot-soldiers ; whence the 
Eoman equites obtained the name of Trossuli. 



TRUENTUM. 



439 



TULLIUS. 



TRUENTUM [-i;, a town of Picenum on 
the river Truentus or Truentinus [Tronto). 

TRUTULENSIS PORTUS, a harbour on 
the X.E, coast of Britain, near the aestuary 
Taus (Tay). 

TUBERO (-onis), AELIUS. (1) Q., son- 
in-law of L. Aemilius Paulus, served under 
the latter in his war against Perseus, king 
of Macedonia. — (2) Q., son of the preceding, ! 
was a pupil of Panaetius, and is called the ! 
Stoic. He had a reputation for talent and 
legal knowledge. He was praetor in 123, 
and consul suffectus in 11S. He was an op- 
ponent of Tib. Gracchus, as well as of C. 
Gracchus, and delivered some speeches against \ 
the latter, 123. Tubero is one of the speakers \ 
in Cicero's dialogue Be JRepicblica. — (3) L., 
an intimate friend of Cicero. On the break- j 
ing out of the civil war, Tubero espoused the ■ 
party of Pompey, under whom he served in 
Greece. He was afterwards pardoned by 
Caesar, and returned with his son Quintus I 
to Rome. Tubero cultivated literature and 
philosophy. — (4) Q., son of the preceding, ! 
obtained considerable reputation as a jurist, 
and is often cited in the Digest. 

TUCCA (-ae), PLOTIUS, a friend of Horace 
and Virgil, to whom and Varius the latter j 
bequeathed his unfinished works. 

TUDER (-eris : Todi], an ancient town of 
Umbria, situated on a hill near the Tiber, j 
and on the road from Mevania to Rome. 

TULLIA (-ae), the name of the 2 daughters 
of Servius Tullius, the 6th king of Rome. i 

TULLIA (-ae),^ frequently called by the 
diminutive TULLIOLA, was the daughter of 
M. Cicero and Terentia, and was probably 
born b.c. 7 9 or 7 8. She was betrothed in 
67 to C. Calpurnius Piso Frugi, whom she 
married in 63, during the consulship of her 
father. During Cicero's banishment Tullia j 
lost her first husband. She was married | 
again in 56 to Furius Crassipes, a young man j 
of rank and large property ; but she did not 
live with him long, though the time and the 
reason of her divorce are alike unknown. { 
In 50 she was married to her 3rd husband, 
P. Cornelius Dolabella, who was a thorough j 
profligate. The marriage took place during 
Cicero's absence in Cilicia, and, as might ! 
have been anticipated, was not a happy one. ! 
In 46 a divorce took place by mutual consent. ' 
At the beginning of 45 Tullia was delivered 
of a son, her 2nd child by Dolabella. As 
soon as she was sufficiently recovered to bear j 
the fatigues of a journey, she accompanied 
her father to Tusculum, but she died there in 
Februarv. 

TULLIAXOI (-i), a dismal subterranean 
dungeon, added by Servius Tullius to the 
Career Mamertinus. It now serves as a I 



. chapel to a small church built on the spot, 
I called S. Pietro in Carcere. 

TULLIUS CICERO. [Cicero.] 
TULLIUS, SERVIUS (-i), the 6th king of 
Rome. The account of the early life and 
death of Servius Tullius is full of marvels, 
and cannot be regarded as possessing any 
title to a real historical narrative. His 
mother, Ocrisia, was one of the captives 
taken at Corniculum, and became a female 
slave of Tanaquil, the wife of Tarquinius 
Priscus. He was born in the king's palace, 
and notwithstanding his servile origin was 
brought up as the king's son, siuce Tanaquil 
by her powers of divination had foreseen the 
greatness of the child ; and Tarquinius placed 
such confidence in him, that he gave him his 
daughter in marriage, and entrusted him 
with the exercise of the government. The 
sons of Ancus Marcius, fearing lest he should 
deprive them of the throne which they claimed 
as their inheritance, procured the assassination 
of Tarquinius [TARQrrsrrs] ; but Tanaquil, 
by a stratagem, preserved the royal power 
for Servius. Three important events are 
assigned to his reign by universal tradition. 
First, he gave a new constitution to the 
Roman state. The two main objects of this 
constitution were to give the plebs political 
independence, and to assign to property that 
influence in the state which had previously 
belonged to birth exclusively. [For details 
see Bid. of Antiq. art. Comitia.] Secondly, 
he extended the pomoerium, or hallowed 
boundary of the city, and completed the city by 
incorporating with it -the Quirinal, Viminal, 
and Esquiline hills. [Roma.] Thirdly, he esta- 
blished an important alliance with the Latins, 
by which Rome and the cities of Latiuni be- 
came the members of one great league. By his 
new constitution Servius incurred the hostility 
of the patricians, who conspired with L. Tar- 
quinius to deprive him of his life and of his 
throne. According to the legend, Tullia, one 
of the daughters of Servius, an ambitious 
woman, who had paved the way for her 
marriage with L. Tarquinius by the murder 
of her former husband, Aruns, and of her 
sister, the former wife of Tarquinius, was 
one of the prime movers in this conspiracy. 
At her instigation Tarquinius entered the 
forum arrayed in the kingly robes, seated 
himself in the royal chair in the senate-house, 
and ordered the senators to be summoned to 
him as their king. At the first news of the 
commotion, Servius hastened to the senate- 
house, and, standing at the doorway, ordered 
Tarquinius to come down from the throne. 
Tarquinius sprang forwards, seized the old 
man, and flung him down the stone steps. 
Covered with blood, the king was hastening 



TULLIUS 



TUSCULUM. 



home ; but, before he reached it, he was 
overtaken by the servants of Tarquinius, and 
murdered. Tullia drove to the senate-house, 
and greeted her husband as king ; but her 
transports of joy struck even him with 
horror. He bade her go home ; and as she 
was returning, her charioteer pulled up, and 
pointed out the corpse of her father lying in 
his blood across the road. She commanded 
him to drive on : the blood of her father 
spirted over the carriage and on her dress ; 
and from that clay forward the street bore the 
name of the Vicus Seeleratus, or Wicked 
Street. Servius had reigned 44 years. His 
memory was long cherished by the plebeians. 

TULLIUS TIRO. [Tiro.] 

TULLUS HOSTILIUS (-i), 3rd king of 
Rome, is said to have been the grandson of 
Hostus Hostilius, who fell in battle against 
the Sabines in the reign of Romulus. His 
legend ran as follows : Tullus Hostilius de- 
parted from the peaceful ways of Numa, and 
aspired to the martial renown of Romulus. 
He made Alba acknowledge Rome's su- 
premacy in the war wherein the 3 Roman 
brothers, the Horatii, fought with the 3 
Alban brothers, the Curiatii, at the Fossa 
Cluilia. Next he warred with Fidenae and 
with Yeii, and being straitly pressed by their 
joint hosts, he vowed temples to Pallor and 
Pavor — Paleness and Panic. And after the 
fight was won, he tore asunder with chariots 
Mettius Fufetius, the king or dictator of Alba, 
because he had desired to betray Rome ; 
and he utterly destroyed Alba, sparing only 
the temples of the gods, and bringing the 
Alban people to Rome, where he gave them 
the Caelian hill to dwell on. Then he turned 
himself to war with the Sabines ; and being 
again straitened in fight in a wood called the 
Wicked Wood, he vowed a yearly festival to 
Saturn and Ops, and to double the number 
of the Salii, or priests of Mamers. And 
when, by their help, he had vanquished the 
Sabines, he performed his vow, and its records 
were the feasts Saturnalia and Opalia. In 
his old age Tullus grew weary of warring ; 
and when a pestilence struck him and his 
people, and a shower of burning stones fell 
from heaven on Mt. Alba, and a voice as of 
the Alban gods came forth from the solitary 
temple of Jupiter on its summit, he remem- 
bered the peaceful and happy days of Numa, 
and sought to win the favour of the gods, as 
Numa had done, by prayer and divination. 
But the gods heeded neither his prayers nor 
his charms, and when he would inquire of 
Jupiter Elicius, Jupiter was wroth, and 
smote Tullus and his whole house with fire. 
Perhaps the only historical fact embodied in 
the legend of Tullus is the ruin of Alba. 



TUNES or TUNIS (-is : Tunis), a strongly 
fortified city of N. Africa, stood at the 
bottom of the Carthaginian gulf, 10 miles 
S.W. of Carthage, at the mouth of the little 
river Catada. 

TUNGRI (-orum), a German people, who 
crossed the Rhine, and settled in Gaul in the 
country formerly occupied by the Aduatici 
and the Eburones. Their chief town was 
called Tungri or Adtjaca Tongrorum [Ton- 
gem). 

TURDETANI (-orum), the most numerous 
people in Hispania Baetica, dwelt in the S. 
of the province, on both banks of the Baetis, 
as far as Lusitania. 

TURDULI (-orum), a people in Hispania 
Baetica, situated to the E. and S. of the Tur- 
detani, with whom they were closely con- 
nected. 

TURIA (-ae), or TURIUM (-i : GuadaU 
aviar), a river on the E. coast of Spain, 
flowing into the sea at Valentia, memorable 
for the battle fought on its banks between 
Pompey and Sertorius. 

TURNUS (-i). (1) Son of Daunus and 
Venilia, and king of the Rutuli at the time 
of the arrival of Aeneas, in Italy. He was a 
brother of Juturna, and related to Amata, the- 
wife of king Latinus ; and he fought against 
Aeneas, because Latinus had given to the 
Trojan hero his daughter Lavinia, who had 
been previously promised to Turnus. He 
appears in the Aeneid as a brave warrior ; 
but in the end he fell by the hand of Aeneas. 
— (2) A Roman satiric poet, was a native of 
Aurunca, and lived under Vespasian and 
Domitian. 

TURNUS HERDONIUS. [Herdonius.] 

TURONES (-urn), TURONI or TURONII 
(-orum), a people in the interior of Gallia 
Lugdunensis, between the Aulerci, Andes, 
and Pictones. Their chief town was Caesa- 
rodunum, subsequently Turoni {Tours), on 
the Liger [Loire). 

TURRIS HANNIBALIS (-is: Bourj SaleTc- 
tah, Ru.), a castle on the coast of Byzacena, 
between Thapsus and Acholla, belonging to 
Hannibal, who embarked here when he fled 
to Antioehus the Great. 

TURRIS STRATONIS. [Caesarea, No. 3.] 

TUSCI, TUSCIA. [Etruria.] 

TUSCULUM (-i: nr. Frascati, Ru.), an 
ancient town of Latium, situated about 10 
miles S.E. of Rome, on a lofty summit of 
the mountains, which are called after the 
town, Tusctjlani Moxtes. It is said to 
have been founded by Telegonus, the son 
of Ulysses ; and it was always one of the 
most important of the Latin towns. Cato 
the Censor was a native of Tusculum. Its 
proximity to Rome, its salubrity, and the 



TUTICANUS. 



TYRAS. 



beauty of its situation, made it a favourite 
residence of the Roman nobles during the 
summer. Cicero, among others, had a 
favourite villa at this place, which he fre- 
quently mentions, under the name of Ttjsctj- 

LANTJM.^ 

TUTICANUS (-i), a Roman poet, and a 
friend of Ovid. 

TYANA (-drum: Kiz Sisar, Ru.), a city 
of Asia Elinor, stood in the S. of Cappadocia, 
at the X. foot of Mt. Taurus. Tyana was 
the native place of Apollonius, the supposed 
worker of miracles. The S. district of Cappa- 
docia, in which the city stood, was called 
Tyanltis. 

^TYCHE. (1) Fortuna. — (2) Syractjsae. 
TYDEUS (-eos, -ei, or -el), son of Oeneus, 
king of Calydon, and Periboea. He was 
obliged to leave Calydon in consequence of 
some murder which he had committed, but 
which is differently described by different 
authors. He fled to Adrastus at Argos, who 
purified him from the murder, and gave him 
his daughter Dei'pyle in marriage, by whom 
he became the father of Diomedes, who is 
hence frequently called Tydides. He accom- 
panied Adrastus in the expedition against 
Thebes, where he was wounded by Melanip- 
pus, who, however, was slain by him. \Yhen 
Tydeus lay on the ground wounded, Athena 
(Minerva) appeared to him with a remedy 
which she had received from Zeus (Jupiter), 
and which was to make him immortal. This, 
however, was prevented by a stratagem of 
Amphiaraus, who hated Tydeus, for he cut off 
the head of Melanippus, and brought it to 
Tydeus, who divided it and ate the brain, or 
devoured some of the flesh. Athena, seeing 
this, shuddered, and left Tydeus to his fate, 
who consequently died, and was buried by 
Macon. 

TYMPHAEI (-drum), a people of Epirus, 
on the borders of Thessaly, so caUed from 
Mt. Ttjiphe. Their country was called 
Tymphaea. 

TYMPHRESTCS (-i : Elladha), a moun- 
tain in Thessaly, in the country of the Dry- 
opes, in which the river Spercheus rises. 

TYXDAEEUS (-ei : not Tyxdarus), was 
son of Perieres and Gorgophone, or, accord- 
ing to others, son of Oebalus, by the nymph 
Batia or by Gorgophone. Tyndareus and 
his brother Icarius were expelled by their 
step-brother Hippocoon and his sons ; where- 
upon Tyndareus fled to Thestius, in Aetolia, 
and assisted him in his wars against his 
neighbours. In Aetolia Tyndareus married 
Leda, the daughter of Thestius, and was 
afterwards restored to Sparta by Hercules. 
By Leda, Tyndareus became the father of 
Timandra, Clytaemnestra, and Philopoe. One 



night Leda was embraced both by Zeus 
(Jupiter) and Tyndareus, and the result was 
the birth of Pollux and Helena, the children 
of Zeus, and of Castor and Clytaemnestra, 
the children of Tyndareus. The patronymic 
Tyxdartdae is frequently given to Castor and 
Pollux, and the female patronymic Tyndaris 
to Helen and Clytaemnestra. When Castor 
and Pollux had been received among the 
immortals, Tyndareus invited Menelaus to 
come to Sparta, and surrendered his kingdom 
to him. 

TYXDARIS (-idis) or TYXDARIUM (-i : 
Tindare), a town on the X. coast of Sicily, a 
little W. of Messana, founded by the elder 
Dionysius, b.c. 396. 

TYPHOX (-onis) or TYPHOEUS (-oeos, 
-oei, or -oei), a monster of the primitive 
world, is described sometimes as a destruct- 
ive hurricane, and sometimes as a fire- 
brcathing giant. According to Homer, he 
was concealed in the earth in the country of 
the Arimi, which was lashed by Zeus (Jupi- 
ter) with flashes of lightning. In Hesiod, 
Typhaon and Typhoeus are 2 distinct beings. 
Typhaon is represented as a son of Typhoeus, 
and a fearful hurricane, and as having become, 
by Echidna, the father of the dog Orthus, 
Cerberus, the Lernaean hydra, Chimaera, and 
the Sphynx. Typhoeus, on the other hand, 
is called the youngest son of Tartarus and 
Gaea, or of Hera (Juno) alone, because she 
was indignant at Zeus having given birth to 
Athena (Minerva). He is described as a 
monster with 100 heads, fearful eyes, and 
terrible voices ; he wanted to acquire the 
sovereignty of gods and men, but, after a 
fearful struggle, was subdued by Zeus with a 
thunderbolt. He begot the winds, whence he 
is also called the father of the Harpies ; but 
the beneficent winds Xotus, Boreas, Argestes, 
and Zephyrus, were not his sons. He was 
buried in Tartarus, under Mt. Aetna, the 
workshop of Hephaestus (Yulcan), which is 
hence called by the poets Typhois Aetna. 

TYRAXXIOX (-onis). (1) A Greek gram- 
marian, a native of Amisus, in Pontus, was 
taken captive by Lucullus, and carried to 
Rome, b.c. 72. He was given by Lucullus 
to Murena, who manumitted him. At Rome 
Tyrannion occupied himself in teaching. He 
was also employed in arranging the library 
of Apellicon, which Sulla brought to Rome, 
and which contained the writings of Aris- 
totle. Cicero speaks in the highest terms of 
his learning and ability. — (2) A native of 
Phoenicia, the son of Artemidorus, and a 
disciple of the preceding. 

TYRAS (-ae : Dniester), subsequently 
called Danastris, a river in European Sar- 
matia, forming in the lower part of its course 



TYKIAEUM. 



442 



ULUBRAE. 



tlie boundary between Daeia and Sarmatia, 
and falling into the Pontus Euxinus, N. of 
the Danube. 

TYRIAEUM (-i : Ugliwi), a city of Lyca- 
onia, 20 parasangs W. of Iconium. 

TYRO (-us), daughter of Salmoneus and 
Alcidice. She was wife of Cretheus, and 
beloved by the river-god Enipeus in Thessaly, 
in whose form Poseidon (Neptune) appeared 
to her, and became by her the father of 
Pelias and Neleus. By Cretheus she was the 
mother of Aeson, Pheres, and Amythaon. 
TYRRHENI, TYRRHENI A. [Etruria.] 
TYRRHENUM MARE, [Etruria.] 
TYRRHENES (4), son of the Lydian 
king Atys and Callithea, and brother of 
Lydus, is said to have led a Pelasgian colony 
from Lydia into Italy, into the country of the 
Umbrians, and to have given to the colonists 
his name. Others call ' Tyrrhenus a son of 
Hercules by Omphale, or of Telephus and 
Hiera, and a brother of Tarchon. The name 
Tarchon seems to be only another form of 
Tyrrhenus. 

"TYRRHEUS C-ei), a shepherd of king 
Latinus. 

TYRTAEUS (-i), son of Archembrotus, of 
Aphidnae in Attica. According to the older 
tradition, the Spartans during the 2nd 
Messenian war were commanded by an oracle 
to take a leader from among the Athenians, 
and thus to conquer their enemies, whereupon 
they chose Tyrtaeus. Later writers em- 
bellish the story, and represent Tyrtaeus as 
a lame schoolmaster, of low family and repu- 
tation, whom the Athenians, when applied to 
by the Lacedaemonians, purposely sent as 
the most inefficient leader they could select, 
being unwilling to assist the Lacedaemonians 
in extending their dominion in the Pelopon- 
nesus, but little thinking that the poetry of 
Tyrtaeus would achieve that victory which 
his physical constitution seemed to forbid 
his aspiring to. The poems of Tyrtaeus ex- 
ercised an important influence upon the 
Spartans, composing their dissensions at 
home, and animating their courage in the 
field, in their conflict with the Messenians. 
He must have flourished down to b.c. 668, 
which was the last year of the 2nd Messenian 
war. 

TYRES (-i : Aram. Tura : O. T. Tsor : 
Sw 9 Ru.), one of the greatest and most 
famous cities of the ancient world, stood 
on the coast of Phoenice, about 20 miles S. 
of Sidon. It was a colony of the Sidonians, 
and is therefore called in Scripture " the 
daughter of Sidon." In the time of Solomon, 
we find its king, Hiram, who was also king 
of Sidon, in close alliance with the Hebrew 
monarch. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser 



laid siege to Tyre for 5 years, but without 
success. It was again besieged for 13 years 
by Nebuchadnezzar. At the period when the 
Greeks began to be well acquainted with the 
city, its old site had been abandoned, and a 
new city erected on a small island about half 
a mile from the shore. In b.c. 322 the 
Tyrians refused to open their gates to Alex- 
ander, who laid siege to the city for 7 
months, and united the. island on which' it 
stood to the mainland by a mole constructed 
chiefly of the ruins of Old Tyre. This mole 
has ever since formed a permanent connexion 
between the island and the mainland. After 
its capture and sack by Alexander, Tyre 
never regained its former consequence, and 
its commerce was for the most part transferred 
to Alexandria. It was, however, a place of 
considerable importance in mediaeval history, 
especially as one of the last points held by 
the Christians on the coast of Syria. 



TTEII (-orum), a German people, who ori- 
^ ginally dwelt on the right bank of the 
Rhine, but were transported across the river 
by Agrippa in b.c. 37, at their own request, 
because they wished to escape the hostilities 
of the Suevi. They took the name of 
Agrippenses, from their town Colonia 
Agrippina. _ 

UCALEGON (-ontis), one of the elders at 
Troy, whose house was burnt at the destruc- 
tion of the city. 

UFENS (-entis : JJffente), a river in 
Latium, flowing from Setia, and falling into 
the Amasenus. 

UFFUGUM (-i), a town in Bruttium, 
between Scyllacium and Rhegium. 

ULPIANUS (-i), DOMITIUS, a celebrated 
Roman jurist, derived his origin from Tyre. 
Under Alexander Severus, he became the 
emperor's chief adviser, and held the offices 
of Scriniorum magister, Praefectus Annonae, 
and Praefectus Praetorio. Ulpian perished 
in .the reign of Alexander by the hands of 
the soldiers, who forced their way into the 
palace at night, and killed him in the pre- 
sence of the emperor and his mother, a.d. 228. 
The great legal knowledge, the good sense, 
and the industry of Elpian place him among 
the first of the Roman jurists. 

ULTOR (-oris), " the avenger," a surname 
of Mars, to whom Augustus built a temple at 
Rome in the Forum, after taking vengeance 
upon the murderers of his great-uncle, Julius 
Caesar. 

IJLUBRAE (-arum), a small town in La- 
tium, of uncertain site, but in the neighbour- 
hood of the Pontine Marshes. 



ULYSSES. 



443 



ULYSSES. 



ULYSSES, XJLYXES, or ULIXES (-is or -ei, 
el), called ODYSSEUS by the Greeks, one of 
the principal Greek heroes in the Trojan war, 
was a son of Laertes and Anticlea, or, accord- 
ing to a later tradition, of Sisyphus and Anti- 
clea, and was married to Penelope, the daugh- 
ter of Icarius, by whom he became the father 
of Telemachus. During the siege of Troy he 
distinguished himself by his valour, prudence, 
and eloquence, and after the death of Achilles 
contended for his armour with the Telamonian 
Ajax, and gained the prize. He is said by 
some to have devised the stratagem of the 
wooden horse, and he was one of the heroes 
concealed within it. He is also said to have 
taken part in carrying off the palladium. 
But the most celebrated part of his story 
consists of his adventures after the destruc- 
tion of Troy, which form the subject of 
Homer's Odyssey. After visiting the Cicones 
and Lotophagi, he sailed to the western coast 
of Sicily, where with 12 companions he en- 
tered the cave of the Cyclops Polyphemus. 
This giant devoured 6 of the companions of 
Ulysses, and kept Ulysses himself and the 6 
others prisoners in his cave. Ulysses, how- 
ever, contrived to make the monster drunk, 
and having with a burning pole deprived him 



of his one eye, succeeded in making his escape 
with his friends, by concealing himself and 
them under the bodies of the sheep which the 
Cyclops let out of his cave. Ulysses next 
arrived at the island of Aeolus ; and the god 
on his departure gave him a bag of winds, 
which were to carry him home ; but the com- 
panions of Ulysses opened the bag, and the 
winds escaped, whereupon the ships were 
driven back to the island of Aeolus, who in- 
dignantly refused all further assistance. After 
a visit to Telepylos, the city of Lamus, his 
fate carried him to Aeaea, an island inhabited 
by the sorceress Circe. Ulysses sent part of 
his people to explore the island, but they were 
changed by Circe into swine. Eurylochus 
alone escaped, and brought the sad news to 
Ulysses, who, when he was hastening to the 
assistance of his friends, was instructed by 
Hermes how to resist the magic powers of 
Circe. He succeeded in liberating his com- 
panions, who were again changed into men, 
and were most hospitably treated by the sor- 
ceress. By her advice he sailed across the 
river Oceanus, and having landed in the coun- 
try of the Cimmerians, he entered Hades, and 
consulted Tiresias about the manner in which 
he might reach his native island. Ulysses 




then returned with his companions to Aeaea, 
when Circe again sent them a wind which 
carried them to the island of the Sirens. 
Ulysses, in order to escape their enticing but 
dangerous songs, filled the ears of his com- j 



panions with wax, and fastened himself to 
the mast of his ship, until he was out of reach 
of their voices. In sailing between Scylla 
and Charybdis, the former monster carried olf 
and devoured 6 of the companions of Ulysses. 



ULYSSES, 



ULYSSES. 



Having next landed on Thrinacia, his com- 
panions, contrary to the admonitions of 
Tiresias, killed some of the oxen of Helios ; 



in consequence of which, when they next put 
to sea, Zeus destroyed their ship by lightning, 
and all were drowned with the exception of 




Ulysses and the Sirens. (From a Tase in the Biitish Museum.) 



Ulysses, who saved himself by means of the 
mast and planks, and after 10 days reached 
the island of Ogygia, inhabited by the nymph 
Calypso. She received him with kindness, 
and desired him to marry her, promising 
immortality and eternal youth. But Ulysses, 
who had spent S years with Calypso, longed 
for his home ; and at the intercession of 
Athena (Minerva), Hermes (Mercury) carried 
to Calypso the command of Zens to dismiss 
Ulysses. The nymph obeyed, and taught 
him how to build a raft, on which he left the 
island. In 1 S days he came in sight of Scheria, 
the island of the Phaeacians, when Poseidon 
(Xeptune) sent a storm, which cast him off the 
raft ; but by the assistance of Leucothea and 
Athena he swam ashore. The exhausted 
hero slept on the shore until he was awoke 
by the voices of maidens. He found Xau- 
sicaa, the daughter of king Alcinous and 
Arete, who conducted the hero to her father's 
court. Here the minstrel Demodocus sang 
of the fall of Troy, which moved Ulysses to 
tears, and being questioned about the cause 
of his emotion, he related his whole history. 
A ship was provided to convey him to Ithaca, 
from which he had been absent 20 years. 
During his absence his father Laertes, bowed 



down by grief and old age, had withdrawn 
into the country, his mother Anticlea had 
died of sorrow, his sonTelemachushad grown 
up to manhood, and his wife Penelope had 
rejected all the offers that had been made to 
her by the importunate suitors from the 
neighbouring islands. In order that he 
might not be recognised, Athena metamor- 
phosed Ulysses into an unsightly beggar. He 
was kindly received by Eumaeus, the swine- 
herd, a faithful servant of his house ; and 
while staying with Eumaeus, Telemachus 
returned from Sparta and Pylos, whither he 
had gone to obtain information concerning 
his father. Ulysses made himself known to 
him, and a plan of revenge was resolved on. 
Penelope, with great difficulty, was made to 
promise her hand to him who should conquer 
the others in shooting with the bow of 
Ulysses. As none of the suitors was able to 
draw this bow, Ulysses himself took it up, 
and, directing his arrows against the suitors, 
slew them all. Ulysses now made himself 
known to Penelope, and went to see his aged 
father. In the meantime the report of the 
death of the suitors was spread abroad, and 
their relatives rose in arms against Ulysses ; 
but Athena, who assumed the appearance 



UMBRIA. 



445 



UXII. 



of Mentor, brought about a reconciliation 
between the people and the king-. 

UMBBIA (-ae) called by the Greeks OM- | 
BRICA, a district of Italy, bounded on 
the N« by Gallia Cisalpina, from which it 
was separated by the river Rubicon ; on the j 
E. by the Adriatic sea ; on the S. by the 
rivers Aesis and Xar ; and on the W. by 
the Tiber. Its inhabitants, the Umbri ! 
(sing. Umber), called by the Greeks Umbrici, 
were one of the most ancient and powerful j 
peoples in central Italy, and originally ex- 
tended across the peninsula from the Adriatic 
to the Tyrrhene seas. Thus they inhabited 
the country afterwards called Etruria ; and 
we are expressly told that Crotona, Perusia, 
Clusium, and other Etruscan cities, were 
built by the Umbrians. They were after- 
wards deprived of their possessions W. of the j 
Tiber by the Etruscans, and their territories 
were still further diminished by the Senones, 
a Gallic people, who took possession of the 
whole country on the coast, from Ariminum 
to the Aesis. The Umbri were subdued by 
the Romans, b.c. 307 ; and after the conquest 
of the Senones by the Romans in 283, they } 
again obtained possession of the country on j 
the coast of the Adriatic. The chief towns of j 
Umbria were Arimixttj, Fantjm Forttnae, 
Mevaxia, Tuder, Narnia, and SpoLETroi. 

UMBRO (-onis : Ombrone), one of the 
largest rivers in Etruria, falling into the 
Tyrrhene sea, near a town of the same name. ! 

UNELLI (-orum), a people on the X. coast 
of Gaul, on a promontory opposite Britain (the ' 
modern Cot ant in) t belonging to the Armorici. j 

UTIS. (1) A surname of Artemis (Diana), 
as the goddess assisting women in child-birth, i 
—(2) The name of a mythical being, who ! 
is said to have reared Artemis, and who is 
mentioned by Yirgil as one of the nymphs in : 
her train. The masculine Upis is mentioned 
by Cicero as the father of Artemis. 
"UR. [Edessa.] 

URANIA (-ae). (1) One of the Muses, a 
daughter of Zeus (Jupiter) by Mnemosyne. I 
The ancient bard Linus is called her son by ! 
Apollo, and Hymenaeus also is said to have ! 
been a son of Urania. She was regarded, as I 
her name indicates, as the Muse of As- 
tronomy, and was represented with a celestial 
globe, to which she points with a small staff. ' 
— (2) Daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, who 
also occurs as a nymph in the train of Per- 
sephone (Proserpine). — (3) A surname of 
Aphrodite (Venus) describing her as " the 
heavenly," or spiritual, to distinguish her 
from Aphrodite Pandemos. Plato represents 
her as a daughter of Uranus, begotten with- 
out a mother. Wine was not used in the 
libations offered to her, 



URANUS (-i) or HEAVEN, sometimes 
called a son, and sometimes the husband of 
Gaea (Earth). By Gaea Uranus became the 
father of Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, 
Iapetus, Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, 
Phoebe, Tethys, Cronos ; of the Cyclopes, 
— Brontes, Steropes, Arges ; and of the 
Hecatoncheires — Cottus, Briareus, and Gyes. 
According to Cicero, Uranus was also the 
father of Mercury by Dia, and of Venus by 
Hemera. Uranus hated his children, and 
immediately after their birth he confined 
them in Tartarus, in consequence of which 
he was unmanned and dethroned by Cronos 
at the instigation of Gaea. Out of the drops 
of his blood sprang the Gigantes, the Melian 
nymphs, and, according to some, Silenus, and 
from the foam gathering around his limbs in 
the sea_sprang Aphrodite. 

URBINUM (-i). (1) Hortexse {Urbino), 
a town in Umbria and a municipiuni. — [2) 
Metaerexse (Vrbania), a town in Umbria on 
the river Metaurus, and not far from its 
source. 

URIA (-ae : Oria) called HYRIA by 
Herodotus, a town in Calabria, on the road 
from Brundisium to Tarentum, was the an- 
cient capital of Iapygia, and is said to have 
been founded by the Cretans under Minos. 

URIUM (-i), a small town in Apulia, from 
which the Sinus Urius took its name, being 
the bay on the N. side of Mt. Garganus 
opposite the Diomedean islands, 

USIPETES (-urn) or USIPII (-orum; a 
German people who, in the time of Caesar, 
took up their abode on the Lippe. At a later 
time they become lost under the general 
name of Alemanni. 

USTICA (-ae), a valley near the Sabine 
villa of Horace. 

UTICA (-ae : Bou-Shater, Ru.}, the 
greatest city of ancient Africa, after Carthage, 
was a Phoenician colony, older than Car- 
thage, and rather her ally than subject. It 
stood on' the shore of the N. part of the Car- 
thaginian Gulf, a little W. of the mouth of 
the Bagradas, and 27 Roman miles N."W. of 
Carthage. In the 3rd Punic War,- Utica took 
part with the Romans against Carthage, and 
was rewarded with the greatest part of the 
Carthaginian territory. It afterwards be- 
came renowned to all future time as the 
scene of the last stand made by the Pompeian 
party against Caesar, and of the glorious, 
though mistaken self-sacrifice of the younger 
Cato. [Cato.] 

UXELLODUXUM (-i;, a town of the 
Cadurci in Gallia Aquitanica. 

UXEXTUM (-i : Uyento), a town in Cala- 
bria, N.W. of the Iapygian promontory. 

UXII (-orum), a warlike people, of pre- 



YACCA. 



446 



VALERIUS. 



datory habits, who had their strongholds in 
Mt. Parachoathras, on the N. border of 
Persis, in the district called Uxia, but who 
also extended over a considerable tract of 
country in Media. 



T^ACCA, VAGA, or VABA {Beja), & city of 
* Zeugitana in N. Africa, a good day's jour- 
ney S. of Utica. It was destroyed by Metellus 
in the Jugurthine War, but was restored and 
colonised by the Romans. Justinian named 
it Theodorias in honour of his wife. 

VACCAEI (-orum), a people in the interior 
of Hispania Tarraconensis, occupying the 
modern Toro, Palencia, Burgos, and Val- 
ladolid. Their chief towns were Palantia 
and Intercatia. 

VADIMONIS LACUS {Lago di Bassano), a 
small lake of Etruria of a circular form, with 
sulphureous waters, and renowned for its 
floating islands. It is celebrated in history 
for the defeat of the Etruscans in 2 great 
battles, first by the dictator Papirius Cursor, 
in b.c. 309 ; and again in 283, when the 
allied forces of the Etruscans and Gauls were 
routed by the consul Cornelius Dolabella. 

VAGIENNI (-orum), a small people in 
Liguria, whose chief town was Augusta 
Vagiennorum. 

VAHALIS. [Rhesus.] 

VALENS (-entis), emperor of the East a.d. 
364 — 378, was born about a.d. 328. He was 
defeated by the Goths, near Hadrianople, on 
the 9th of August, 378, and was never seen 
after the battle. 

VALENTIA (-ae). (1) {Valencia), the 
chief town of the Edetani on the river Turia, 
3 miles from the coast, and on the road from 
Carthago Nova to Castulo. — (2) {Valence), a 
town in Gallia Narbonensis on the Rhone, 
and a Roman colony — (3) A town of Sardinia 
of uncertain site. — (4) Or Valentium, a town 
in Apulia, 10 miles from Brundusium. — (5) 
A province in the N. of Britain, beyond the 
Roman wall. It existed only for a short 
time. [Britannia.] 

VALENTINIANUS (-i), (I.), Roman em- 
peror a.d. 364 — 375, was the son of Gra- 
tianus, and was born a.d. 321, at Cibalis in 
Pannonia. He expired suddenly at Bregetio, 
while giving an audience to the deputies of 
the Quadi, on the 17th of November, 375, — 
(II.), Roman emperor a.d. 375 — 392, younger 
son of the preceding, was proclaimed Au- 
gustus by tbe army after his father's death, 
though he was then only 4 or 5 years of age. 
In 392 Valentinian was murdered by the 
general Arbogastes, who raised Eugenius to 
the throne. — (HI.)? Roman emperor a.d. 425 



— 455, was born 419, and was the son of 
Constantius III. He was slain in 455 by 
Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had 
violated^. 

VALERIA GENS, one of the most ancient 
patrician houses at Rome, was of Sabine 
origin, and their ancestor Volesus or Volusus 
is said to have settled at Rome with Titus 
Tatius. One of the descendants of this Vole- 
sus, P. Valerius, afterwards surnamed Pub- 
licola, plays a distinguished part in the story 
of the expulsion of the kings, and was elected 
consul in the first year of the republic, b.c 
509. From this time down to the latest 
period of the empire, for nearly 1000 
years, the name occurs more or less fre- 
quently in the Easti, and it was borne by 
several of the emperors. The Valeria gens 
enjoyed extraordinary honours and privileges 
at Rome. In early times they were always 
foremost in advocating the rights of the ple- 
beians, and the laws which they proposed 
were the great charters of the liberties of the 
second order. (See Diet, of Antiq., s. v. Leges 
Valeriae.) The Valeria gens was divided 
into various families under the republip, the 
most important of which bore the names of 
Corvus, Flaccus, Messala, and Publicola. 

VALERIAN US (-i). (1) Roman emperor, a.d. 
253 — 260. He was entrapped into a confer- 
ence by the Persians, taken prisoner (260), and 
passed the remainder of his life in captivity, 
subjected to every insult which Oriental 
cruelty could devise. — (2) Son of the preced- 
ing, perished along with Gallienus at Milan 
in 268. [Gallienus.] 

VALERIUS. [Valeria Gens.] 

VALERIUS VOLUSUS MAXIMUS (-i), M., 
was a . brother of P. Valerius Publicola, and 
was dictator in b.c. 494, when the dissensions 
de Nexis between the burghers and common- 
alty of Rome were at the highest. Valerius 
was popular with the plebs, and induced them 
to enlist for the Sabine and Aequian wars, by 
promising that when the enemy was repulsed, 
the condition of the debtors {nexi) should be 
alleviated. He defeated and triumphed over 
the Sabines ; but, unable to fulfil his promise 
to the commons, resigned his dictatorship. 

VALERIUS MAXIMUS (-i) is known to 
us as the compiler of a large collection of his- 
torical anecdotes, entitled Be Factis Bictisque 
Memorabilibus Libri IX. He lived in the 
reign of the emperor Tiberius, to whom he 
dedicated his work. In an historical point 
of view the work is by no means without 
value, since it preserves a record of many 
curious events not to be found elsewhere ; 
but its statements do not always deserve im- 
plicit confidence. 

VALERIUS FLACCUS. [Flaccus.] 



YALGIUS. 



447 



YARUS. 



YALGIUS RUFUS (-i), C, a Roman poet, 
and a contemporary of Virgil and Horace. 

YANDALI, VANDALII, or VINDALII 
(-orum), a confederacy of German peoples, 
who dwelt originally on the X. coast of Ger- 
many, but were afterwards settled N. of the 
Marcomanni in the Riesengebirge, which are 
hence called Yandalici ATontes. They subse- 
quently appear for a short time in Dacia and 
Pannonia ; but at the beginning of the 5th 
century (a.d. 409) they traversed Germany 
and Gaul, and invaded Spain. In this coun- 
try they subjugated the Alani, and founded a 
powerful kingdom, the name of which is still 
preserved in Andalusia (Yandalusia). In 

a. d. 429 they crossed over into Africa, under 
their king Genseric, and conquered all the 
Roman dominions in that country. Genseric 
subsequently invaded Italy, and took and 
plundered Rome in 455. The Yandals con- 
tinued masters of Africa till 535, when their 
kingdom was destroyed by Belisarius, and 
annexed to the Byzantine empire. 

YANGIONES (-urn), a German people, 
dwelling along the Rhine, in the neighbour- 
hood of the modern Worms. 

YARAGRI. [Yeragei.] 

YARGI7XTEIUS (-i), a senator, and one of 
Catiline's conspirators, undertook, in conjunc- 
tion with C. Cornelius, to murder Cicero in 

b. c. 63, but their plan was frustrated by in- 
formation conveyed to Cicero through Fulvia. 

YARIUS RUFUS (-i), L., one of the most 
distinguished poets of the Augustan age, the 
companion and friend of Yirgil and Horace. 
By the latter he is placed in the foremost rank 
among the epic bards, and Quintilian has 
pronounced that his tragedy of Thyestes might 
stand a comparison with any production of 
the Grecian stage. 

YARRO (-onis), TERENTIUS. (1) C, con- 
sul b.c. 216 with L. Aemilius Paulus. Of low 
origin and ultra-democratic opinions, Yarro, 
notwithstanding the strong opposition of the 
aristocracy, was raised to the consulship by 
the people, to bring the war against Hannibal 
to a close. His colleague was L. Aemilius 
Paulus, one of the leaders of the aristocratical 
party. The 2 consuls were defeated by Han- 
nibal at the memorable battle of Cannae 
[Hannibal], which was fought by Yarro 
against the advice of Paulus. The Roman 
army was all but annihilated. Paulus and 
almost all the officers perished. Yarro was 
one of the few who escaped and reached 
Yenusia in safety, with about 70 horsemen. 
His conduct after the battle seems to have 
been deserving of high praise. He proceeded 
to Canusium, where the remnant of the Roman 
army had taken refuge, and there adopted 
every precaution which the exigencies of the 



case required. His conduct was appreciated 
by the senate and the people, and his defeat 
was forgotten in the services he had lately ren- 
dered. — (2) M», the celebrated writer, whose 
vast and varied erudition in almost every de- 
partment of literature earned for him the 
title of the "most learned of the Romans," 
was born b.c 116. Yarro held a high naval 
command in the wars against the pirates and 
Mithridates, and afterwards served as the 
legatus of Pompeius in Spain in the civil war, 
but was compelled to surrender his forces to 
Caesar. He then passed over into Greece, 
and shared the fortunes of the Pompeian party 
till after the battle of Pharsalia, when he sued 
for and obtained the forgiveness of Caesar, 
who employed him in superintending the col- 
lection and arrangement of the great library 
designed for public use. His death took 
place b.c 28, when he was in his 89th year. 
Yarro composed no fewer than 490 books ; 
but of these only 2 works have come down to 
us, and one of them in a mutilated form, viz., 
the treatises Be Me JRusticq, and De Lingua 
Latina. — (3) P., a Latin poet of considerable 
celebrity, surnamed Atacints, from the Atax, 
a river of Gallia Xarbonensis, his native pro- 
vince, was born b.c 82. Of his personal his- 
tory nothing further is known. 

YARUS, a cognomen in many Roman 
gentes, signified a person who had his legs 
bent inwards. 

VARUS (4) ALFEXUS. (1) A Roman 
jurist, the " Alfenus vafer " of Horace, was 
a native of Cremona, where he carried on 
the trade of a barber or a cobbler. Having 
I come to Rome, he became a pupil of Servius 
Sulpicius, attained the dignity of the consul- 
ship, and was honoured with a public funeral. 
— (2) A general of Yitellius, in the civil war 
I in a l d. 69. 

VARUS (-i) QtJINTILIUS, was consul b.c. 
13, and was subsequently appointed to the 
government of Syria, where he acquired 
enormous wealth. Shortly after his return 
from Syria he was made governor of Germany 
I (probably about a.d. 7), and was instructed by 
! Augustus to introduce the Roman jurisdic- 
; tion into that newly conquered country. 
The Germans, however, were not prepared 
j to submit thus tamely to the Roman yoke, 
and found a leader in Arminius, a noble chief 
of the Cherusci, who organised a general 
revolt of all the German tribes between the 
Yisurgis and the Weser. When he had fuliy 
matured his plans, he suddenly attacked 
Varus, at the head of a countless host of 
barbarians, as the Roman general was march- 
ing with his 3 legions through a pass of the 
! Salt us Teutoburgiensis, a range of hills co- 
1 vered with wood, which extends N. of the 



VARUS. 



448^ 



YEL1A. 



Lippe from Osnabriick to Paderborn, and is 
known in the present day by the name of the 
Teutoburgerwald or Lippische Wald. The 
battle lasted 3 days, and ended with the 
entire destruction of the Roman army. Varus 
put an end to his own life. His defeat was 
followed by the loss of all the Roman pos- 
sessions between the Weser and the Rhine, 
and the latter river again became the boun- 
dary of the Roman dominions. When the 
news of this defeat reached Rome, the whole 
city was thrown into consternation ; and 
Augustus, who was both weak and aged, 
gave way to the most violent grief, tearing 
his garments and calling upon Varus to give 
him back his legions. 

VARUS (-i : Tar, or Yard), a river in 
Gallia Xarbonensis, forming the boundary 
between that province and Italy, rises in 
Mt. Cema in the Alps, and falls into the Me- 
diterranean Sea, between Antipolis and 
Xicaea. 

YASCOXES (-um), a powerful people on 
the N. coast of Hispania Tarraconensis, be- 
tween the Iberus and the Pyrenees, in the 
modern Navarre and Guipuzco. Their chief 
towns were Pompelon and Calagurkis. 

VATINIUS (-i). (1) P., a political adven- 
turer in the last days of the republic, who is 
described by Cicero as one of the greatest 
scamps and villains that ever lived. Vati- 
nius was quaestor b.c. 63, and tribune of 
the plebs 59, when he sold his services to 
Caesar, who was then consul along with 
Bibulus. In 56 he appeared as a witness 
against Milo and Sestius, two of Cicero's 
friends, in consequence of which the orator 
made a vehement attack upon the character 
of Vatinius, in the speech which has come 
down to us. Vatinius was praetor in 55, and 
in the following year (54) he was accused by 
C. Licinius Calvus of having gained the 
praetorship by bribery. He was defended on 
this occasion by Cicero, in order to please 
Caesar, whom Cicero had offended by his 
former attack upon Vatinius. During the 
civil war Vatinius attached himself to the 
fortunes of Caesar. — (2) Of Beneventuni, one 
of the vilest and most hateful creatures of 
Xero's court, equally deformed in body and 
in mind, and who, after being a shoemaker's 
apprentice and a buffoon, ended by becoming 
a delator, or public informer. 

YECTIS or VECTA {Isle of Wight), an 
island off the S. coast of Britain. 

VEDIUS POLLIO. [Pollio.] 

VEGETIUS (-i), FLAYIUS RjSX.ATUS, 
the author of a treatise, JRei MiMfaris Insti- 
tuta, or Epitome Mei Militaris, dedicated to 
the emperor Valentinian II. 

VEII (-orum : Isola Farnese), one of the 



most ancient and powerful cities of Etruria, 
situated on the river Cremera, about 12 
miles from Rome. It was one of the 12 
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, and 
apparently the largest of all. As far as we 
can judge from its present remains, it was 

I about 7 miles in circumference, which agrees 
with the statement of Dionysius, that it was 
equal in size to Athens. Its territory [Ager 
Veiens) was extensive, and appears originally 
to have extended on the S. and E. to the 
Tiber ; on the S.W. to the sea, embracing the 
salinae or salt-works, at the mouth of the 
river ; and on the W. to the territory of 
Caere. The Ciminian forest appears to have 
been its N.W. boundary ; on the E. it must 
have embraced all the district S. of Soracte 
and E.-ward to the Tiber. The cities of 
Capena and Fidenae were colonies of Veii. 
The Veientes were engaged in almost un- 
ceasing hostilities with Rome for more than 
3 centuries and a half, and we have records 
of 14 distinct wars between the 2 peoples. 
Veii was at length taken by the dictator 
Camilius, after a siege which is said to have 
lasted 10 years. From this time Veii was 
abandoned; but after the lapse of ages it was 
colonised afresh by Augustus, and made a 
Roman municipium. The new colony, how- 
ever, occupied scarcely a 3rd of the ancient 
city, and had again sunk into decay in the 
reign of Hadrian. 

VEIOVIS (-is), a Roman deity, whose 
name is explained by some to mean "little 
Jupiter ;" while others interpret it " the 
destructive Jupiter," and identify him with 
Pluto. Originally Veiovis was probably an 
Etruscan divinity, whose fearful lightnings 
produced deafness, even before they were 
actually hurled. His temple at Rome stood 
between the Capitol and the Tarpeian rock. 
He was represented as a youthful god armed 
with arrows. 

VELABRUaE (-i), a district in Rome, 
originally a morass, on the W. slope of the 
Palatine, between the Vicus Tuscus and the 
Forum Boarium. 

VELAUNI, or VELLAVI (-orum), a 
people in Gallia Aquitanica, in the modern 
Yelay, who were originally subject to the 
Arverni, but subsequently appear as an 

! independent people. 

| VELEDA (-ae), a prophetic virgin, who 
by birth belonged to the Bructeri, and in the 
reign of Vespasian was regarded as a divine 
being by most of the nations in central 
Germany. 

VELIA or ELEA (-ae), also called 
HYELE (-es : CastelV a Mare della Brucca), 
a Greek toAvn of Lucania, on the W. coast 
between - Paestum and Buxentum, was 



VELINUS. 



449 



VENTI. 



founded by the Phocaeans, who had aban- 
doned their native city to escape from the 
Persian sovereignty, about B.C. 543. It was 
situated about 3 miles E. of the river Hales, 
and possessed a good harbour. It is cele- 
brated as the birthplace of the philosophers 
Parmenides and Zeno, who founded a school 
of philosophy usually known under the name 
of the Eleatic. 

VELINUS (-i : Velino), a river in the 
territory of the Sabines, rising in the central 
Apennines, and falling into the Nar. This 
river in the neighbourhood of Reate over- 
flowed its banks, and formed several small 
lakes, the largest of which was called Lactjs 
Velinus (Pie di Lago, also Lago delle Mar- 
more) . 

TELITRAE (-orum : Velletri), an ancient 
town of the Tolscians, in Latium, but subse- 
quently belonging to the Latin League. It is 
chiefly celebrated as the birthplace of the 
emperor Augustus, 

TELLAUNODtTNUM (4: Beaune), a town 
of the Senones, in Gallia Lugdunensis. 

YELL ATI. [Velauni.] 

TELLEIUS PATERCULUS. [Patercu- 

LUS.] 

TELLOC ASSES, a people in Gallia Lugdu- 
nensis, N.W. of the Parisii, extending along 
the Sequana as far as the ocean; their chief 
town was Eato^iagus. 

VENAFRUM (4 : Venafri), a town in the 
N. of Samnium, near the river Tulturnus, 
and on the confines of Latium, celebrated for 
the excellence of its olives. 

TEXEDI (-orum) or VENEDAE (-arum), 
a people in European Sarmatia, dwelling on 
the Baltic, E. of the Tistula. The Sinus 
Tenedicus (Gulf of Riga), and the Texedici 
Monies, a range of mountains between 
Poland and East Prussia, were called after 
this people. 

TEXETIA (-ae). (1) A district in the N. 
of Italy, was originally included under the 
general name of Gallia Cisalpina, but was 
made by Augustus, the 10th Regio of Italy. 
It was bounded on the W, by the river Athe- 
sis, which separated it from Gallia Cisalpina ; 
on the X. by the Carnic Alps ; on the E. by 
the river Timavus, which separated it from 
Istria ; and on the S. by the Adriatic Gulf. 
Its inhabitants, the Veneti, frequently called 
Heneti by the Greeks, were not an Ita- 
lian race, but their real origin is doubtful. 
In consequence of their hostility to the 
Celtic tribes in their neighbourhood, they 
formed at an early period an alliance with 
Rome ; and their country was defended 
by the Romans against their dangerous 
enemies. On the conquest of the Cisalpine 
Gauls, the Teneti likewise became included 



under the Roman dominions. The Teneti 
continued to enjoy great prosperity down to 
the time of the Marcomannic wars, in the 
reign of the emperor Aurelius ; but from this 
time their country was frequently devastated 
by the barbarians who invaded Italy ; and at 
length, in the 5th century, many of its in- 
habitants, to escape the ravages of the Huns 
under Attila, took refuge in the islands off 
their coast, on which now stands the city of 
Tenice. The chief towns of Tenetia in 
ancient times were, Patavitjm, Altinum, and 
Aquileia. — (2) A district in the N.W. of 
Gallia Lugdunensis, inhabited by the Teneti. 
Off their coast was a group of islands called 
Insulae Veneticae. 

TEXETUS LACTJS. [Brigantinus Lacus.] 

TEXILIA (-ae), a nymph, daughter of 
Pilumnus, sister of Amata, wife of king 
Latinus, and mother of Turnus and Juturna 
by Daunus. 

' TEXXOXES (-urn), a people of Rhaetia, 
and according to Strabo the most savage of 
the Rhaetian tribes, inhabiting the Alps near 
the sources of the Athesis (Adige). 

TEXTA (-ae). (1) Beegarum ( Winchester), 
the chief town of the Belgae in Britain. The 
modern city still contains several Roman re- 
mains. — (2) Icenojcom. [Iceni.] — (3) Silu- 
rum (Caerwent), a town of the Silures in 
Britain, in Monmouthshire. 

TEXTI (-orum), the winds. They appear 
personified, even in the Homeric poems, but 
at the same time they are conceived as ordi- 
nary phenomena of nature. The master and 
ruler of all the winds is Aeolus, who re- 
sides in the island Aeolia [Aeolus] ; but the 
other gods also, especially Zeus (Jupiter), 
exercise a power over them. Homer men- 
tions by name Boreas (X. wind), Eurus (E. 
wind), Xotus (S. wind), and Zephyrus ("W. 
wind). According to Hesiod, the beneficial 
winds, Xotus, Boreas, Argestes, and Zephyrus, 
were the sons of Astraeus and Eos ; and the 
destructive ones, such as Typhon, are said to 
be the sons of Typhoeus. Later, especially 
philosophical, writers endeavoured to define 
the winds more accurately, according to their 
places on the compass. Thus Aristotle, be- 
sides the 4 principal winds (Boreas or Aparc- 
tias, Eurus, Xotus, and Zephyrus), mentions 
3, the Meses, Caicias, and Apeliotes, between 
Boreas and Eurus ; between Eurus and Xotus 
he places the Phoenicias ; between Xotus and 
Zephyrus he has only the Lips ; and between 
Zephyrus and Boreas he places the Argestes 
(Olympias or Sciron) and the Thrascias. It 
must further be observed that, according to 
Aristotle, the Eurus is not due E. but S.E. 
In the Museum Pio-Clementinum there exists 
a marble monument upon which the winds 

G G 



VENTIDIUS. 



450 



YEN US. 



are described with their Greek and Latin 
names, viz. Septentrio (Aparctias), Eurus 
(Euros or S.E.), and between these 2 Aquilo 
(Boreas), Vulturnus (Caicias) and Solanus 
(Apeliotes). Between Eurus and Notus 
(Notos) there is only one, the Euro-Auster 
(Euro-Notus) ; between Notus and Favonius 



(Zephyrus) are marked Austro-Africus (Libo- 
notus), and Africus (Lips) ; and between 
Favonius and Septentrio we find Chrus 
(Iapyx) and Circius (Thracius). The winds 
were represented by poets and artists in va- 
rious ways ; the latter usually represented 
them as beings with wings at their heads 




and shoulders. Black lambs were offered as 
sacrifices to the destructive vrinds, and white 
ones to favourable or good winds. 

VENTIDIUS BASSUS (-i), P., a celebrated 
Roman general, at first gained a poor living 
by jobbing mules and carriages. Caesar, 
however, saw his abilities, and employed him 
in Gaul, and in the civil war. After Caesar's 
death Yentidius sided with M. Antony, and 
in 43 was made consul suffectus. In 39 
Antony sent Yentidius into Asia, where he 
defeated the Parthians and Labienus ; and in 
the 2nd campaign gained a still more bril- 
liant victory over the Parthians, who had 
again invaded Syria. For these services he 
obtained a triumph in 38. 

VENUS (-eris), the goddess of love among 
the Romans. Before she was identified with 
the Greek Aphrodite, she was one of the least 
important divinities in the religion of the 
Romans ; but still her worship seems to 
have been established at Rome at an early 
time. Here she bore the surnames of Murtea, 



or Murcw, from her fondness for the myrtle 
tree [myrtus), and of Cloacina and Calva. 
The etymology of the last two epithets is 
variously given. That of Calva probably 
refers to the fact that on her wedding day 
the bride, either actually or symbolically, 
cut off a lock of hair to sacrifice it to Venus. 
In later times the worship of Venus became 
much more extended, and her identification 
with the Greek Aphrodite introduced various 
new attributes. At the beginning of the 
second Punic war, the worship of Venus 
Erycina was introduced from Sicily. In the 
year b.c. 114, on account of the general cor- 
ruption, and especially among the Vestals, a 
temple was built to Venus Verticordia (the 
goddess who turns the human heart). After 
the close of the Samnite war, Fabius Gurges 
founded the worship of Venus Obsequens and 
Postvorta ; Scipio Africanus the younger, that 
of Venus Genitrix, in which he was after- 
wards followed by Caesar, who added that of 
Venus Yictrix. The worship of Venus was 



VENUSIA. 



451 



VEBTUMNUS. 



promoted by Caesar, -who traced his descent 
from Aeneas, supposed to be the son of Mars 
and Yenus. The month of April, as the 
beginning of spring, was thought to be pecu- 
liarly sacred to the goddess of love. Respect- 
ing the Greek goddess see Aphrodite. 

YEXUSLA (-ae : Yenosa), an ancient town 
of Apulia, S. of the river AuMus, and near 
Mt. Yultur, situated in a romantic country, 
and memorable as the birthplace of the poet 
Horace. 

YERAGRI or YARAGRI (-orum), a people 
in Gallia Belgica, on the Pennine Alps, near 
the confluence of the Dranse and the Rhone. 

YERBAXUS LACUS (Lago Maggiore), a 
lake in Gallia Cisalpina, and the largest in 
all Italy, being about 40 miles in length from 
X. to $.: its greatest breadth is 8 miles. 

YEECELLAE (-arum: VerceUi), the chief 
town of the Libici in Gallia Cisalpina. 

YERCIXGEXORIX (-lgis), the celebrated 
chieftain of the Arverni, who carried on war 
with great ability against Caesar in b.c. 52. 
He was taken to Rome after the capture of 
Alesia, where he adorned the triumph of his 
conqueror in 45, and was afterwards put to 
death. 

YEEETOI (-i: Alessano), more anciently 
called Baris, a town in Calabria, on the road 
from Leuca to Tarentum, and 600 stadia S.E. 
of the latter city. 

YERGELLES (-i), a rivulet in Apulia, said 
to have been choked by the dead bodies of the 
Romans slain in the battle of Cannae. 

YEROLAMIUM or VERULAMIUM (-i : 
Old Yerulam, near St. Albans^, the chief 
town of the Catuellani in Britain, probably 
the residence of the king Cassivellaunus, 
which was conquered by Caesar. 

YEROMAXDUI [-orum), a people in Gallia 
Belgica, between the Nervii and Suessiones, 
in the modern Yermandois. Their chief town 
was Augusta Yeroman~duorum (St. Quentin). 

YEROXA (-ae : Yerona), an important 
town in Gallia Cisalpina, on the river Athesis, 
was originally the capital of the Euganei, but 
subsequently belonged to the Cenomani. At 
a still later time it was made a Roman colony, 
with the surname Augusta; and under the 
empire it was one of the largest and most 
nourishing towns in the N. of Italy. It was 
the birthplace of Catullus ; and, according 
to some accounts, of the elder Pliny. There 
are still many Roman remains at Yerona, 
and among others an amphitheatre in a good 
state of preservation. 

YERRES (-is), C, was quaestor b.c. 82, to 
Cn. Papirius Carbo, and therefore at that 
period belonged to the Marian party ; but he 
afterwards went over to Sulla. After being 
legate and proquaestor of Dolabella in Cilicia, 



I Yerres became praetor urbanus in 74, and 
afterwards propraetor in Sicily, where he 
I remained nearly 3 years (73 — 71). The ex- 
tortions and exactions of Yerres in the island 
have become notorious through the celebrated 
orations of Cicero. His three years' rule 
desolated the island more effectually than the 
two recent Servile wars, or the old struggle 
between Carthage and Rome for the posses- 
| sion of the island. As soon as he left Sicily, 
the inhabitants resolved to bring him to 
| trial. They committed the prosecution to 
j Cicero, who had been Lilybaean quaestor in 
I Sicily in 7 5, and had promised his good 
i offices to the Sicilians whenever they might 
; demand them. Cicero heartily entered into 
the cause of the Sicilians, and spared no 
! pains to secure a conviction of the great 
j criminal. Yerres was defended by Horten- 
sius, and was supported by the whole power 
: of the aristocracy. Hortensius endeavoured 
to substitute Q. Caecilius Xiger as prosecutor 
I instead of Cicero ; but the judges decided in 
favour of the latter. The oration which 
Cicero delivered on this occasion, was the 
j Divinatio in Q. Caecilium. Cicero was allowed 
: 110 days to collect evidence, but, assisted by 
his cousin Lucius, completed his researches 
in 50. Hortensius now grasped at his last 
! chance of an acquittal — that of prolonging 
j the trial till the following year, when he 
himself would be consul. Cicero therefore 
I abandoned all thought of eloquence or dis- 
j play, and merely introducing his case in the 
first of the Yerrine. orations, rested all his 
I hopes of success on the weight of testimony 
' alone. Hortensius was quite unprepared 
with counter-evidence, and after the first 
day abandoned the cause of Yerres. Before 
the nine days occupied in hearing evidence 
! were over, Yerres quitted the city in despair, 
and was condemned in his absence. He 
retired to Marseilles, retaining so many of 
his treasures of art as to cause eventually his 
proscription by M. Antonv in 43. 
YERTICORDIA. [Yenus.] 
YERTUMXCS or YORTUMXUS (-i), is 
said to have been an Etruscan divinity, but 
this story seems to be refuted by his genuine 
Roman name ; viz. from verto, to change. 
The Romans connected Yertunmus with all 
occurrences to which the verb verto applies, 
such as the change of seasons, purchase and 
sale, the return of rivers to their proper beds, 
Szc. But in reality the god was connected 
only with the transformation of plants and 
their progress from blossom to fruit. Hence 
the story, that when Yertunmus was in love 
with Tomona, he assumed all possible forms, 
until at last he gained his end by metamor- 
phosing himself into a blooming youth. 



YERULAE. 



452 



VESTA. 



Gardeners accordingly offered to him the i 
first produce of their gardens and garlands 
of budding flowers. The whole people cele- 
brated a festival to Yertumnus on the 23rd 
of August, under the name of the Yortum- 
n alia, denoting the transition from the beau- 
tiful season of autumn to the less agreeable one. 
The importance of the worship of Yertumnus 
at Rome is evident from the fact, that it was ! 
attended to by a special flanien [fiamen Yor- 
tumnalis). 




Yertumnus. (Mus£e Bouillon, vol. 3, pi. 14.) 

YERULAE (-arum : Yero(i), a town of the 
Hernici in Latium, S.E. of Aletrium, and X. 
of Frusino, subsequently a Roman colony. 

YERULAMIUM. [Verolamium.] 

YERUS (-i), L, AURELIUS, the colleague 
of M. Aurelius in the empire, a.d. 161 — 169. 
He was adopted by M. Antonius, and on his 
death succeeded to the empire along with 
M. Aurelius. The history of his reign is 
given under AmELirs. Yerus died suddenly 
at Altinum in the country of the Yeneti, to- 
wards the close of 169. 

YESCIXUS AGER, a district of the Au- 
runci, in Latium. 

YESEYUS. [YEsrvirs.] 

YESOXTIO (-onis : Besancon), the chief 
town of the Sequani in Gallia Belgica, situated 
on the river Dubis (Doubs), which flowed 
around the town, with the exception of a 
space of 600 feet, on which stood a moun- 
tain, forming the citadel of the town. 

YESPASIAXUS (-i), T. FLAVIUS SABI- 
NUS, Roman emperor, a.d. 70 — 79, was 
born on the 17th of November, a.d. 9. His 
father was a man of mean condition, of Reate, 
in the country of the Sabini. His mother, 



Yespasia Polla, was the daughter of a prae- 
fectus castrorum, and the sister of a Roman 
senator. Yespasian served as tribunus rnili- 
tum in Thrace, and was quaestor in Crete 
and Cyrene. He was afterwards aedile and 
praetor. About this time he took to wife 
Flavia Domitilla, the daughter of a Roman 
eques, by whom he had 2 sons, both of 
whom succeeded him. In the reign of 
Claudius he was sent into Germany as legatus 
legionis ; and in 43 he held the same com- 
mand in Britain, and reduced the Isle of 
Wight. He was consul in 51, and proconsul 
of Africa under Xero. He was at this time 
very poor, and was accused of getting money 
by dishonourable means. But he had a great 
military reputation, and he was liked by the 
soldiers. Xero afterwards sent him to the 
East (66), to conduct the war against the 
Jews. His conduct of this war raised his 
reputation, and when the war broke out 
between Otho and Yitellius, Yespasian was 
proclaimed emperor at Alexandria on the 
1st of July 69, and soon after all through 
the East. He came to Rome in the follow- 
ing year (7 0), leaving his son Titus to con- 
tinue the war against the Jews. On his 
arrival at Rome, he worked with great in- 
dustry to restore order in the city and in the 
empire. The simplicity and frugality of his 
mode of life formed a striking contrast with 
the profusion and luxury of some of his 
predecessors, and his example is said to have 
done more to reform the morals of Rome 
than all the laws which had ever been 
enacted. He was never ashamed of the 
meanness of his origin, and ridiculed all 
attempts to make out for him a distinguished 
genealogy. He is accused of avarice, and 
of a taste for low humour. Yet it is admit- 
ted that he was liberal in all bis expenditure 
for purposes of public utility. In 71 Titus 
returned to Rome, and both father and son 
triumphed together on account of the con- 
quest of the Jews. The reign of Yespasian 
was marked by few striking events. The 
most important was the conquest of Xorth 
Wales and the island of Anglesey by Agricola, 
who was sent into Britain in 7 8. In the 
summer of 7 9 Yespasian, whose health was 
failing, went to spend some time at his pa- 
ternal house in the mountains of the Sabini, 
and expired on the 24th of June in that year, 
at the age of 69. 

YE ST A (-ae), one of the great Roman 
divinities, identical with the Greek Hestia 
[Hestia]. She was the goddess of the hearth, 
and therefore inseparably connected with 
the Penates ; for Aeneas was believed to 
have brought the eternal fire of Yesta from 
Troy, along with the images of the Penates ; 



VESTINL 



453 



YIBO. 



and the praetors, consuls, and dictators, 
before entering upon their official functions, 
sacrificed, not only to the Penates, but also 
to Testa at Laviniuni. In the ancient Ro- 
man house, the hearth was the central part, 
and around it all the inmates daily assem- 
bled for their common meal [coena] ; every 
meal thus taken was a fresh bond of union 
and affection among the members of a family, 
and at the same time an act of worship of 
Vesta, combined with a sacrifice to her and 
the Penates. Every dwelling-house therefore 
was, in some sense, a temple of Vesta; but 
a public sanctuary united all the citizens of 
the state into one large family. This sanc- 
tuary stood in the Forum, between the Capi- 
toline and Palatine hills, and not far from 
the temple of the Penates. The goddess was 
not represented in her temple by a statue, 
but the eternal fire burning on her hearth 
or altar was her living symbol, and was kept 
up and attended to by the Vestals, her virgin 
priestesses, who were chaste and pure like 
the goddess herself. Respecting their duties 
and obligations, see Diet, of Antiq. art. 
Yestales. On the 1st of March in every year 
the sacred fire of Vesta, and the laurel tree 
which shaded her hearth, were renewed, and 
on the loth of June her temple was cleaned 
and purified. The dirt was carried into an 
angiportus behind the temple, which was 
locked by a gate that no one might enter it. 
The day on which this took place was a dies 
7iefastus, the first half of which was thought 
to be so inauspicious, that the priestess of 
Juno was not allowed to comb her hair or to 
cut her nails, while the second half was very 
favourable to contracting a marriage or en- 
tering upon other important undertakings. 
A few days before that solemnity, on the 9th 
of June, the Vestalia were celebrated in ho- 
nour of the goddess, on which occasion none 
but women walked to the temple, and that 
with bare feet. 

VESTIXI (-oruni), a Sabellian people in 
central Italy, lying between the Apennines 
and the Adriatic sea, and separated from 
Picenum by the river Matrinus, and from 
the Marrucini by the river Aternus. They 
were conquered by the Romans, b.c. 328, 
and from this time appear as the allies of 
Rome. 

VESUVIUS (-i),^also called VESEVUS, 
VESBIUS, or VESVIUS, the celebrated vol- 
canic mountain in Campania, rising out of 
the plain S.E. of Xeapolis. There are no 
records of any eruption of Vesuvius before 
the Christian era, but the ancient writers 
were aware of its volcanic nature from the 
igneous appearance of its rocks. In a.d. 63 
the volcano gave the first symptoms of agi- 



tation in an earthquake, which occasioned 
| considerable damage to several towns in its 
j vicinity ; and on the 24th of August, a.d. 

79, occurred the first great eruption of Vesu- 
' vius, which overwhelmed the cities of Stabiae, 
Herculaneum, and Pompeii. It was in this 
eruption that the elder Pliny lost his life. 

VETRANIO (-onis) commanded the legions 
in Illyria and Pannonia, in a.d. 350, when 
Constans was treacherously destroyed, and 
was proclaimed emperor by his troops ; but 
at the end of 1 months resigned in favour 
of Constantius. 

VETTIUS (-i), L., a Roman eques, in the 
pay of Cicero in b.c. 63, to whom he gave 
some valuable information respecting the 
Catilinarian conspiracy. In 59 he accused 
Curio, Cicero, L. Lucullus, and many other 
distinguished men, of having formed a con- 
spiracy to assassinate Pompey. Cicero 
regarded this accusation as the work of 
Caesar, who used the tribune Vatinius as his 
instr anient. On the day after he had given 
his evidence, Vettius was found strangled in 
prison. 

VETTOXES or VECTOXES (-urn), a 
people in the interior of Lusitania, E. of the 
Lusitani, and W. of the Carpetani, extend- 
ing from the Durius to the Tagus. 

VETULOXIA (-ae), VETUEOXIUM (-i;, 
or VETULOXII (-orum), an ancient city of 
I Etruria, and one of the 12 cities of the 
Etruscan confederation. From this city the 
Romans are said to have borrowed the iE- 
signia of their magistrates — the fasces, sella 
: curulis, and toga praetexta — as well as the 
, use of the brazen trumpet in war. Its site 
, has been discovered within the last few years 
| near a small village called Magliano, between 
I the river Osa and the Albegna, and about 8 
miles inland. 

VETURIUS MAMURIUS (-i), is said to 
, have been the armourer who made the 1 1 
I ancilia exactly like the one that was sent 
j from heaven in the reign of Xunia. His 
praises formed one of the chief subjects of 
the songs of the Salii. 

VIADUS (-i : Oder), a river of Germany, 
falling into the Baltic. 

VIBIUS PAXSA. [Pansa.] 
VIBIUS SEQUESTER. ^Sequester.] ' 
VTBO (-onis : Biuona), the Roman form 
of the Greek town Hippoxium, situated on 
the S.W. coast of Bruttium, and on a gulf 
j called after it Sixrs Viboxexsis, or Hippo- 
niates. It is said to have been founded by 
j the Locri Epizephyrii ; but it was destroyed 
j by the elder Dionysius, who transplanted its 
; inhabitants to Syracuse. It was afterwards 
i restored ; and at a later time it fell into the 
hands of the Bruttii, together with the other 



VICENTIA. 



454 



YIRGILIUS. 



Greek cities on this coast. It was taken 
from the Bruttii by the Romans, who colo- 
nised it b.c. 194, and called it Yibo Yalex- 
tia. Cicero speaks of it as a mimicipium ; 
and in the time of Augustus it was one of 
the most flonrishingcities in the S. of Italy. 

VICENTIA or VICETIA (-ae), less cor- 
rectly, VINCENTIA [Vxcenza), a town on the 
river Togisonus, in Yenetia, in the N. of 
Italy, and a Roman mimicipium. 

VICTOR [-oris), SEX. AURELIUS, a 
Latin writer, was "born of humble parents, 
but rose to distinction by his zeal in the 
cultivation of literature. Having attracted 
the attention of Julian when at Sirmium, 
he was appointed by that prince governor of 
one division of Pannonia. At a subsequent 
period, he was elevated by Theoclosius to the 
high office of city praefect. He is the re- 
puted author of a work entitled Be Caesari- 
bus; besides which, 2 or 3 others are 
ascribed to him. 

YICTORIA [-ae), the personification of 
victory among the Romans. 

VICTORIA or VtCTORINA (-ae), the 
mother of Victorious, after whose death she 
was hailed as the mother of camps [ITater 
Castrorum) ; and coins were struck, bearing 
her effigy. She transferred her power first 
to Marius, and then to Tetricus. 

VECTORINTJS (-i), one of the Thirty 
Tyrants, was the 3rd of the usurpers who in 
succession ruled Gaul during the reign of 
GaUienus. He was assassinated at Agrip- 
pina by one of his own officers in a.d. 268, 
after reigning somewhat more than a year. 

VtCTRIX. [Venus.] 

VIENNA (-ae: Vienne), the chief town of 
the Allobroges in Gallia Lugdmiensis, situ- 
ated on the Rhone, S. of Lugdunum. 

VTMINALIS (-is] , PORTA, a gate of Rome 
in the Servian walls, leading to the Yia 
Tiburtina. 

VTNDELICIA (-ae), a Roman province, 
bounded on the N. by the Danube, which 
separated it from Germany, on the W. by 
the territory of the Helvetii in Gaul, on the 
S. by Rhaetia, and on the E. by the river j 
Oenus [Inn), which separated it from Xori- 1 
cum, thus corresponding to the X.E. part of 
Switzerland, the S.E. of Baden, the S. of 
Wurtemberg and Bavaria, and the Ni part of 
the Tyrol. It was originally part of the 
province of Rhaetia, and was conquered by 
Tiberius in the reign of Augustus. At a 
later time Rhaetia was divided into two pro- 
vinces, Rhaetia Prima and Rhaetia Secunda, 
the latter of which names was gradually sup- 
planted by that of Yindelicia. It was drained 
by the tributaries of the Danube, of which 
the most important were the Licias, or Licus 



I (Lech), with its tributary the Yindo, Yinda, 
or Yirdo (Werlaeh), the Isarus Isar), and 
Oenus [Inn). The E. part of the Lacus 
Brigantinus (Lake of Constance) also be- 
longed to Yindelicia. It derived its name 
from its chief inhabitants, the Yixdelici, 
a warlike people dwelling in the S. of the 
country. The other tribes in Yindelicia 
were the Brigantii on the Lake of Constance, 
the Licatii or Licates on the Lech, and the 
Breuni in the N. of Tyrol on the Brenner. 
The chief town in the province was Augusta 
Yindelicorum (Augsburg), at the confluence 
of the Yindo and the Licus. 

VINDICIUS (-i), a slave, who is said to 
have given information to the consuls of the 
conspiracy, which was formed for the re- 
storation of the Tarquins, and who was 
rewarded in consequence with liberty and 
the Roman franchise. 
YLXDILI. -Yaxdili." 
YIXDOBOXA ;-ae; Vienna, EngL ; Wien, 
Germ.), a town in Pannonia, on the Danube, 
was originally a Celtic place, and subse- 
quently a Roman mimicipium. Under the 
Romans it became a town of importance ; it 
was the chief station of the Roman fleet on 
the Danube, and the head quarters of a 
Roman legion. 

VINDONISSA (-ae: Windisch), a tow in 
Gallia Belgica, on the triangular tongue of 
land between the Aar and Reuss, was an im- 
portant Roman fortress in the country of the 
Helvetii. 

VrPSANIA AGRIPPINA (-ae). (1) Daughter 
of M. Vipsanius Agrippa by his first wife 
Pomponia. Augustus gave her in marriage 
to his step-son Tiberius, by whom she was 
much beloved ; but after she had borne him 
a son. Drusus, Tiberius was compelled to 
divorce her by the command of the emperor, 
in order to marry Julia, the daughter of the 
latter. Vipsania afterwards married Asinius 
Gallus. She died in a.d. 20. — (2) Daughter 
of ML Vipsanius Agrippa by his second wife 
Julia, better known by the name of Agrippina. 
[ Agrefptna. ] 

VIPSANKTS AGRIPPA, M. [Agrippa/ 
YIRBIUS (-i), a Latin divinity worshipped 
along with Diana in the grove at Aricia, at 
the foot of the Alban Mt. He is said to have 
been the same as Hippolytus, who was re- 
stored to life by Aesculapius at the request 
of Diana. 

YIRDO. TYrsmELiciA.] 
VIRGILIUS (4) or YE R GIL It" S MARO, 
P., the Roman poet, was born on the 15th of 
. October, b.c 7 0, at Andes (Pietola), a small 
village near Mantua in Cisalpine Gaul. Yir- 
j gil's father probably had a small estate which 
| he cultivated: his mother's name was Maia. 



VIRGIUUS. 



455 



VIRGINIA. 



He was educated at Cremona and Mediolanum 
(Milan), and he took the toga virilis at Cre- 
mona in 55, on the day on which he com- 
menced his 16th year. It is said that he sub- 
sequently studied at Neapolis [Naples) under 
Parthenius, a native of Bithynia, from whom 
he learned Greek. He was also instructed 
by Syron an Epicurean, and probably at 
Rome. Virgil's writings prove that he re- 
ceived a learned education, and traces of Epi- 
curean opinions are apparent in them. After 
completing his education, Virgil appears to 
have retired to his paternal farm, and here 
he may have written some of the small 
pieces which are attributed to him. In the 
division of land among the soldiers after the 
battle of Philippi (42), Virgil was deprived 
of his property; but it was afterwards re- 
stored at the command of Octavian. It is 
supposed that Virgil wrote the Eclogue 
which stands first in our editions, to com- 
memorate his gratitude to Octavian. Virgil 
probably became acquainted with Maecenas 
soon after writing his Eclogues, in which 
Maecenas is not mentioned. His most 
finished work, the Georgica. was undertaken 
at the suggestion of Maecenas [Georg. iii. 41} ; 
and was completed after the battle of Acti-am, 
B.C. 31, while Octavian was in the East. The 
Aeneid was probably long contemplated by 
the poet. While Augustus was in Spain (27), 
he wrote to Virgil expressing a wish to have 
some monument of his poetical talent. Virgil 
appears to have commenced the Aeneid about 
this time. In 23 died Marcellus, the son of 
Octavia, Caesar's sister, by her first husband ; 
and as Virgil lost no opportunity of gratify- 
ing his patron, he introduced into his 6th 
book of the Aeneid (883) the well-known 
allusion to the virtues of this youth, who was 
cut off by a premature death. Octavia is said 
to have been present when the poet was re- 
citing this allusion to her son, and to have 
fainted from her emotions. She rewarded 
the poet munificently for his excusable flat- 
tery. As Marcellus did not die till 23, these 
lines were of course written after his death, 
but that does not prove that the whole of the 
6th book was written so late. A passage in 
the 7th book (606) appears to allude to Au- 
gustus receiving back the Parthian standards, 
which event belongs to 20. When Augustus 
was returning from Samos, where he had 
spent the winter of 20, he met Virgil at 
Athens. The poet, it is said, had intended 
to make a tour of Greece, but he accompanied 
the emperor to Megara, and thence to Italy. 
His health, which had been long declining, 
was now completely broken, and he died soon 
after his arrival at Brundusium on the 22nd 
of September, 19, not having quite completed 



bis 51st year. His remains were transferred 
to Naples, which had been his favourite resi- 
dence, and interred near the road from Naples 
to Puteoli (Pozzuoli), where a monument is 
still shown, supposed to be the tomb of the 
poet. Virgil had been enriched by the libe- 
rality of his patrons, and he left behind him 
a considerable property and a house on the 
Esquiline Hill, near the gardens of Maecenas. 
In his fortunes and his friends Virgil was a 
happy man. Munificent patronage gave him 
ample means of enjoyment and of leisure, 
and he had the friendship of all the most 
accomplished men of the day, among whom 
Horace entertained a strong affection for him. 
He was an amiable, good-tempered man, free 
from the mean passions of envy and jealousy ; 
and in all but health he was prosperous. 
Besides the Bucolica, Georgica, and Aeneid, 
several shorter pieces are attributed to Virgil, 
which may possibly have been the productions 
of his youth. Such are the Culex, Oiris, 
Cjpa, &c. Of all his works the Georgica are 
both the most finished and the most original. 
The Aeneid leaves on the whole a feeble im- 
pression, notwithstanding the exquisite beauty 
of some passages, and the good taste which 
reigns throughout. Nevertheless, Virgil must 
be considered as by far the first of all the Ro- 
man epic poets. 

VIRGINIA (-ae), daughter of L. Virginius, 
a brave centurion, was a beautiful and inno- 
cent girl, betrothed to L. Iciiius. Her beauty 
excited the lust of the decemvir Appius 
Claudius, who instigated one of his clients to 
seize the damsel and claim her as his slave. 
Her father, who had come from the camp the 
morning on which Claudius gave judgment 
assigning Virginia to his client, seeing that 
all hope was gone, prayed the decemvir to be 
allowed to speak one word to the nurse in his 
daughter's hearing, in order to ascertain 
whether she was really his daughter. The 
request was granted ; Virginius drew them 
both aside, and snatching up a butcher's 
knife from one of the stalls, plunged it in 
his daughter's breast, exclaiming, " There is 
no way but this to keep thee free : " then 
holding his bloody knife on high, he rushed 
to the gate of the city, and hastened to the 
Roman camp. The result is known. Both 
camp and city rose against the decemvirs, 
who were deprived of their power, and the 
old form of government was restored. L. 
Virginius was the first who was elected tri- 
bune, and by his orders Appius was dragged to 
prison, where he put an end to his own life. 

VIRGINIA or VERGiNIA GENS, patri- 
cian and plebeian. The patrician Virginii 
frequently filled the highest honours of the 
| state during the early years of the republic. 



YIRGINIUS. 



456 



YOLATERRAE. 



YIRGIXIUS (-i), L>, father of Virginia, 
whose tragic fate occasioned the downfal of 
the decemvirs, b.c. 449. [Yirgixia.] 

YIRIATHUS (-i), a celebrated Lusitanian, 
is described by the Romans as originally a 
shepherd or huntsman, and afterwards a rob- 
ber, or, as he would be called in Spain in the 
present day, a guerilla chief. He was one of 
the Lusitanians who escaped the treacherous 
and savage massacre of the people by the pro- 
consul Galba in b.c. 150. [Galba, No. 2,] 
He collected a formidable force, and for seve- 
ral successive years defeated one Roman army 
after another. In 140, the proconsul Fabius 
Servilianus concluded a peace with Yiriathus, 
in order to save his army, which had been 
enclosed by the Lusitanians in a mountain 
pass. But Servilius Caepio, who succeeded 
to the command of Farther Spain in 140, re- 
newed the war, and shortly afterwards pro- 
cured the assassination of Yiriathus by bribing 
3 of his friends. 

YIRIDOMARUS (-i). (1) Or Britouartits, 
the leader of the Gauls, slain by Marcellus. 
[Marcellus, No. 1.] — (2) Or Yirdumartjs, a 
chieftain of the Aedui, whom Caesar had 
raised from a low rank to the highest honour, 
but who afterwards joined the Gauls in their 
great revolt in b.c. 52. 

YIRTUS (-utis), the Roman personification 
of manly valour. She was represented with 
a short tunic, her right breast uncovered, a 
helmet on her head, a spear in her left hand, 
a sword in the right, and standing with her 
right foot on a helmet. A temple of Yirtus 
was built by Marcellus close to one of Honor. 
[Hoxor.] 

YIS TULA (ae : Vishda, Engl. ; Weichsel, 
Germ.), an important river of Germany, form- 
ing the boundary between Germany and Sar- 
matia, rising in the Hercynia Silva and fail- 
ing into the Mare Suevicum or the Baltic. 

YISURGIS (-is: Weser), an important 
river of Germany, falling into the German 
Ocean. 

YITELLIUS (-i), A., Roman emperor from 
January 2nd to December 22nd, a.d. 69, was 
the son of L. Yitellius, consul in a.d. 34. 
He had some knowledge of letters and some 
eloquence. His vices made him a favourite 
of Tiberius, Caius Caligula, Claudius, and 
Nero, who loaded him with favours. People 
were much surprised when Galba chose such 
a man to command the legions in Lower Ger- 
many, for he had no military talent. The 
soldiers of Yitellius proclaimed him emperor 
at Colonia Agrippinensis {Cologne) on the 2nd 
of January, 69. His generals Fabius Yalens I 
and Caecina marched into Italy, defeated 
Otho's troops at the decisive battle of Bedri- 
acum, and thus secured for Yitellius the 



undisputed command of Italy. He displayed 
some moderation after his accession; but he 
was a glutton and an epicure, and his chief 
amusement was the table, on which he spent 
enormous sums of money. Meantime Yespa- 
sian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria 
on the 1st of July ; and the legions of Illy- 
ricum, under Antonius Primus, entered the 
N. of Italy and declared for him. Yitellius 
despatched Caecina with a powerful force to 
oppose Primus ; but Caecina was not faithful 
to the emperor. Primus defeated the Yitel- 
lians in two battles ; then marched upon 
Rome, and forced his way into the city, after 
much fighting. Yitellius was seized in the 
palace, led through the streets with every 
circumstance of ignominy, and dragged to the 
Gemoniae Sealae, where he was killed with 
repeated blows. 

YITRUYIUS POLLIO (-5nis), M., the 
author of the celebrated treatise on Archi- 
tecture, appears to have served as a mili- 
tary engineer under Julius Caesar, in the 
African war, b.c 46, and he was broken down 
with age when he composed his work, which 
is dedicated to the emperor Augustus. Com- 
paratively unsuccessful as an architect, for 
we haTe no building of his mentioned except 
the basilica at Fanuin, he attempted to esta- 
blish his reputation as a writer upon the 
theory of his art. His style is so obscure as 
to be often unintelligible. 

YOCONTII (-orum), a powerful and im- 
portant people in Gallia Narbonensis, inha- 
biting the S.E. part of Dauphine and a part 
of Provence between the Drac and the 
Durance, bounded on the N, by the Allo- 
broges, and on the S. by the Salves and Al- 
bioeci. They were allowed by the Romans to 
live under their own laws. 

YOGESUS or YOSGESUS (-i : Yosges), a 
range of mountains in Gaul, in the territory 
of the Lingones, running parallel to the 
Rhine, and separating its basin from that of 
the Mosella. The rivers Sequana [Seine), 
Arar (Saone), and Mosella [ALoselle), rise in 
these mountains. 

YOLATERRAE (-arum : Volaterra), called 
by the Etruscans YELATHRI, one of the 12 
cities of the Etruscan Confederation, was built 
on a lofty and precipitous hill, about 1800 
English feet above the level of the sea. It was 
the most N.-ly city of the Confederation, and 
its dominions extended E.-ward as far as the 
territory of Arretium, which was 50 miles 
distant ; Y\\-ward as far as the Mediter- 
ranean, which was more than 20 miles off; 
and S.-ward at least as far as Populonia, 
which was either a colony or an acquisition 
of Yolaterrae. In consequence of possessing 
the 2 great ports of Luna and Populonia, 



YOL AIERE. AX A . 



457 



VULTUB. 



Yolaterrae, though so far inland, "was rec- 
koned as one of the powerful maritime cities 
of Etruria. We have no record of its con- 
quest by the Romans. Like most of the 
Etruscan cities it espoused the Marian party 
against Sulla ; and it was not till after a 
siege of two years that the city fell into 
Sulla's hands. After the fall of the "Western 
Empire it was for a time the residence of the 
Lombard kings. The modern town contains 
several interesting Etruscan remains. 

TO LATERE. AX A TAD A, a small town in 
the territory of Yolaterrae. 

YOLCAE (-arum), a powerful Celtic people 
in Gallia Xarbonensis, divided into the 2 
tribes of the Yolcae Tectosages and Yolcae 
Arecomici, extending from the Pyrenees and 
the frontiers of Aquitania along the coast as 
far as the Rhone. They lived under their 
own laws, without being subject to the Ro- 
man governor of the province, and they also 
possessed the Jus Latii. The chief town of 
the Tectosages was Tolo>a. A portion of the 
Tectosages left their native country under 
Brennus, and were one of the 3 great tribes 
into which the Galatians in Asia Minos were 
divided. [Galatia.] 

YOLCI or YULCI. (1) {Vulci), an inland 
city of Etruria, about 18 miles X.\Y. of Tar- 
quinii. Of the history of this city we know 
nothing, but its extensive sepulchres, and the 
vast treasures of ancient art which they con- 
tain, prove that Yulci must at one time have 
been a powerful and flourishing city. — (2) 
(Vallo), a town in Lucania, 36 miles S.E. of 
Paestum on the road to Buxentum. 

YOLERO PUBLLLIUS. [PrBLiLirs.] 

YOLOGESES, the name of 5 kings of 
Parthia. [Arsaces XXIIL, XXYIL, XXYIIL, 

xxix., xxx. ; 

YOLSCI (-drum), an ancient people in 
Latium, but originally distinct from the 
Latins, dwelt on both sides of the river Liris, 
and extended down to the Tyrrhene sea. 
They were not completely subdued by the 
Romans till b.c. 338. 

YOLSIXII, orYULSIXII (-drum : Boheiia), 
called YELSIXA or YELSUXA by the Etrus- 
cans, one of the most ancient and most pow- 
erful of the 12 cities of the Etruscan Confede- 
ration, was situated on a lofty hill on the X.E. 
extremity of the lake called after it, Lac us 
Yolsixiexsis and Ytjlsixiexsis [Lago di Bol- 
sena). The Yolsinienses carried on war with 
the Romans in b.c. 392, 311, 294, and 280, 
but were on each occasion defeated, and in 
the last of these years appear to have been 
finally subdued. Their city was then razed to 
the ground by the Romans, and its inhabitants 
were compelled to settle on a less defensible 
site in the plain, that of the modern Bolsena. 



YOLTURCIUS, or YULTUECIUS '-i), T., 
of Crotona, one of Catiline's conspirators, 
who turned informer upon obtaining the 
i promise of pardon. 

YOLUMXIA (-ae), wife of Coriolanus. 

[CORIOLANUS.] 

YOLUPIA (-ae), or YOLUPTAS (-atis), 
the personification of sensual pleasure among 
the Romans, who was honoured with a temple 
near the porta Romanula. 

YOMAXUS (-i : Vo?na?w) } a small river in 
Picenum. 

YOXOXES (-is), the name of two kings of 
Parthia. [Arsaces XYIIL, XXII.] 

YOPISCUS (-i), a Roman praenomen, sig- 
nified a twin-child, who was born safe, while 
the other twin died before birth. Like many 
other ancient Roman praenomens, it was 
afterwards used as a cognomen. 

YOPISCUS (-i), ELAYIUS, a native of Sy- 
racuse, and one of the 6 Scriptores Historiae 
Augustae, flourished about a.d. 300. 

VOSGESUS. [Yogeses.] 

YULCAXIAE IXSULAE. [Aeoliae Is- 
sttlae.] 

YULCAXUS (-i), the Roman god of fire, 
whose name seems to be connected with 
fulgere, fulgur, and fidmen. Tatius is re- 
ported to have established the worship of 
Yulcan along with that of Yesta, and 
Romulus to have dedicated to him a quadriga 
after his victory over the Fidenatans, and 
to have set up a statue of himself near the 
temple of the god. According to others 
the temple was- also built by Romulus, 
who planted near it the sacred lotus-tree 
which still existed in the days of Pliny. 
These circumstances, and what is related of 
the lotus-tree, show that the temple of Yulcan, 
like that of Yesta, was regarded as a central 
point of the whole state, and hence it was 
perhaps not without a meaning that the 
temple of Concord was subsequently built 
within the same district. The most ancient 
festival in honour of Yulcan seems to have 
been the Eornacalia or Furnalia, Yulcan 
being the god of furnaces ; but his great 
festival was called Yulcanalia, and was cele- 
brated on the 23rd of August. The Roman 
poets transfer all the stories which are re- 
lated of the Greek Hephaestus to their own 
Yulcan. [Hephaestus.] 

YULCI. [Yolci.] 

YULGIEXTES, an Alpine people in Gallia 
Xarbonensis, whose chief town was Apta 
Julia {Apt). 

YULSIXII. [Yolsinii.] 

YULTUR (-uris), a mountain dividing 
Apulia and Lucania near Yenusia, is a branch 
of the Apennines. It is celebrated by Horace 
as one of the haunts of his vouth. From it 



YULTURNUM. 



458 



XENOPHON. 



the S.E. wind was called Yulturntjs by the 
Romans. 

VULTURNUM (-i : Castel di Volturno), a 
town in Campania, at the mouth of the river 
Vulturnus. 

YULTURNUS (-i : Volturno), the chief 
river in Campania, rising 1 in the Apennines 
in Samnium, and falling into the Tyrrhene 
sea. Its principal affluents are the Calor 
(Calore), Tamarus (Tamaro), and Sabatus 
{Sabato). 



"VANTHIPPE (-es), wife of Socrates, said 
to have been of a peevish and quarrel- 
some disposition. 

XANTHIPPUS (4). (1) Son of Ariphron 
and father of Pericles. He succeeded The- 
mistocles as commander of the Athenian 
fleet in b.c. 479, and commanded the Athe- 
nians at the decisive battle of Mycale. — (2) 
The Lacedaemonian, who commanded the 
Carthaginians against Regulus. [Regultjs.] 

XANTHUS (-i), rivers. (1) [Scamanber.] 
— (2) (JEchen Chai), the chief river of Lycia, 
rises inMt. Taurus, and flows S. through Lycia, 
between Mt. Cragus and Mt. Massicytus, fall- J 
ing at last into the Mediterranean Sea, a 
little W. of Patara. It is navigable for a 
considerable part of its course. 

XAXTHUS (4 : Guriik, Ru.), the most 
famous city of Lycia, stood on the W. bank of 
the river of the same name, 60 stadia from 
its mouth. Twice in the course of its his- 
tory it sustained sieges, which terminated in 
the self-destruction of the inhabitants with 
their property, first against the Persians 
under Harpagus, and long afterwards against 
the Romans under Brutus. The city was 
never restored after its destruction on the 
latter occasion. Xanthus was rich in temples 
and tombs, and other monuments of a most 
interesting character, and several important 
remains of its works of art are now exhibited 
in the British Museum. 

XENOCRATES (-is), the philosopher, was 
a native of Chalcedon. He was born b.c. 
396, and died 314 at the age of 82. He at- 
tached himself first to Aeschines the Socratic, 
and afterwards, while still a youth, to Plato, 
whom he accompanied to Syracuse. After 
the death of Plato he betook himself, with 
Aristotle, to Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus ; 
and, after his return to Athens, he was re- 
peatedly sent on embassies to Philip of 
Macedonia, and at a later time to Antipater 
during the Lamian war. He became presi- 
dent of the Academy even before the death 
of Speusippus, and occupied that post for 25 
years. — The importance of Xenocrates is 



shown by the fact that Aristotle and Theo- 
phrastus wrote upon his doctrines, and that 
Panaetius and Cicero entertained a high 
regard for him. Only the titles of his works 
have come down to us. 

XENOPHANES (-is), a celebrated philo- 
sopher, was a native of Colophon, and flou- 
rished between b.c. 540 and 500. He was 
also a poet, and considerable fragments have 
come down to us of his elegies, and of a 
didactic poem " On Nature." According to 
the fragments of one of his elegies, he left his 
native land at the age of 25, and had already 
lived 67 years in Hellas, when, at the age of 
92, he composed that elegy. He quitted 
Colophon as a fugitive or exile, and must 
have lived some time at Elea (Yelia) in Italy, 
as he is mentioned as the founder of the 
Eleatic school of philosophy. Xenophanes 
was usually regarded in antiquity as the 
originator of the Eleatic doctrine of the 
oneness of the universe. 

XENOPHON (-ontis). (1) The Athenian, 
was the son of Gryllu^, and a native of the 
demus Erchla. The time of his birth is not 
known, but it may probably be placed in 
about b.c. 444, and he appears to have lived 
above 90 years. Xenophon is said to have 
been a pupil of Socrates at an early age, and 
the latter saved his life at the battle of 
Delium in 424. The most memorable event 
in Xenophon's life is his connexion with the 
Greek army, which marched under Cyrus 
against Artaxerxes in 401. He accompa- 
nied Cyrus into Upper Asia. In the battle 
of Cunaxa, Cyrus lost his life, his barbarian 
troops were dispersed, and the Greeks were 
left alone on the wide plains between the 
Tigris and the Euphrates. It was after the 
treacherous massacre of Clearchus and others 
of the Greek commanders by the Persian 
satrap Tissaphernes, that Xenophon came 
forwards. He had held no command in the 
army of Cyrus, nor had he in fact served as 
a soldier. He was now elected one of the 
generals, and took the principal part in con- 
ducting the Greeks in their memorable retreat 
along the Tigris over the high table lands of 
Armenia to Trapezus (Trebizo?id), on the 
Black Sea. From Trapezus the troops were 
conducted to Chrysopolis, which is opposite 
to Byzantium. The Greeks were in great 
distress, and some of them under Xenophon 
entered the service of Seuthes, king of 
Thrace. As the Lacedaemonians under 
Thimbron were now at war with Tissa- 
phernes and Pharnabazus, Xenophon and 
his troops were invited to join the army of 
Thimbron, and Xenophon led them back out 
of Asia to join Thimbron, 399. Socrates was 
put to death in 399, and it seems probable 



XERXES. 



459 



XOLS. 



that Xenophon was banished from Athens 
either shortly before or shortly after that 
event. In 396 he was with Agesilaus, the 
Spartan king", who was commanding the 
Lacedaemonian forces in Asia against the 
Persians. When Agesilaus was recalled 
(394), Xenophon accompanied him; and he 
was on the side of the Lacedaemonians in 
the battle which they fought at Coronea 
(394) against the Athenians. It seems that 
he went to Sparta with Agesilaus after the 
battle of Coronea, and soon after he settled 
at Scillus in Elis not far from Olympia, 
where he was joined by his wife Philesia 
and his children. Xenophon was at last 
expelled from his quiet retreat at Scillus by 
the Eleans after remaining there about 20 
years. The sentence of banishment from 
Athens was repealed on the motion of 
Eubulus but it is uncertain in what year. 
There is no evidence that Xenophon ever 
returned to Athens. He is said to have 
retired to Corinth after his expulsion from 
Scillus, and as we know nothing more, we 
assume that he died there. The two prin- 
cipal works of Xenophon are the Anabasis 
and the Cyropaedia. In the former he de- 
scribes the expedition of Cyrus and the 
retreat of the Greeks; the latter is a kind 
of political romance, the basis of which is 
the history of Cyrus, the founder of the Per- 
sian monarchy. His Helleniea, a continua- 
tion of the history of Thucydides, is a dry 
narrative of events. The Memorabilia of 
Socrates, in 4 books, was written by Xeno- 
phon to defend the memory of his master 
against the charge of irreligion and of cor- 
rupting the Athenian youth. That it is a 
genuine picture of the man is indisputable, 
and it is the most valuable memorial that 
we have of the practical philosophy of 
Socrates. Besides these Xenophon was the 
author of several minor works. All anti- 
quity and all modern writers agree in allow- 
ing Xenophon great merit as a writer of 
a plain, simple, perspicuous, and unaffected 
style ; but his mind was essentially practical, 
and not adapted for pure philosophical specu- 
lation. — (2) The Ephesian, the author of a 
romance, still extant, entitled JEphesiaca, or 
the Loves of Anthia and Abrocomas. The 
age of Xenophon is uncertain; but he is 
probably the oldest of the Greek romance 
writers. 

XERXES (-is). (I.) King of Persia b.c. 485 
— 465, was the son of Darius and Atossa. 
After reducing the revolted Egyptians to 
subjection, Xerxes, in the spring of 480, set 
out from Sardis on his memorable expedition 
against Greece. He crossed the Hellespont 
by a bridge of boats, and continued his 



march through the Thracian Chersonese till 
he reached the plain of Doriscus. Here he 
resolved to number both his land and naval 
forces, which are said by Herodotus to have 
amounted to 2,641,610 fighting men. This 
statement is incredible, yet we may well 
believe that the numbers of Xerxes were 
greater than were ever assembled in ancient 
times, or perhaps at any known epoch of 
history. Xerxes, continuing his march, 
ordered his fleet to sail through the canal 
that had been previously dug across the 
isthmus of Athos — of which the remains are 
still visible [Athos] — and await his arrival 
at Therme. Hence he marched through 
Macedonia and Thessaly, and arrived in 
safety with his land forces before Thermo- 
pylae. Here the Greeks had resolved to 
make a stand, and when Xerxes attempted 
to force his way through the pass, his troops 
were repulsed again and again by Leonidas 
the Spartan king ; till a Malian, of the name 
of Ephialtes, showed the Persians a pass 
over the mountains of . Oeta, and thus en- 
abled them to fall on the rear of the Greeks. 
Leonidas and his Spartans disdained to fly, 
and were all slain. [Leonidas.] Hence 
Xerxes marched through Phocis and Boeotia, 
and at length reached Athens. About the 
same time as Xerxes entered Athens, his 
fleet, which had been crippled by storms and 
engagements, arrived in the bay of Phale- 
rum. He now resolved upon an engage- 
ment with the Greek fleet. The history of 
the memorable battle of Salamis is related 
elsewhere. [Themistocles.] Xerxes wit- 
nessed, from a lofty seat on one of the decli- 
vities of Mount Aegaleos, the defeat and 
dispersion of his mighty armament. Xerxes 
now became alarmed for his own safety, and 
leaving Mardonius with 300, OuO troops to 
complete the conquest of Greece, with the 
remainder set out on his march homewards. 
He entered Sardis towards the end of the 
year 480. In the following year, 479, the 
war was continued in Greece; but Mardo- 
nius was defeated at Plataea by the com- 
bined forces of the Greeks, and on the same 
day another victory was gained over the 
Persians at Mycale in Ionia. We know little 
more of the personal history of Xerxes. He 
was murdered by Artabanus in 465, after a 
reign of 20 years. — (II.) The son of Artaxerxes 
I., succeeded his father as king of Persia in 
425, but was murdered after a reign of only 
2 months by his half-brother Sogdianus. 

XOIS, or CHOIS, an ancient city of Lower 
Egypt, X. of Leontopolis, on an island of the 
Xile, in the Noinos Sebennyticus, the seat, 
at one time, of a dynasty of Egyptian kings. 
Its site is very doubtful. 



XUTHUS. 



460 



ZENO. 



XUTHUS (-i), son of Hellen, by the 
nymph Orseis, and a brother of Dorus and 
Aeolus. He was king of Peloponnesus, and 
the husband of Creusa, the daughter of 
Erechtheus, by whom he became the father 
of Achaeus and Ion. Others state that after 
the death of his father, Hellen, Xuthus was 
expelled from Thessaly by his brothers, and 
went to Athens, where he married the 
daughter of Erechtheus. After the death of 
Erechtheus, Xuthus being chosen arbitrator, 
adjudged the kingdom to his eldest brother- 
in-law, Cecrops, in consequence of which 
he was expelled by the other sons of 
Erechtheus, and settled in Aegialus, in 
Peloponnesus. 



7AB TUS. [Lyctjs, No. 5.] 
^ ZACYNTHUS (-i : Zante), an island in 
the Ionian sea, off the coast of Elis, about 
40 miles in circumference. It contained a 
large and nourishing town of the same name 
upon the E. coast, the citadel of which was 
called Psophis. Zacynthus was inhabited by 
a Greek population at an early period. It is 
said to have derived its name from Zacynthus, 
a son of Dardanus, who colonised the island 
from Psophis, in Arcadia. It was afterwards 
colonised by Achaeans, from Peloponnesus. 
It formed part of the maritime empire of 
Athens, and continued faithful to the Athe- 
nians during the Peloponnesian war. At a 
later time it was subject to the Macedonian 
monarchs, and on the conquest of Macedonia 
by the Romans, passed into the hands of the 
latter. It is now one of the Ionian islands, 
under the protection of Great Britain. 

ZAGBEUS, a surname of the mystic Dio- 
nysus (Bacchus), whom Zeus (Jupiter), in 
the form of a dragon, is said to have begotten 
by Persephone (Proserpina), before she was 
carried off by Pluto. He was torn to pieces 
by the Titans ; and Athena (Minerva) carried 
his heart to Zeus. 

ZALEUCUS (-i), the celebrated lawgiver 
of the Epizephyrian Locrians, is said by some 
to have been originally a slave, but is de- 
scribed by others as a man of good family. 
He could not, however, have been a disciple 
of Pythagoras, as some writers state, since he 
lived upwards of 100 years before Pythagoras. 
The date of the legislation of Zaleucus is 
assigned to b.c. 660. His code, which was 
severe, is stated to have been the first col- 
lection of written laws that the Greeks 



ZALMOXIS, or ZAMOLXIS (-is), said to 
have been so called from the bear's skin 
[ZaA/Aos), in which he was clothed as soon as 



he was born. He was, according to the story 
current among the Greeks on the Hellespont, 
a Getan, who had been a slave to Pythagoras 
in Samos, but was manumitted, and acquired 
not only great wealth, but large stores of 
knowledge from Pythagoras, and from the 
Egyptians, whom he visited in the course of 
his travels. He returned among the Getae, 
introducing the civilisation and the religious 
ideas which he had gained, especially regard- 
ing the immortality of the soul. Herodotus, 
however, suspects that he was an indigenous 
Getan divinity.^ 

ZAMA REGIA (-ae : Zowareen, S.E. of 
Kaff), a strongly fortified city in the interior 
of Numidia, on the borders of the Cartha- 
ginian territory. It was the scene of one of 
the most important battles in the history of 
the world, that in which Hannibal was de- 
feated by Scipio, and the 2nd Punic War was 
ended, b.c. 202. 

ZANCLE. [Messana.] 

ZELA or ZIELA, a city in the S. of Pon- 
tus, not far S. of Amasia. The surrounding 
district was called Zeletis or ZelTtis. At Zela 
the Roman general Valerius Triarius was de- 
feated by Mithridates ; but the city is more 
celebrated for another great battle, that in 
which Julius Caesar defeated Pharnaces, and 
of which he wrote this despatch to Rome : — 
Yeni : _Vidi : Yici. 

ZELIA (-ae), an ancient city of Mysia, 
at the foot of Mt. Ida, and on the river 
Aesepus, 80 stadia from its mouth, belonging 
to the territory of Cyzicus. 

ZELUS (-i), the personification of zeal or 
strife, is described as a son of Pallas and 
Styx, and a brother of Nice. 

ZENO or ZENON (-onis). (1) The founder 
of the Stoic philosophy, was a native of 
Citium, in Cyprus, and the son of Mnaseas. 
He began at an early age to study the 
writings of the Socratic philosophers. At 
the age of 22, or, according to others, of 30 
years, Zeno was shipwrecked in the neigh- 
bourhood of Piraeus ; whereupon he was led 
to settle in Athens, and to devote himself 
entirely to the study of philosophy. The 
weakness of his health is said to have first 
determined him to live rigorously and simply ; 
but his desire to make himself independent 
of all external circumstances seems to have 
been an additional motive, and to have led 
him to attach himself to the Cynic Crates. 
He is said to have studied under various 
Megaric and Academic philosophers, for a 
period of 20 years. At its close, and after 
he had developed his peculiar philosophical 
system, he opened his school in the porch 
adorned with the paintings of Polygnotus 
(Stoa Poecile)', which, at an earlier time, had 



ZEXOBIA. 



461 



ZETES. 



been a place in which poets met. From this in Bruttium, forming the S.E. extremity 
place his disciples were called Stoics. Among of the country, from which the Locri, who 
the warm admirers of Zeno was Antigonus settled in the neighbourhood, are said to have 
Gonatas, king of Macedonia. The Athenians obtained the name of Epizephyrii. [Locri.] 
likewise placed the greatest confidence in 1 — (2) A promontory on the W. coast of 
him, and by a decree of the people, a golden j Cyprus.— (3) In Cilicia (prob. C. Cavaliere), 
crown and a public burial in the Ceramicus a far-projecting promontory, W. of Prom, 
were awarded to him. Y'e do not know the Sarpedon. 

year either of Zeno's birth or death. He is j ZEPHYRUS (-i), the personification of the 
said to have presided over his school for 58 1 AY. wind, is described by Hesiod as a son of 
years, and to have died at the age of 98. He is j Astraeus and Eos. Zephyrus and Boreas 
said to have been still alive in the 130th | are frequently mentioned together by Homer, 
Olympiad (b.c 260).— (2) The Eleatic phi- and both dwelt together in a palace in Thrace, 
losopher, was a native of Elea (Yelia), in By the Harpy Podarge, Zephyrus became the 
Italy, son of Teleutagoras, and the favourite i father of the horses Xanthus and Balius, 
disciple of Parmenides. He was born about j which belonged to Achilles ; but he was 
b.c. 48 S, and at the age of 40 accompanied married to Cnloris, whom he had carried off 
Parmenides to Athens, where he resided some ; by force, and by whom he had a son Carpus, 
time. His love of freedom is shown by the 
courage with which he exposed his life in 
order to deliver his native country from a 
tyrant. Zeno devoted all his energies to 
explain and develope the philosophical system 
of Parmenides. [Parmexedes.] — (3) An 
Epicurean philosopher, a native of Sidon, 
was a contemporary of Cicero, who heard 
him when at Athens. 

ZEXOBIA (-ae), queen of Palmyra. After 
the death of her husband, Odenathus, whom, 
according to some accounts, she assassinated 
(a.d. 266), she assumed the imperial diadem, 
as regent for her sons. But not content with 
enjoying the independence conceded by Gal- 
lienus, and tolerated by Claudius, she sought 
to include all Syria, Asia, and Egypt within 
the limits of her sway, and to make good the 
title which she claimed of Queen of the East. 

By this rash ambition she lost both her king- ! the territory of Aenos, with a temple of 
dom and her liberty. She was defeated by Apollo, and a cave of Hecate, who are hence 
Aurelian, taken prisoner on the capture of called Zerynthius and Zerynthia respectively. 
Palmyra (273), and carried to Borne, where I ZETES (-ae) and CALAIS (-is), sons of 
she adorned the triumph of her conqueror ; Boreas and Orithyia, frequently called the 
(274). Her life was spared by Aurelian, and Boreadae, are mentioned among the Argo- 
she passed the remainder of her years with j nauts-, and are described as winged beings, 
her sons in the vicinity of Tibur (Tivoli). j Their sister, Cleopatra, who was married to 
Longinus lived at her court, and was put to Phineus, king of Salmydessus, had been 
death, on the capture of Palmyra. [Loxgixus.] thrown with her sons into prison by Phineus, 

ZEXODOTUS (-i), of Ephesus, a cele- at the instigation of his second wife. Here 
brated grammarian, superintendent of the she was found by Zetes and Calais, when 
great library at Alexandria, flourished under ' they arrived at Salmydessus, in the Argo- 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, about b.c 20S. ; nautic expedition. They liberated their 
Zenodotus was employed by Philadelphus, i sister and her children, gave the kingdom to 
together with his 2 contemporaries, Alex- ! the latter, and sent the second wife of Phi- 
ander the Aetolian and Lycophron the Chal- ! neus to her own country, Scythia. Others 
cidian, to collect and revise all the Greek • relate that the Boreadae delivered Phineus 
poets. ^ ^ from the Harpies ; for it had been foretold 

ZEPHYRITJM (_i), i.e., the western pro- that the Harpies might be killed by the sons 
montory, the name of several promontories of Boreas, but that the sons of Boreas must 
of the ancient world, not all of which, how- die, if they should not be able to overtake the 
ever, faced the west. The chief of them ' Harpies. Others again state that the Bo- 
were : (1) [C. di JSrussano), a promontory | readae perished in their pursuit of the 




ZETHUS. 



462 



ZEUS. 



Harpies, or that Hercules killed them with 
his arrows near the island of Tenos. 

ZETHUS (-i), brother of Amphion. [Am- 

PHION.] 

ZEUGIS, ZEUGITANA REGIO, (X. part 
of Tunis) i the X. district of Africa Propria. 
[Africa.] 

ZEUGMA (atis: prob. Rumkaleh), a city of 
Syria, on the borders of Conirnagene and ' 
Cyi-rhestice, built by Seleucus Xicator, on the 
W. bank of the Euphrates, at a point where | 
the river was crossed by a bridge of boats, 
which had been constructed by Alexander 
the Great. 

ZEUS (Dios), called JUPITER by the Ro- 
mans, the greatest of the Olympian gods, 
was a son of Cronus (Saturnus) and Rhea 




Head of Olympian Zeus (Jupiter). (Yisconti, Mus. 
Pio Clem., vol. G. tav. 1.) 

brother of Poseidon (Xeptunus), Hades 
(Pluto), Hestia (Testa), Demeter (Ceres), 
Hera (Juno), and was also married to his 
sister, Hera. When Zeus and his brothers 
distributed among themselves the govern- 
ment of the world by lot, Poseidon obtained 
the sea, Hades the lower world, and Zeus the 
heavens and the upper regions, but the earth 
became common to all. According to the 
Homeric account Zeus dwelt on Mt. Olympus, 
in Thessaly, which was believed to penetrate 
with its lofty summit into heaven itself. He 
is called the father of gods and men, the 
most high and powerful among the immor- 
tals, whom all others obey. He is the su- 
preme ruler, who with his counsel manages 
everything ; the founder of kingly power, 
and of law and order, whence Dice, The- 
mis, and Xemesis, are his assistants. Every 
thing good, as well as bad, comes from Zeus ; 



according to his own choice he assigns good 
or evil to mortals ; and fate itself was sub- 
ordinate to him. He is armed with thunder 
and lightning, and the shaking of his aegis 
produces storm and tempest : a number of 
epithets of Zeus, in the Homeric poems, de- 
scribe him as the thunderer, the gatherer of 
clouds, and the like. By Hera he had two 
sons, Ares (Mars) and Hephaestus (Yulca- 
nus), and one daughter, Hebe. Hera some- 
times acts as an independent divinity ; she 
is ambitious, and rebels against ber lord, but 
she is nevertheless inferior to him, and is 
punished for her opposition ; his amours 
with other goddesses or mortal women are 
not concealed from her, though they gene- 
, a rally rouse her jealousy and revenge. Zeus, 




Zeus (Jupiter). (A Medal of M. Aurelius, in 
British Museum.) 



no doubt, was originally a god of a portion 
of nature. Hence the oak, with its eatable 
j fruit and the prolific doves, were sacred to him 
I at Dodona and in Arcadia. Hence, also, rain, 
storms, and the seasons, were regarded as his 
work. Hesiod also calls Zeus the son of 
Cronus and Rhea, and the brother of Hestia, 
Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. Cronus 
swallowed his children immediately after 
their birth ; but when Rhea was pregnant 
with Zeus, she applied to Uranus and Ge to 
save the life of the child. Uranus and Ge 
therefore sent Rhea to Lyctos, in Crete, 
requesting her to bring up her child there. 
Rhea accordingly concealed Zeus in a cave of 
Mt. Aegaeon, and gave to Cronos a stone 
wrapped up in cloth, which he swallowed in 
the belief that it was his son. Other tra- 
ditions state that Zeus was born and brought 
up on Mt. Dicte or Ida (also the Trojan Ida), 
\ Ithome in Messenia, Thebes in Boeotia, 



ZEUS. 



463 



ZEUXIS. 



Aegion in Achaia, or Olenos in Aetolia. 
According 1 to the common account, however, 
Zeus grew up in Crete. In the meantime 
Cronus, hy a cunning device of Ge or Metis, 
was made to hring up the children he had 
swallowed, and first of all the stone, which 
was afterwards set up by Zeus at Delphi. The 
young god now delivered the Cyclopes from 
the bonds with which they had been fettered 
by Cronus, and they, in their gratitude, pro- 
vided him with thunder and lightning. On 
the advice of Ge, Zeus also liberated the 
hundred-armed Gigantes, Briareos, Cottus, 
and Gyes, that they might assist him in his 
fight against the Titans. The Titans were 
conquered and shut up in Tartarus, where 



they were henceforth guarded by the Ileca- 
toncheires. Thereupon Tartarus and Ge 
begot Typhoeus, who began a fearful struggle 
with Zeus, but was conquered. Zeus now ob- 
tained the dominion of the world, and chose 
Metis for his wife. When she was pregnant 
with Athena (Minerva), he took the child out 
of her body and concealed it in his head, on 
the advice of Uranus and Ge, who told him 
that thereby he would retain the supremacy 
of the world. For if Metis had given birth 
to a son, this son (so fate had ordained it) 
would have acquired the sovereignty. After 
this Zeus became the father of the Horae 
and Moerae, by his second wife Themis ; of 
the Charites or Graces, by Eurynome; of 




Zeus (Jupiter) and the Giants. (Neapolitan Gem.) 



Persephone (Proserpine) by Demeter ; of the 
Muses, by Mnemosyne ; of Apollo and Ar- 
temis (Diana) by Leto ; and of Hebe, Ares, 
and Ilithyia by Hera. Athena was born 
out of the head of Zeus ; while Hera, on 
the other hand, gave birth to Hephaestus 
without the co-operation of Zeus. The family 
of the Cronidae accordingly embraces the 12 
great gods of Olympus, Zeus (the head of 
them all), Poseidon, Apollo, Ares, Hermes 
(Mercury), Hephaestus, Hestia, Demeter, 
Hera, Athena, Aphrodite (Venus), and Ar- 
temis. These 12 Olympian gods, who in 
some places were worshipped as a body, were 
recognised not only by the Greeks, but were 
adopted also by the Romans, who, in par- 
ticular, identified their Jupiter with the 
Greek Zeus. The Greek and Latin poets 
give to Zeus or Jupiter an immense number 
of epithets and surnames, which are derived I 
partly from the places where he was wor- | 



shipped, and partly from his powers and 
functions. The eagle, the oak, and the 
summits of mountains were sacred to him, 
and his sacrifices generally consisted of goats, 
bulls and cows. His usual attributes are, 
the sceptre, eagle, thunderbolt, and a figure 
of Victory in his hand, and sometimes also a 
cornucopia. The Olympian Zeus sometimes 
wears a wreath of olive, and the Dodonaean 
Zeus a wreath of oak leaves. In works of 
art Zeus is generally represented as the om- 
nipotent father and king of gods and men, 
according to the idea which had been em- 
bodied in the statue of the Olympian Zeus 
by Phidias. Respecting the Koman god see 
Jupiter. 

ZEUXIS (-idis),the celebrated Greek painter, 
was a native of Heraclea, and flourished b.c. 
424 — 400. He came to Athens soon after the 
beginning of the Peloponnesian War, when 
I he had already achieved a great reputation, 



ZOILUS. 



464 



ZOSTER. 



although a young man. He lived some 
years in Macedonia, at the court of Archelaiis, 
and must have spent some time in Magna 
Graecia, as we learn from the story respect- 
ing the picture of Helen, his masterpiece, 
which he painted for the city of Croton. 
Zeuxis acquired a great fortune hy his art. 
The time of his death is unknown. The 
accurate imitation of inanimate objects was 
a department of the art which Zeuxis and his 
younger rival Parrhasius appear to have car- 
ried almost to perfection. 

ZOILUS (-i), a grammarian, was a native 
of Amphipolis, and flourished in the time of 
Philip of Macedon. He was celebrated for 
the asperity with which he assailed Homer, 
and his name became proverbial for a cap- 
tious and malignant critic. 

ZOPYRUS (4). (1) A distinguished Per- 
sian, son of Megabyzus. After Darius Hys- 
taspis had besieged Babylon for 20 months 
in vain, Zopyrus resolved to gain the place 
for his master by the most extraordinary 
self-sacrifice. Accordingly, one day he ap- 
peared before Darius, with his body muti- 
lated in the most horrible manner ; both his 
ears and nose were cut off, and his person 
otherwise disfigured. After explaining to 
Darius his intentions, he fled to Babylon as 
a victim of the cruelty of the Persian king. 
The Babylonians gave him their confidence, 
and placed him at the head of their troops. 
He soon found means to betray the city to 



Darius, who severely punished the inhabitants 
for their revolt. Darius appointed Zopyrus 
satrap of Babylon for life, with the enjoy- 
ment of its entire revenues. — (2) The Phy- 
siognomist, who attributed many vices to 
Socrates, which the latter admitted were his 
natural propensities, but said that they had 
been overcome by philosophy. — (3) A sur- 
geon at Alexandria, the tutor of Apollonius 
Citiensis and Posidonius, about the beginning 
of the 1st century, b.c. 

ZOROASTER, or ZOROASTRES (-tri>, 
the Zarathtjstra of the Zendavesta, and the 
Zerdusht of the Persians, was the founder of 
the Magian religion. The most opposite 
opinions have been held by both ancient and 
modern writers respecting the time in which 
he lived ; but it is quite impossible to come to 
any conclusion on the subject. As the founder 
of the Magian religion he must be placed in 
remote antiquity, and it may even be ques- 
tioned whether such a person ever existed, 

ZOSIMUS (-i), a Greek historian who lived 
in the time of the younger Theodosius. He 
wrote a history of the Roman empire in 6 
books, which is still extant. Zosimus was a 
pagan, and comments severely upon the faults 
and crimes of the Christian emperors. Hence 
his credibility has been assailed by several 
Christian writers. 

ZOSTER (-eris : C. of Vari), a promontory 
on the W. of Attica, between Phalerum and 
Sunium. 



THE END. 



BBADBUKI AND EVAN S, PRINTERS, WHIXEFRIARS. 



I 

! 



